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© 2003 VDV Works LLC, all rights reserved. Becker PlaceSycamore, IL

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IDEAL “Fiber Optic Basic Training” Guide

Interested in learning about fiber optics? Want to see what’sthe latest in technology, components and applications?

This “Fiber Optic Basic Training” Guide has been designed toget you started and keep you up to date. It represents theknowledge gained from over 25 years experience in fiberoptics – back to when it started – but brought up to date toinclude the latest innovations.

Use the index to your left to find the specific topics you areinterested in or follow them in order to get a completeoverview of fiber optics.

Check back often for the new material we’ll be adding or visitwww.idealindustries.com and see how we’ll keep addingmaterial to keep everything up to date. Feel free to send usyour comments at IDEAL; tell us how you like it, and what youwould like to see us change or add.

Ideal Industries, IncBecker PlaceSycamore, IL 60178

Contents

Terminology

Basics

Fiber OpticCables

Optical Fiber

Terminations

Networks

Estimating

Testing

Training

Glossary

© 2003 VDV Works LLC, all rights reserved.Terminology – Page 1

Becker PlaceSycamore, IL

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Fiber Optic Terminology

What is fiber optics?Picture sending signals zipping along from one location to another in the form oflight guided through thin fibers of glass or plastic. These signals can be analog ordigital - voice, data or video information and fiber can transport more informationlonger distances in less time than any copper wire.

It’s powerful and fast, fast, fast!

First get to know the language - the “terminology” - here’s a list of terms you shouldget to know:

Metric System: Fiber Optics, as a universal technology, utilizes the metric systemas the standard form of measurement. Several of the more common terms:

Meter: 39.37 inches.

Kilometer: 1000 meters / 3,281 feet / 0.62 miles.

Micron: 1/1,000,000th of a meter. 25 microns equal 0.001 inch. This is the commonterm of measurement for fibers. The symbol for “Micron” is um.

Nanometer: One billionth of one meter. This term is commonly used in the fiberoptics industry to express wavelength or frequency of transmitted light.

Let’s Start With FiberOptical Fiber: Thin strands of highly transparent glass or sometimes plastic thatguide light.

Core: The center of the fiber where the light is transmitted.

Cladding: The outside optical layer of the fiber thattraps the light in the core and guides it along – eventhrough curves. This layer is never stripped off the fiber.

Buffer coating or primary coating: A hard plastic oracrylic coating on the outside of the fiber that protects theglass from moisture or physical damage.

Mode: A single electromagnetic field pattern (think of aray of light) that travels in fiber.

Multimode fiber: has a bigger core (almost always 62.5 microns - a micron is oneone-millionth of a meter - but sometimes 50 microns) and is used with LED sourcesat wavelengths of 850 and 1300 nm for short distance, lower speed networks likeLANs.

Singlemode fiber: has a much smaller core, only about 9 microns, and is used fortelephony and CATV with laser sources at 1300 and 1550 nm. It can go very longdistances at very high speeds.



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Both multimode and singlemode fiber have an outside diameter of 125 microns -about 5 thousandths of an inch - just slightly larger than a human hair.

Plastic optical fiber (POF): is a large core (about 1mm) multimode fiber that canbe used for short, low speed networks. POF is used in consumer HiFi and startingto be used as part of a new standard for car communication systems called MOST(go to http://www.mostcooperation.com/ )

Terms that describe fiber optic cable:Cable: Fiber needs protection to survive all the places it gets installed and it’s thecable that provides it. Cables may have from one to hundreds of fibers inside.

Jacket: The tough outer covering on the cable. Cablesinstalled inside buildings must meet fire codes byusing special jacketing materials.

Strength members: Aramid fibers (Kevlar is the Dupont trade name) used to pullthe cable. The term is also used for the fiberglass rod in some cables used to stiffenit to prevent kinking.

Armor: Discourages rodents from chewing through it.

Termination:Connector: A non-permanent device for connectingtwo fibers or fibers to equipment where they areexpected to be disconnected occasionally for testing orrerouting. It also provides protection to both fibers.(Parts for an ST connector are shown.)

Ferrule: A tube that holds a fiber for alignment, usually part of a connector

Splice: a permanent joint between two fibers

Mechanical Splice: A splice where the fibers are aligned and joined by amechanical splice device.

Fusion Splice: A splice created by welding or fusing two fibers together

Fusion Splicer: An instrument that splices fibers by fusing or welding them,typically by electrical arc.

Hardware: Terminations and Splices require hardware for protection andmanagement: patch panels, splice closures, etc.



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Fiber Performance Specifications

Terms you use when you want to take your measurements:Attenuation: The reduction in optical power as it passes along a fiber, usuallyexpressed in decibels (dB). See optical loss

Bandwidth: The range of signal frequencies or bit rate within which a fiber opticcomponent, link or network will operate.

Decibels (dB): A unit of measurement of optical power, which indicates relativepower. A -10 dB means a reduction in power by 10 times, -20 dB means another 10times or 10 times overall, -30 means another 10 times or 1000 times overall and soon.

dB: Optical power referenced an arbitrary zero level

dBm: Optical power referenced to 1 milliwatt

Micron (um): A unit of measure used to measure wavelength of light.

Nanometer (nm): A unit of measure used to measure the wavelength of light(meaning one one-billionth of a meter)

Optical Loss: The amount of optical power lost as light is transmitted through fiber,splices, couplers, etc, expressed in dB.

Optical Power: is measured in “dBm”, or decibels referenced to one milliwatt ofpower. while loss is a relative reading, optical power is an absolute measurement,referenced to standards. You measure absolute power to test transmitters orreceivers and relative power to test loss.

Scattering: The change of direction of light after striking small particles that causesloss in optical fibers and is used to make measurements by an OTDR

Wavelength: A term for the color of light, usuallyexpressed in nanometers (nm) or microns (m).Fiber is mostly used in the infrared region wherethe light is invisible to the human eye.

Terms that describe the tools you will need for installation andtermination:Jacket Slitter or Stripper: A stripper for removing the heavy outside jacket ofcables.

Cable Jacket Stripper forVarious Slzes of Fiber

Cables (45-162, 45-163)

Cable JacketStripper for _ in. – _

in. O.D. (45-128)

Round CableSlitting and

Ringing Tool (45-144)

Simplex/Duplex 3mmJacket Stripper (45-

349)



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Fiber Stripper: A precise stripper used to remove the buffer coating from the fiberfor termination, connectorization or splicing.

Cleaver: A tool that precisely “breaks” the fiber to produce a flat end forconnectorization or splicing when polishing is NOT required.

Scribe: A hard, sharp tool that scratches and cleaves the fiber as it exits the tip ofthe connector user to sever or break the fiber prior to polishing.

Polishing Puck: for connectors that require polishing, the puck holds the connectorin proper alignment to the polishing film.

Polishing Film: Fine grit film used to polish the end of theconnector ferrule and the fiber endface.

Sapphire Blade Fiber Optic Scribe(45-358)

Ruby Blade Fiber Optic Scribe(45-357)

Carbide Blade Fiber Optic Scribe(45-359)

Stainless SteelPolishing Fixture for

Optical Fiber ST® andSC Type Connectors

(45-341)

Plastic PolishingFixture for all ST,

SC and FCConnectors (45-

342)

Polishing Film forFiberOptic Connectors

0.5 um (45-337)3.0 um (45-338)

12.0 um (45-339)

Lite-Strip™ OpticalFiber Stripper (45-350)

MiniLite-Strip™Optical Fiber Stripper

(45-352)



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Crimper: A tool that crimps the connector to the aramid fibers in the cable to addmechanical strength.

Test equipment you need:Optical Power Meter: An instrument that measures optical power from the end of afiber

Light Source: an instrument that uses a laser or LED to send an optical signal intofiber for testing loss of the fiber

Optical Loss Test Set (OLTS): A measurement instrument for optical loss thatincludes both a meter and source

Reference Test Cables: short, single fiber cables with connectors on both ends,used to test unknown cables.

Mating Adapter: also called splice bushing or couplers, allow two cables withconnectors to mate.

Fiber Continuity Light: An instrument that allows visual checking of continuity andtracing for correct connections

Visual Fault Locator: A device that allows visual tracing and testing of continuity.

Microscope: used to inspect the end surface of a connector forflaws or dirt.

OTDR: An instrument that uses backscattered light to find faults in optical fiber andinfer loss from only one end of the cable

PremierMaster™Crimp Tools (28-500)

Crimpmaster™ FiberOptic Crimp Tool (30-

489)

Visual FaultFinder (VFF5)

Fiber InspectionMicroscope (45-332) 1.25mm Connector

Adapter (45-334)

MTRJ-StyleConnector

Adapter (45-335)

200X ConversionEyepiece for

Singlemode Connectors(45-336)

© 2003 VDV Works LLC, all rights reserved.Basics – Page 1


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The Basics Of Fiber Optics

Getting Started in Fiber Optics – You need tools, test equipment and - mostof all - training!

This guide will help you get started by providing very basic information (we will alsopoint you to more advanced studies) and demonstrating that you don’t need tobreak the bank to break into the field.

What is “Fiber Optics”? A short historyIt’s the communications technology that works by sending signals down hair thinstrands of glass fiber (and sometimes plastic fiber.) It began about 30 years ago inthe R&D labs (Corning, Bell Labs, ITT UK, etc.) and was first installed in Chicago,IL, USA in 1976. By the early 1980s, fiber networks connected the major cities oneach coast.

By the mid-80s, fiber was replacing all the telco copper, microwave and satellitelinks. In the 90s, CATV discovered fiber and used it first to enhance the reliability oftheir networks, a big problem. Along the way, they discovered they could offerphone and Internet service on that same fiber and greatly enlarged their markets.

Computers and LANs started using fiber about the same time as the telcos.Industrial links were among the first as the noise immunity of fiber and its distancecapability make it ideal for the factory floor. Mainframe storage networks came next,the predecessors of today’s fiber SANs (storage area networks.)

Other applications developed too: aircraft, ship and automobile data busses, CCTVfor security, even links for consumer digital stereo!

Today fiber optics is either the dominant medium or a logical choice for everycommunication system.

Which Fiber Optics?Whenever you read an article or talk to someone about fiber optics, you need toknow the point of view of the writer. Fiber optics, you see, is not all the same. Is thewriter discussing “outside plant” fiber optics as used in telephone networks orCATV. Or is the article about “premises” fiber optics as found in buildings andcampuses?

Just like “wire” which can mean lots of different things - power, security, HVAC,CCTV, LAN or telephone - fiber optics is not all the same. And this can be a bigsource of confusion to the novice. Lets define our terms.



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Outside Plant (OSP)Telephone companies, CATV and the Internet all uselots of fiber optics, most of which is outside buildings. Ithangs from poles, is buried underground, pulledthrough conduit or is even submerged underwater.Most of it goes relatively long distances, from a fewthousand feet to hundreds of miles.

Outside plant installations are all singlemode fiber(we’ll define the fiber types in the next chapter), and cables often have very highfiber counts, up to 288 fibers. Cable designs are optimized for resisting moistureand rodent damage. Installation requires special pullers or plows, and even trailersto carry giant spools of cable.

Long distances mean cables are spliced together, since cables are not longer thanabout 4 km (2.5 miles), and most splices are by fusion splicing. Connectors (SC, STor FC styles) on factory made pigtails are spliced onto the end of the cable. Afterinstallation, every fiber and every splice is tested with an OTDR.

If this sounds like big bucks, you are right! The installer usually has a temperaturecontrolled van or trailer for splicing and/or a bucket truck. Investments in fusionsplicers and OTDRs can add up to over $100,000 alone.

Contractors doing outside plant work are few and far between. Most outside planttelephone installs are done by the telco themselves, while a small number of large,specialized installers do CATV work.

Premises CablingBy contrast, premises cabling- cabling installed in a building or campus - involvesshort lengths, rarely longer than a few hundred feet, with 2 to 48 fibers per cabletypically. The fiber is mostly multimode, except for the enlightened user who installshybrid cable with both multimode and singlemode fibers.

Splicing is practically unknown in premisesapplications. Cables between buildings can bebought with double jackets, PE for outside plantprotection over PVC for building applicationsrequiring flame retardant cable jackets, so cablescan be run continuously between buildings.Today’s connectors often have lower loss thansplices, and patch panels give more flexibility formoves, adds and changes.

Most connectors are ST style with a few SCs here and there. Termination is byinstalling connectors directly on the ends of the fibers, primarily using adhesivetechnology or occasionally some other variety of termination method. Testing isdone by a source and meter, but every installer should have a flashlight type tracerto check fiber continuity and connection.



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Unlike the outside plant technician, the premises cabler (who is often also installingthe power cable and Cat 5 for LANs too!) probably has an investment of less than$2,000 in tools and test equipment.

There are thousands of cabling installers who do fiber optic work. They’ve foundout it isn’t “rocket science,” and their small initial investment in training, tools andtest equipment is rapidly paid back.

The InstallersFew installers do both outside plant and premises cabling. The companies that doare usually very large and often have separate divisions doing each with differentpersonnel. Most contractors do nothing but premises cabling.

Fiber vs Copper you may be surprised by who wins this contest!

If you are already terminating copper wire then you are well along in learning toinstall fiber.

Twenty years ago, fiber was just being introduced and required PhD’s from BellLabs to install it while copper wire was easy to install. Today it is often the opposite.Because fiber is so powerful, at today’s network speeds fiber is hardly working hardat all and can look to the future of ten-gigabit speeds with confidence. Copper onthe other hand, can handle gigabit Ethernet but only if it is carefully installed andtested with very expensive test equipment and components. Even the experts haveto be very careful because it has little “headroom”.

Also, if you are currently working with copper, you also have to know that LANcopper cable is delicate. It only has a 25-pound pulling tension limit and kinks willruin the high-speed performance. With fiber - even though it’s glass fiber - it hasmore strength and greater tolerance to abuse than copper wire. (What do you thinkgives the strength to your “fiberglass” boat?)

OK, you might say, I can buy everything you’ve said so far, but isn’t fiber moreexpensive?

Telcos and CATV operators use fiber because it’s much cheaper. They optimizetheir network to take advantage of fiber’s speed and distance advantages. In LANs,you need to follow the new EIA/TIA 568 B.3 standard to optimize the fiber usage,and then it can be cheaper than copper. How about test equipment? Guess againFiber optic test equipment costs lots less than Cat 5e/6 testers. In the Networkssection we will show you how the setup for a fiber network has some surprisingsavings.

The Secret To Success In Fiber Optics Is Training!You wouldn’t try to drive a truck or fly a plane without taking lessons. Likewise forimproving your golf or tennis game. Well, the secret to fiber optics is training too.With some basic knowledge and hands-on practice gained in a training course,fiber is pretty easy to install.



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Where to get training?Well, this guide, of course! But it is only designedto get you started and you should have “hands-on”training leading to a recognized certificationprogram to be qualified to install fiber. First, checkthe websites for information on advanced trainingand organizations that offer training. Also checkthe website of the Fiber Optic Association athttp://www.TheFOA.org. for the leading fiberoptic certification program in the industry and theirlist of approved schools offering that certification.See the section on training at the end for moreinformation.

StandardsMost of what we call standards are voluntary standards, created by industry groupsto insure product compatibility. They are not “codes” or actual laws that you mustfollow to be in compliance with local ordinances.

Standards like EIA/TIA 568B (from the Electronic Industries Alliance/Telecommunications Industry Association) which covers all of the things you needto know to install a standard premises cabling network are good guidelines fordesigns, but just guidelines - they are not mandatory. Standards for fiber opticcomponents and testing have been set by several groups, but most in the US followthe EIA/TIA developed FOTP’s (fiber optic test procedures) for testing. Some of theEIA procedures are also called OFSTP (optical fiber system test procedures) likeOFSTP-14 for the installed cable plant.

Standards for optical power measurements are set by NIST (the US NationalInstitute of Standards and Technology)

The only common mandatory standard is the NEC 770 (National Electrical Code).The NEC specifies fire prevention standards for fiber optic cables. If a cable doesn’thave a NEC rating - don’t install it - it won’t pass inspection!

A complete listing of the EIA/TIA standards is on the website of The Fiber OpticAssociation, www.TheFOA.org. Information on the EIA/TIA standards can be foundon the website of most suppliers of structured cabling hardware.



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Before you get started - “Safety First!” You might think that eye damage from working with lasers would be the bigconcern in fiber optic installations. The reality is that high power lasers burningholes in metal or burning off warts mostly have little relevance to your typical fiberoptic installation. Optical sources used in fiber optics are of much lower powerlevels (The exception is high power DWDM or CATV systems). Of course, youshould always be careful with your eyes, especially when using a fiber opticmicroscope. NEVER look into a fiber unless you know no light is present - use apower meter to check it - and anyway, the light is in the infrared and you can’t seeanything anyway!

The real safety lecture will always be about small scraps of glass cleaved off theends of the fibers being terminated or spliced. These scraps are very dangerous!The cleaved ends are extremely sharp and can easily penetrate your skin. If theyget into your eyes, they are very hard to flush out. Don’t even think about whathappens if you eat one. Safety glasses are a must!

Always follow these rules when working with fiber.1. Dispose of all scraps properly.

2. Always use a properly marked container to dispose of later and work on a blackpad, which makes the slivers of glass easier to spot.

3. Do not drop them on the floor where they will stick in carpets or shoes and becarried elsewhere.

4. Do not eat or drink anywhere near the work area.

Fiber optic splicing and termination use various chemical adhesives and cleanersas part of the processes. Follow the instructions for use carefully. Remember, evensimple isopropyl alcohol, used as a cleaner, is flammable.

Zero Tolerance for DirtWith fiber optics, our tolerance to dirt is near zero. Airborne particles are about thesize of the core of SM fiber- they absorb lots of light and may scratch connectors ifnot removed! Dirt on connectors is the biggest cause of scratches on polishedconnectors and high loss measurements!

1. Try to work in a clean area. Avoid working around heating outlets, as they blow dust all overyou

2. Always keep dust caps on connectors, bulkhead splices, patch panels or anything else that isgoing to have a connection made with it.

3. Use lint free pads and isopropyl alcohol to clean the connectors.

4. Connector ferrules on cables used for testing that are repeatedly inserted and removed fromports or jacks WILL get dirty. This condition can create a 1-2 dB attenuation. Make sure allferrules, ports and jacks are clean prior to all testing.

© 2003 VDV Works LLC, all rights reserved.Fiber Optic Cables – Page 1


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Fiber Optic Cables

Fiber optic “cable” refers to the complete assembly of fibers, strength members andjacket. Fiber optic cables come in lots of different types, depending on the numberof fibers and how and where it will be installed. Choose cable carefully as thechoice will affect how easy it is to install, splice or terminate and, most important,what it will cost!

Choosing a cable - what hazards will it face?

Cable’s job is to protect the fibers from the hazards encountered in an installation.Will the cables be exposed to chemicals or have to withstand a wide temperaturerange? What about being gnawed on by a woodchuck or prairie dog? Insidebuildings, cables don’t have to be so strong to protect the fibers, but they have tomeet all fire code provisions. Outside the building, it depends on whether the cableis buried directly, pulled in conduit, strung aerially or whatever.

You should contact several cable manufacturers (two minimum, three preferred)and give them the specs. They will want to know where the cable is going, howmany fibers you need and what kind (singlemode or multimode or both in what wecall “hybrid” cables.) You can also have a “composite” cable that includes copperconductors for signals or power. The cable companies will evaluate yourrequirements and make suggestions. Then you can get competitive bids.

Since the plan will call for a certain number of fibers, consider adding spare fibersto the cable - fibers are cheap! That way, you won’t be in trouble if you break a fiberor two when splicing, breaking-out or terminating fibers. And request the end userconsider their future expansion needs. Most users install lots more fibers thanneeded, especially adding singlemode fiber to multimode fiber cables for campusor backbone applications.

Cable Types

Cables (L>R): Zipcord, Distribution,Loose Tube, Breakout



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Simplex and Duplex zip cord: Simplex cables are one fiber, tight-buffered (coatedwith a 900 micron buffer over the 250 micron primary buffer coating) with Kevlar(aramid fiber) strength members and jacketed for indoor use. The jacket is usually3mm (1/8 in.) diameter. Zipcord is simply two of these joined with a thin web. It’sused mostly for patch cord and backplane applications, but zipcord can also beused for desktop connections.

Distribution cables: They contain several tight-buffered fibers bundled under thesame jacket with Kevlar strength members and sometimes fiberglass rodreinforcement to stiffen the cable and prevent kinking. These cables are small insize, and used for short, dry conduit runs, riser and plenum applications. The fibersare double buffered and can be directly terminated, but because their fibers are notindividually reinforced, these cables need to be broken out with a “breakout box” orterminated inside a patch panel or junction box.

Breakout cables: They are made of several simplex cables bundled together. Thisis a strong, rugged design, but is larger and more expensive than the distributioncables. It is suitable for conduit runs, riser and plenum applications. Because eachfiber is individually reinforced, this design allows for quick termination toconnectors and does not require patch panels or boxes. Breakout cable can bemore economic where fiber count isn’t too large and distances too long, because itrequires so much less labor to terminate.

Loose tube cables: These cables are composed of several fibers together inside asmall plastic tube, which are in turn wound around a central strength member andjacketed, providing a small, high fiber count cable. This type of cable is ideal foroutside plant trunking applications, as it can be made with the loose tubes filledwith gel or water absorbent powder to prevent harm to the fibers from water. It canbe used in conduits, strung overhead or buried directly into the ground. Since thefibers have only a thin 250 micron buffer coating, they must be carefully handledand protected to prevent damage. The MiniLite Strip ™ (45-352) is an excellent toolfor stripping this coating.

Ribbon Cable: This cable offers the highest packing density, since all the fibers arelaid out in rows, typically of 12 fibers, and laid on top of each other. This way 144fibers only has a cross section of about 1/4 inch or 6 mm! Some cable designs usea “slotted core” with up to 6 of these 144 fiber ribbon assemblies for 864 fibers inone cable! Since it’s outside plant cable, it’s gel-filled for water blocking. TheStripmaster® Ribbon Fiber Jacket Stripper is an excellent choice for stripping thejacket from this cable.

Armored Cable: Cable installed by direct burial in areas where rodents are aproblem usually have metal armoring between two jackets to prevent rodentpenetration. This means the cable is conductive, so it must be grounded properly.

Aerial cable: Aerial cables are for outside installation on poles. They can belashed to a messenger or another cable (common in CATV) or have metal oraramid strength members to make them self supporting.



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Even More Types Are Available: Every manufacturer has it’s own favorites, so it’sa good idea to get literature from as many cable makers as possible. And check outthe little guys; often they can save you a bundle by making special cable just foryou, even in relative small quantities.

Cable Design CriteriaPulling Strength: Some cable is simply laid into cable trays or ditches, so pullstrength is not too important. But other cable may be pulled thorough 2 km or moreof conduit. Even with lots of cable lubricant, pulling tension can be high. Mostcables get their strength from an aramid fiber (Kevlar is the Dupont trade name), aunique polymer fiber that is very strong but does not stretch - so pulling on it will notstress the other components in the cable. The simplest simplex cable has a pullstrength of 100-200 pounds, while outside plant cable may have a specification ofover 800 pounds.

Water Protection: Outdoors, every cable must be protected from water ormoisture. It starts with a moisture resistant jacket, usually PE (polyethylene), and afilling of water-blocking material. The usual way is to flood the cable with a water-blocking gel. It’s effective but messy - requiring a gel remover (use the commercialstuff - it’s best- -but bottled lemon juice works in a pinch!). A newer alternative is drywater blocking using a miracle powder - the stuff developed to absorb moisture indisposable diapers. Check with your cable supplier to see if they offer it.

Fire Code Ratings: Every cable installed indoors must meet fire codes. Thatmeans the jacket must be rated for fire resistance, with ratings for general use, riser(a vertical cable feeds flames more than horizontal) and plenum (for installation inair-handling areas. Most indoor cables us PVC (polyvinyl chloride) jacketing for fireretardance. In the United States, all premises cables must carry identification andflammability ratings per the NEC (National Electrical Code) paragraph 770. Theseratings are:

NEC Rating Description

OFN optical fiber non-conductive

OFC optical fiber conductive

OFNG or OFCG general purpose

OFNR or OFCR riser rated cable for vertical runs

OFNP or OFCP plenum rated cables for use in air-handling plenums

OFN-LS low smoke density

Cables without markings should never be installed as they will not passinspections! Outdoor cables are not fire-rated and can only be used up to 50 feetindoors. If you need to bring an outdoor cable indoors, consider a double-jacketedcable with PE jacket over a PVC UL-rated indoor jacket. Simply remove the outdoorjacket when you come indoors and you will not have to terminate at the entry point.



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Choosing A CableWith so much choice in cables, it is hard to find the right one. The table belowsummarizes the choices, applications and advantages of each.

Cable Type Application Advantages

Tight Buffer Premises Makes rugged patchcords

Distribution Premises Small size for lots of fibers, inexpensive

Breakout Premises Rugged, easy to terminate, no hardwareneeded

Loose Tube Outside Plant Rugged, gel or dry water-blocking

Armored Outside Plant Prevents rodent damage

Ribbon Outside Plant Highest fiber count for small size

Pulling Fiber Optic CableInstallation methods for both wire cables and optical fiber cables are similar. Fibercable can be pulled with much greater force than copper wire if you pull it correctly.Just remember these rules:

Do not pull on the fibers; pull on the strength members only! The cablemanufacturer gives you the perfect solution to pulling the cables. They installspecial strength members, usually Dupont Kevlar aramid yarn or a fiberglass rod topull on. Use it! Any other method may put stress on the fibers and harm them. Mostcables cannot be pulled by the jacket. Do not pull on the jacket unless it isspecifically approved by the cable manufacturers and you use an approved cablegrip.

Do not exceed the maximum pulling load rating. On long runs, use properlubricants and make sure they are compatible with the cable jacket. On really longruns, pull from the middle out to both ends. If possible, use an automated pullerwith tension control or at least a breakaway pulling eye.

Do not exceed the cable bend radius. Fiber is stronger than steel when you pull itstraight, but it breaks easily when bent too tightly. These will harm the fibers, maybeimmediately, maybe not for a few years, but you will harm them and the cable mustbe removed and thrown away!

Do not twist the cable. Putting a twist in the cable can stress the fibers too. Alwaysroll the cable off the spool instead of spinning it off the spool end. This will put atwist in the cable for every turn on the spool! If you are laying cable out for a longpull, use a “figure 8” on the ground to prevent twisting (the figure 8 puts a half twistin on one side of the 8 and takes it out on the other, preventing twists.) And alwaysuse a swivel-pulling eye because pulling tension will cause twisting forces on thecable.

Check the length. Make sure the cable is long enough for the run. It’s not easy orcheap to splice fiber and it needs special protection. Try to make it in one pull,possible up to about 2-3 miles.



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Conduit and Innerduct: Outside plant cables are either installed in conduit orinnerduct or direct buried, depending on the cable type. Building cables can beinstalled directly, but you might consider putting them inside plenum-ratedinnerduct. This innerduct is bright orange and will provide a good way to identifyfiber optic cable and protect it from damage, generally a result of someone cutting itby mistake! The innerduct can speed installation and maybe even cut costs. It canbe installed quickly by unskilled labor, then the fiber cable can be pulled through inseconds. You can even get the innerduct with pulling tape already installed.

Cable Plant HardwareVarious enclosures, cabinets, racks and panels are used to protect and organizesplice and termination points. The network designer should know the type ofnetwork, support systems, the routes to be taken. Then the connection/splicelocations can be determined and the hardware planned.

There are lots of rules to follow, of course (the EIA/TIA 569 has something to sayabout all this).

Here are some examples of fiber optic hardware:

Breakout kits: They allow you to separate and protect individual fibers in a loosetube cable so it can be terminated.

Splice enclosures: for long cable runs outside, the point where cables are spliced,sealed up and buried in the ground, put in a vault of some kind or hung off a pole.

Splice panels: connect individual fibers from cables to pigtails

Patch panels: provides a centralized location for patching fibers, testing,monitoring and restoring cables.

Racks and cabinets: enclosures for patch panels and splice panels. Usually thesealso include cable management - without this the cables start looking like spaghettiflying everywhere in a short time!

There are tons of hardware and tons of manufacturers who make them. Be sure tochoose panels that have the connections behind locked doors, since the biggestproblem we see is connectors broken by people messing around incommunications closets! Fiber doesn’t need maintenance or inspection. Lock ‘emup and only unlock it when you have to move something!

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Optical FiberFiber SpecificationsThe usual fiber specifications you will see are core/cladding size, opticalattenuation and bandwidth. While manufacturers have other specs that concernthem, like numerical aperture (the acceptance angle of light into the fiber), ovality(how round the fiber is), concentricity of the core and cladding, etc., thesemanufacturing specs do not affect you.

Fiber ItselfFiber Optics, as we said, is sending signals downhair-thin strands of glass or plastic fiber. The lightis “guided” down the center of the fiber called the“core”. The core is surrounded by an opticalmaterial called the “cladding” that traps the light inthe core using an optical technique called “totalinternal reflection.” The core and cladding areusually made of ultra-pure glass, although somefibers are all plastic or a glass core and plastic cladding. The fiber is coated with aprotective plastic covering called the “primary buffer coating” that protects it frommoisture and other damage. More protection is provided by the “cable” which hasthe fibers and strength members inside an outer covering called a “jacket”.

Multimode & Singlemode FibersMultimode & Singlemode fibers are the two types of fiber in common use. Bothfibers are 125 microns in outside diameter - a micron is one one-millionth of ameter and 125 microns is 0.005 inches- a bit larger than the typical human hair.

Multimode fiber has light traveling in the core in many rays, called modes. It has abigger core (almost always 62.5 microns, but sometimes 50 microns) and is usedwith LED sources at wavelengths of 850 and 1300 nm (see below!) for slower localarea networks (LANs) and lasers at 850 and 1310 nm for networks running atgigabits per second or more.

Singlemode fiber has a much smaller core, only about 9 microns, so that the lighttravels in only one ray. It is used for telephony and CATV with laser sources at1300 and 1550 nm.

Plastic Optical Fiber (POF) is large core (about 1mm) fiber that can only be usedfor short, low speed networks.

Step index multimode was the first fiber design but is too slow for most uses, dueto the dispersion caused by the different path lengths of the various modes. Stepindex fiber is rare - only POF uses a step index design today.



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Graded index multimode fiber uses variations in thecomposition of the glass in the core to compensatefor the different path lengths of the modes. It offershundreds of times more bandwidth than step indexfiber - up to about 2 gigahertz.

Singlemode fiber shrinks the core down so smallthat the light can only travel in one ray. Thisincreases the bandwidth to almost infinity - but it’spractically limited to about 100,000 gigahertz - that’sstill a lot!

Size MattersFiber, as we said, comes in two types, singlemode and multimode. Except for fibersused in specialty applications, singlemode fiber can be considered as one size andtype. If you deal with long haul telecom or submarine cables, you may have to workwith specialty singlemode fibers.

Multimode fibers originally came in several sizes, optimized for various networksand sources, but the data industry standardized on 62.5 core fiber in the mid-80s(62.5/125 fiber has a 62.5 micron core and a 125 micron cladding.) Recently, asgigabit and 10 gigabit networks have become widely used, an old fiber has beenrevived. The 50/125 fiber was used from the late 70s with lasers for telecomapplications before singlemode fiber became available. It offers higher bandwidthwith the laser sources used in the gigabit LANs and can go longer distances. Whileit still represents a smaller volume than 62.5/125, it is growing.

A complete listing of fiber types and specifications is included below.

CAUTION: You cannot mix and match fibers! Trying to connect singlemode tomultimode fiber can cause 20 dB loss - that’s 99% of the power. Even connectionsbetween 62.5/125 and 50/125 can cause loss of 2 dB or more – as much as thesystem margin for Gigabit Ethernet.



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Fiber Types and Typical SpecificationsCore/Cladding Attenuation Bandwidth Applications/Notes

Multimode Graded-Index

@850/1300 nm @850/1300 nm

50/125 microns 3/1 dB/km 500/500 MHz-km Laser-rated for GbE LANs

50/125 microns 3/1 dB/km 2000/500 MHz-km Optimized for 850 nmVCSELs

62.5/125 microns 3/1 dB/km 160/500 MHz-km Most common LAN fiber

100/140 microns 3/1 dB/km 150/300 MHz-km Obsolete

Singlemode

@1310/1550 nm

8-9/125 microns 0.4/0.25 dB/km HIGH! ~100 Terahertz Telco/CATV/longhigh speed LANs

Multimode Step-Index

@850 nm @850 nm

200/240 microns 4-6 dB/km 50 MHz-km Slow LANs & links

POF (plastic optical fiber)

@ 650 nm @ 650 nm

1 mm ~ 1 dB/m ~5 MHz-km Short Links & Cars

© 2003 VDV Works LLC, all rights reserved.Termination – Page 1


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Fiber Optic Termination

We terminate fiber optic cable two ways - with connectors that can mate two fibersto create a temporary joint and/or connect the fiber to a piece of network gear orwith splices which create a permanent joint between the two fibers. Theseterminations must be of the right style, installed in a manner that makes them havelittle light loss and protected against dirt or damage in use.

No area of fiber optics has been given greater attention than termination.Manufacturers have come up with over 80 styles of connectors and about a dozenways to install them. There are two types of splices and many ways ofimplementing the splice. Fortunately for me and you, only a few types are used inmost applications.

Different connectors and splice termination procedures are used for singlemodeand multimode connectors, so make sure you know what the fiber will be beforeyou specify connectors or splices!

ConnectorsWe’ll start our section on termination by consideringconnectors. Since fiber optic technology was introduced inthe late 70s, numerous connector styles have beendeveloped. Each new design was meant to offer betterperformance (less light loss and back reflection), easierand/or termination and lower cost. Of course, themarketplace determines which connectors are ultimatelysuccessful.

Connector and Splice Loss MechanismsConnector and splice loss is caused by a number of factors.Loss is minimized when the two fiber cores are identicaland perfectly aligned, the connectors or splices areproperly finished and no dirt is present. Only the light that iscoupled into the receiving fiber’s core will propagate, so allthe rest of the light becomes the connector or splice loss.

End gaps cause two problems, insertion loss and returnloss. The emerging cone of light from the connector willspill over the core of the receiving fiber and be lost. Inaddition, the air gap between the fibers causes a reflectionwhen the light encounters the change in refractive indexfrom the glass fiber to the air in the gap. This reflection(called fresnel reflection) amounts to about 5% in typical flatpolished connectors, and means that no connector with anair gap can have less than 0.3 dB



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loss. This reflection is also referred to as back reflection or optical return loss, whichcan be a problem in laser-based systems. Connectors use a number of polishingtechniques to insure physical contact of the fiber ends to minimize back reflection.On mechanical splices, it is possible to reduce back reflection by using non-perpendicular cleaves, which cause back reflections to be absorbed in thecladding of the fiber.

The end finish of the fiber must be properly polished to minimize loss. A roughsurface will scatter light and dirt can scatter and absorb light. Since the optical fiberis so small, typical airborne dirt can be a major source of loss. Wheneverconnectors are not terminated, they should be covered to protect the end of theferrule from dirt. One should never touch the end of the ferrule, since the oils onone’s skin causes the fiber to attract dirt. Before connection and testing, it isadvisable to clean connectors with lint-free wipes moistened with isopropyl alcohol,followed by a pass over a dry lint-free wipe.

Two sources of loss are directional; numerical aperture (NA) and core diameter.Differences in these two will create connections that have different lossesdepending on the direction of light propagation. Light from a fiber with a larger NAwill be more sensitive to angularity and end gap, so transmission from a fiber oflarger NA to one of smaller NA will be higher loss than the reverse. Likewise, lightfrom a larger fiber will have high loss coupled to a fiber of smaller diameter, whileone can couple a small diameter fiber to a large diameter fiber with minimal loss,since it is much less sensitive to end gap or lateral offset.

These fiber mismatches occur for two reasons. The occasional need tointerconnect two dissimilar fibers and production variances in fibers of the samenominal dimensions. With two multimode fibers in usage today and two others,which have been used occasionally in the past and several types of singlemodefiber in use, it is possible to sometimes have to connect dissimilar fibers or usesystems designed for one fiber on another. Some system manufacturers provideguidelines on using various fibers, some don’t. If you connect a smaller fiber to alarger one, the coupling losses will be minimal, often only the fresnel loss (about0.3 dB). But connecting larger fibers to smaller ones results in substantial losses,not only due to the smaller cores size, but also the smaller NA of most small corefibers.

Guide to Fiber Optic ConnectorsCheck out the “spotters guide” below and you will see the most common fiber opticconnectors. (All the photos are to the same scale, so you can get an idea of therelative size of these connectors.)

ST (an AT&T Trademark) is still the most popular connectorfor multimode networks, like most buildings and campuses. Ithas a bayonet mount and a long cylindrical ferrule to hold thefiber. Most ferrules are ceramic, but some are metal or plastic.And because they are spring-loaded, you have to make surethey are seated properly. If you have high loss, reconnectthem to see if it makes a difference.



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FC/PC has been one of the most popular singlemodeconnectors for many years. It screws on firmly, but make sureyou have the key aligned in the slot properly before tightening.It’s being replaced by SCs and LCs.

SC is a snap-in connector that is widely used in singlemodesystems for it’s excellent performance. It’s a snap-in connectorthat latches with a simple push-pull motion. It is also available ina duplex configuration.

Besides the SC Duplex, you may occasionally see the FDDIand ESCON* duplex connectors which mate to their specificnetworks. They are generally used to connect to the equipmentfrom a wall outlet, but the rest of the network will have ST or SCconnectors.

*ESCON is an IBM trademark

LC is a new connector that uses a 1.25 mm ferrule, half thesize of the ST. Otherwise, it’s a standard ceramic ferruleconnector, easily terminated with any adhesive. Goodperformance, highly favored for singlemode.

MT-RJ is a duplex connector with both fibers in a single polymerferrule. It uses pins for alignment and has male and femaleversions. Multimode only, field terminated only byprepolished/splice method.

Opti-Jack is a rugged duplex connector cleverly designedaround two ST-type ferrules in a package the size of a RJ-45. Ithas male and female (plug and jack) versions.



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Volition is a slick, inexpensive duplex connector that uses noferrule at all. It aligns fibers in a V-groove like a splice. Plug andjack versions, but field terminate jacks only.

E2000/LX-5 is like a LC but with a shutter over the end of thefiber, a desirable feature for high-powered CATV or DWDMsystems.

MU looks a miniature SC with a 1.25 mm ferrule. It’s morepopular in Japan.

MT is a 12-fiber connector for ribbon cable. Its main use is forpreterminated cable assemblies.

The ST/SC/FC/FDDI/ESON connectors have the same ferrule size - 2.5 mm orabout 0.1 inch - so they can be mixed and matched to each other using hybrid-mating adapters. This makes it convenient to test, since you can have a set ofmultimode reference test cables with ST connectors and adapt to all theseconnectors. Likewise, the LC, MU and E2000/LX-5 use the same ferrule but cross-mating adapters are not easy to find.



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Connector TypesThe ST is still the most popular multimode connector because it is inexpensive andeasy to install. The SC connector was specified as a standard by the old EIA/TIA568A specification, but its higher cost and difficulty of installation (until recently) haslimited its popularity. However, newer SCs are much better in both cost andinstallation ease, so it has been growing in use. The duplex FDDI, ESCON and SCconnectors are used for patchcords to equipment and can be mated to ST or SCconnectors at wall outlets.

Singlemode networks use FC or SC connectors in about the same proportion as STand SC in multimode installations. There are some D4s out there too.

EIA/TIA 568 B allows any fiber optic connector as long as it has a FOCIS (FiberOptic Connector Intermateability Standard) document behind it. This opened theway to the use of several new connectors, which we call the “Small Form Factor”(SFF) connectors, including AT&T LC, the MT-RJ, the Panduit “Opti-Jack,” 3M’sVolition, the E2000/LX-5 and MU. The LC has been particularly successful in theUS.

Connector Ferrule Shapes & PolishesFiber optic connectors can have severaldifferent ferrule shapes or finishes, usuallyreferred to as polishes. Early connectors,because they did not have keyed ferrules andcould rotate in mating adapters, always hadan air gap between the connectors to preventthem rotating and grinding scratches into theends of the fibers.

Beginning with the ST and FC, which hadkeyed ferrules, the connectors were designedto contact tightly, what we now call physicalcontact (PC) connectors. Reducing the air gapreduced the loss and back reflection (veryimportant to laser-based singlemodesystems), since light has a loss of about 5%(~0.25 dB) at each air gap and light is reflected back up the fiber. While air gapconnectors usually had losses of 0.5 dB or more and return loss of 20 dB, PCconnectors had typical losses of 0.3 dB and a return loss of 30 to 40 dB.

Soon thereafter, it was determined that making the connector ferrules convexwould produce an even better connection. The convex ferrule guaranteed the fibercores were in contact. Losses were under 0.3dB and return loss 40 dB or better.The final solution for singlemode systems extremely sensitive to reflections, likeCATV or high bitrate telco links, was to angle the end of the ferrule 8 degrees tocreate what we call an APC or angled PC connector. Then any reflected light is atan angle that is absorbed in the cladding of the fiber.



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Termination ProceduresWhatever you do, follow the manufacturer’s termination instructions closely.Multimode connectors are usually installed in the field on the cables after pulling,while singlemode connectors are usually installed by splicing a factory-made“pigtail” onto the fiber. That is because the tolerances on singlemode terminationsare much tighter and the polishing processes are more critical. You can installsinglemode connectors in the field for low speed data networks, but you may not beable to get losses lower than 1 dB!

Cables can be pulled with connectors already on them if, and a big if, you can dealwith these two problems: First, the length must be precise. Too short and you haveto pull another longer one (its not cost effective to splice), too long and you wastemoney and have to store the extra cable length. Secondly, the connectors must beprotected. Some cable and connector manufacturers offer protective sleeves tocover the connectors, but you must still be much more careful in pulling cables. Youmight consider terminating one end and pulling the unterminated end to not risk theconnectors.

There is a growing movement to install preterminated systems but with the MT 12multifiber connector. It’s tiny not much bigger than a ST or SC, but has up to 12fibers. Manufactures sell multifiber cables with MTs on them that connect topreterminated patch panels with STs or SCs. Works well if you have a gooddesigner and can live with the higher loss (~1 dB) typical of these connectors.

Multimode Terminations: Several different types of terminations are available formultimode fibers. Each version has its advantages and disadvantages, so learningmore about how each works helps decide which one to use.

A note on adhesives: Most connectors use epoxies or other adhesives to hold thefiber in the connector. Use only the specified epoxy, as the fiber to ferrule bond iscritical for low loss and long-term reliability! We’veseen people use hardware store epoxies, Crazy Glue,you name it! And they regretted doing it.

Epoxy/Polish: Most connectors are the simple“epoxy/polish” type where the fiber is glued into theconnector with epoxy and the end polished withspecial polishing film. These provide the most reliableconnection, lowest losses (less than 0.5 dB) andlowest costs, especially if you are doing a lot ofconnectors. The epoxy can be allowed to set overnight or cured in an inexpensiveoven. A “heat gun” should never be used to try to cure the epoxy faster as theuneven heat may not cure all the epoxy or may overheat some of it, which willprevent it ever curing!



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“Hot Melt”: This is a 3M trade name for a connector that already has the epoxy(actually a heat set glue) inside the connector. You strip the cable, clean the fiber,insert it in the connector, crimp it, and put it in a special oven. In a few minutes, theglue is melted, so you remove the connector, let it cool and it is ready to polish. Fastand easy, low loss, but not as cheap as the epoxy type, it has become the favoriteof lots of contractors who install relatively small quantities of connectors.

Anaerobic Adhesives: These connectors use a quick setting adhesive to replacethe epoxy. They work well if your technique is good, but often they do not have thewide temperature range of epoxies, so only use them indoors. A lot of installers areusing Loctite 648, with or without the accelerator solution, which is neat and easy touse.

Crimp/Polish: Rather than glue the fiber in the connector, these connectors use acrimp on the fiber to hold it in. Early types offered “iffy” performance, but today theyare pretty good, if you practice a lot. Expect to trade higher losses for the fastertermination speed. And they are more costly than epoxy polish types. A goodchoice if you only install small quantities and your customer will accept them.

Prepolished/splice: Some manufacturers offer connectors that have a short stubfiber already epoxied into the ferrule and polished perfectly, so you just cleave afiber with an acceptable cleaver and insert it like a splice. (See next section forsplicing info.) While it sound like a great idea, it has several downsides. First it isvery costly, five to ten times as much as an epoxy polish type. Second, you have tomake a good cleave to make them low loss, and that is not as easy as you mightthink. Third, even if you do everything correctly, you loss will be higher, becauseyou have a connector loss plus two splice losses at every connection! The best wayto terminate them is to monitor the loss with a visual fault locator and “tweak” them.

Hints for doing field terminationsHere are a few things to remember when you are terminating connectors in thefield. Following these guidelines will save you time, money and frustration.

Choose the connector carefully and clear it with the customer if it is anything otherthan an epoxy/polish type. Some customers have strong opinions on the types orbrands of connectors used in their job. Find out first, not later!

Never, never, NEVER take a new connector in the field until you have installedenough of them in the office that you can put them on in your sleep. The field is noplace to experiment or learn! It’ll cost you big time!

Have the right tools for the job. Make sure you have the proper tools and they are ingood shape before you head out for the job. This includes all the termination tools,cable tools and test equipment. Do you know your test cables are good? Withoutthat, you will test good terminations as bad every time. More and more installersare owning their own tools like auto mechanics, saying that is the only way to makesure the tools are properly cared for. IDEAL fiber tools are precision tools thatshould be stored in a clean protective case. It’s a good idea to keep fiber toolsseparate from tools used with copper.



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Dust and dirt are your enemies. It’s very hard to terminate or splice in a dusty place.Try to work in the cleanest possible location. Use lint-free wipes or IDEAL's Split-Tip Swabs (45-360) (not cotton swabs or rags made from old T-shirts!) to cleanevery connector before connecting or testing it. Don’t work under heating vents, asthey are blowing dirt down on you continuously.

Don’t overpolish. Contrary to common sense, too much polishing is just as bad astoo little. The ceramic ferrule in most of today’s connector is much harder than theglass fiber. Polish too much and you create a concave fiber surface, increasing theloss. A few swipes are all it takes.

Remember singlemode fiber requires different connectors and polishingtechniques. Most SM fiber is terminated by splicing on a preterminated pigtail, butyou can put SM connectors on in the field if you know what you are doing. Expectmuch higher loss, approaching 1 dB and high back reflections, so don’t try it foranything but data networks, not telco or CATV.

Change polishing film regularly. Polishing builds up residue and dirt on the film thatcan cause problems after too many connectors and cause poor end finish. TheIDEAL suggested polishing procedure can be found inside each pack of IDEALPolishing Film.

Put covers on connectors and patch panels when not in use. Keep them covered tokeep them clean.

Inspect and test, then document. It is very hard to troubleshoot cables when youdon’t know how long they are, where they go or how they tested originally! So keepgood records, smart users require it and expect to pay extra for good records.

SplicingSplicing is only needed if the cable runs are too long for one straight pull or youneed to mix a number of different types of cables(like bringing a 48 fiber cable in and splicing it to six8 fiber cables - could you have used a breakoutcable instead?) And of course, we use splices forrestoration, after the number one problem of outsideplant cables, a dig-up and cut of a buried cable,usually referred to as “backhoe fade” for obviousreasons!

Splices are “permanent” connections between twofibers. There are two types of splices, fusion andmechanical, and the choice is usually based on costor location. Most splicing is on long haul outsideplant SM cables, not multimode LANs, so if you dooutside plant SM jobs, you will want to learn how tofusion splice. If you do mostly MM LANs, you maynever see a splice.



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Fusion Splices are made by “welding” the two fibers together usually by an electricarc. Obviously, you don’t do that in an explosive atmosphere (at least not morethan once!), so fusion splicing is usually done above ground in a truck or trailer setup for the purpose. Good fusion splicers cost $15,000 to $40,000, but the splicesonly cost a few dollars each. Today’s singlemode fusion splicers are automatedand you have a hard time making a bad splice. The biggest application issinglemode fibers in outside plant installations.

Mechanical Splices are alignment devices that hold the ends of two fibers togetherwith some index matching gel or glue between them. There are a number of typesof mechanical splices, like little glass tubes or V-shaped metal clamps. The tools tomake mechanical splices are affordable, but the splices themselves are expensive.Many mechanical splices are used for restoration, but they can work well with bothsinglemode and multimode fiber, with practice.

Which Splice?If cost is the issue, we’ve given you the clues to make a choice: fusion is expensiveequipment and cheap splices, while mechanical is cheap equipment andexpensive splices. So if you make a lot of splices (like thousands in an big telco orCATV network) use fusion splices. If you need just a few, use mechanical splices.

Fusion splices give very low back reflections and are preferred for singlemode highspeed digital or CATV networks. However, they don’t work too well on multimodesplices, so mechanical splices are preferred for MM, unless it is an underwater oraerial application, where the greater reliability of the fusion splice is preferred.

© 2003 VDV Works LLC, all rights reserved.Networks – Page 1


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Fiber Optic Networks

In the telcos, singlemode fiber is used to connect long distance switches, centraloffices and SLCs (subscriber loop carriers, small switches in pedestals insubdivisions or office parks or in the basement of a larger building). Practicallyevery telco’s network is now fiber optics except the connection to the home. Fiber tothe home is not yet cost effective - especially since most homes do not want (norare willing to pay) for the high-speed services that would justify fiber optics.

CATV companies “overbuild” with fiber. They lash fiber cable onto the aerial“hardline” coax used for the rest of the network or pull it in the same conduitunderground. The fiber allows them to break their network into smaller serviceareas that prevent large numbers of customers from being affected in an outage,making for better service and customer relations. The fiber also gives them a returnpath that they use for Internet and telephone connections, increasing their revenuepotential.

LANs (local area networks) use fiber optics primarily in the backbone butincreasingly to the desk. The LAN backbone often needs longer distance thancopper cable (Cat 5/5e/6) can provide and of course, the fiber offers higherbandwidth for future expansion. Most large corporate LANs use fiber backboneswith copper wire to the desktop. Fiber to the desk can be cost effective if properlydesigned.

Lots of other networks use fiber. CCTV is often on fiber for its distance capability.Industrial plants use lots of fiber for distance and noise immunity. Utilities use it fornetwork management, liking its immunity to noise also. The military uses it becauseit’s hard to tap or jam. The aerospace industry uses it for that reason too, but alsolikes the lighter weight of fiber.

Designing Cable NetworksThis is too big a topic for an overview! Butwe’ll pass along some hints to make lifeeasier. First and foremost, visit the worksite and check it out thoroughly. Know the“standards” but use common sense indesigning the installation. Don’t cutcorners that may affect performance orreliability. Consider what are the possibleproblems and work around or preventthem. There is no substitute for commonsense here! Fiber’s extra distancecapability makes it possible to do thingsnot possible with copper wire. Forexample, you can install all the electronicsfor a network in one communications



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closet for a building and run straight to the desktop with fiber. With copper, you canonly go about 90 meters (less than 300 feet), so you need to keep the electronicsclose to the desk. With fiber, you only need passive patch panels locally to allow formoves. Upgrades are easy, since the fiber is only loafing at today’s network speed!

Copper Or Fiber?When it comes to costs, fiber optics is always assumed to be much more expensivethan copper cabling. Whatever you look at - cable, terminations or networkingelectronics - fiber costs more, although as copper gets faster (e.g. Cat 6) it getsmore expensive, almost as much as fiber. So isn’t it obvious that fiber networks aremore expensive than copper? Maybe not! There is more to consider in making thedecision.

Why Use Fiber?If fiber is more expensive, why have all the telephonenetworks been converted to fiber? And why are all theCATV systems converting to fiber too? Are their networksthat different? Is there something they know we don’t?

Telcos use fiber to connect all their central offices andlong distance switches because it has thousands of timesthe bandwidth of copper wire and can carry signalshundreds of times further before needing a repeater. TheCATV companies use fiber because it give them greaterreliability and the opportunity to offer new services, likephone service and Internet connections.

Both telcos and CATV operators use fiber for economicreasons, but their cost justification requires adopting newnetwork architectures to take advantage of fiber’sstrengths. A properly designed premises cabling networkcan also be less expensive when done in fiber instead ofcopper. There are several good examples of fiber being less expensive, so letsexamine them.

Industrial NetworksIn an industrial environment, electromagnetic interference (EMI) is often a bigproblem. Motors, relays, welders and other industrial equipment generate atremendous amount of electrical noise that can cause major problems with coppercabling, especially unshielded cable like Cat 5. In order to run copper cable in anindustrial environment, it is often necessary to pull it through conduit to provideadequate shielding.



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With fiber optics, you have complete immunity to EMI. You only need to choose acable type that is rugged enough for the installation, with breakout cable being agood choice for it’s heavy-duty construction. The fiber optic cable can be installedeasily from point to point, passing right next to major sources of EMI with no effect.Conversion from copper networks is easy with media converters, devices thatconvert most types of systems to fiber optics. Even with the cost of the mediaconverters, the fiber optic network will be less than copper run in conduit.

Long Cable RunsMost networks are designed around structured cabling installed per EIA/TIA 568standards. This standard calls for 90 meters (295 feet) of permanently installedunshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable and 10 meters (33 feet) of patchcords. Butsuppose you need to connect two buildings or more? The distance often exceedsthe 90 meters by the time you include the runs between the buildings plus what youneed inside each building.

By the time you buy special aerial or underground waterproof copper cable andrepeaters, you will usually spend more than if you bought some outside plant fiberoptic cable and a couple of inexpensive media converters. It’s guaranteed cheaperif you go more than two links (180 meters).

Centralized Fiber LANsWhen most contractors and end users look at fiber optics versus Cat 5e or Cat 6cabling for a LAN, they compare the standard copper LAN with fiber directlyreplacing each of the copper links. The fiber optic cable is a bit more expensivethan Cat 5e or Cat 6 and terminations are a little more too, but the big difference isthe electronics that are $200 or more per link extra for fiber.

However, the real difference comes if you use a centralized fiber optic network -shown on the right of the diagram above. Since fiber does not have the 90 meterdistance limitation of UTP cable, you can place all electronics in one location in ornear the computer room. The telecom closet is only used for passive connection ofbackbone fiber optic cables, so no power, UPS, ground or air conditioning isneeded. These auxiliary services, necessary with Cat 5e/6 hubs, cost atremendous amount of money in each closet.

In addition, having all the fiber optic hubs in one location means better utilization ofthe hardware, with fewer unused ports. Since ports in modular hubs must be addedin modules of 8 or 16, it’s not uncommon with a hub in a telecom closet to havemany of the ports in a module empty. With a centralized fiber system, you can addmodules more efficiently as you are supporting many more desktop locations butneed never have more than a one module with open ports.



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High Speed NetworkingIt was over a year after Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) became available on fiber opticsthat it finally becomes available on Cat 5e. It took another couple of years beforeGbE on copper became significantly less expensive. Now backbones arepreparing for 10 Gigabit Ethernet and that is all fiber. Planning for the future meansadding fiber to the network.

Bottom LineSo when it comes to costs, looking at the cabling component costs may not be agood way to analyze total network costs. Consider the total system and you mayfind fiber looks a lot more attractive.

© 2003 VDV Works LLC, all rights reserved.Estimating – Page 1


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Estimating and Bidding

Estimating is necessary to figure out what the job will cost you. First of all you’llneed to set up a simple chart of all the details: the items you will need to purchase(i.e. cable, connectors, etc) and their costs. You will also need to add labor cost.

Do your homework – be sure to have an accurate idea of how long it takes foreach step of the installation.

For instance, when dealing with connectors, if a manufacturer says you canterminate his connector in 3 minutes, test it for yourself in the office before you go tothe site. Not only do you want to know how long it will take, but also how manygood ones you get. Are you working on a “tried and true” method such as usingepoxy or anaerobic adhesive with ST or SC connectors where installationestimates are well documented or a new system such as MTRJ connectors or a“cleave and leave” connector you have never done before? Big difference! Thenewer or more specialized the connector or the installation process, the moreunpredictable the timing can be. This rule can apply to all the materials andequipment you will be using. Try to identify who will answer your questions from thecompanies who sold the connectors, cable and the other materials before you go tothe job site. This will help avoid serious delays if you run into trouble.

Consider yield. You will never get every connector or splice right the first time. Ifyou get 90% good in the field, you are a hero! Magazines periodically publisharticles about the yield of various connectors tested in the field - the yield for certainconnectors can be as low as 30%!

Be sure to visit the job site – you have to see for yourself what the job looks like.Get as much information as you can - walk the route carefully and note things suchas what other cables are there and will they have to be removed, the condition ofthe building and any potential problems with moisture or excessive heat or cold,any inconsistencies from the architectural drawings, what other work is being doneat the same time and how it will effect what you’re doing, can you easily get yourequipment where it needs to be. Bring a camera if the customer will let you - takelots of pictures! Trust us, we have seen every mistake made and more! Double -then triple check everything. You won’t regret it.

Talk to the customer – be sure to understand exactly what will be required of you.You must know what types of cable, connectors, splices, hardware, etc. thecustomer wants (including brands - if specified). Does the customer wantemployees to be trained? Get all the details on this up front also. Don’t be afraid tosuggest alternatives that will save him (and you) money. Research the customer -how long have they been in business? Do they pay their contractors on time? Askaround - if there is a problem, it will probably surface.

Read the specifications carefully - if you see something that doesn’t make sense(like the all too common one of asking for OTDR test data on short LAN cable runs),tell the customer your concerns before you bid. Don’t bid blindly.

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Once you have gathered all your information, you will need to bring your mathskills into play and create a document (usually a spreadsheet) that allows you totransfer all this information into a “map” of the job that you and your workers canfollow.

BiddingBidding is closely related to estimating, but adds in the profit margin you need tostay in business - don’t forget that! If you bid accurately, you will never regret losinga job to a lower bidder, because you know that the winning bid is close to or losingmoney and that is not the goal of running a business. Bid accurately and you willstay in business!

DocumentationKnowing where every cable, connector, splice, patch panel, etc goes and thelength of every cable is more than helpful. It can help you in bidding, buying,installation, testing, and restoration. After installation, keep test data to refer back towhen you have problems.

Smart installers understand the value of documentation and understand it can leadto higher bids, but good documentation pays for itself. Smart users understand ittoo and are willing to pay for good documentation.

Estimating SoftwareToday you can get several great programs that automate the estimation process.They can access databases of costs, aggregate components and do lots more tosimplify the process. Evaluate all these products - a contractors trade show is agood place to start looking at them - to see if they meet your needs.

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Fiber Optic Testing

After the cables are installed and terminated, it’s necessary to test the cables. Forevery fiber optic cable plant, you will need to test for continuity, end-to-end loss andthen troubleshoot the problems. If it’s a long outside plant cable with intermediatesplices, you will probably want to verify the individual splices with an OTDR also,since that’s the only way to make sure that each one is good. If you are the networkuser, you will also be interested in testing power as power is the measurement thattells you whether the system is operating properly.

You’ll need a few special tools and instruments to test fiber optics. See theTerminology section to see a description of each instrument.

Getting StartedEven if you’re an experienced installer, make sure you remember these things.

1. Have the right tools and test equipment for the job... You will need:

Light source and power meter, optical loss test set or test kit with proper equipmentadapters for the cable plant you are testing.

Reference test cables that match the cables to be tested and mating adapters,including hybrids if needed

Fiber Tracer or Visual Fault Locator (IDEAL VFF5)

Cleaning materials - lint free cleaning wipes and 99% Isopropyl Alcohol, or otheracceptable cleaning solutions

OTDR and launch cable for outside plant jobs

2. Know how to use your test equipment

Before you start, get together all your tools and make sure they are all workingproperly and you and your installers know how to use them. It’s hard to get the jobdone when you have to call the manufacturer from the job site on your cell phone toask for help. Try all your equipment in the office before you take it into the field. Useit to test every one of your reference test jumper cables in both directions using thesingle-ended loss test to make sure they are all good. You can often customizethese reports to your specific needs - figure all this out before you go in the field - itcould save you time on installations, time is money!

3. Know the cable network you’re testing...

This is an important part of the documentation process we discussed earlier. Makesure you have cable layouts for every fiber you have to test. Prepare a checklist ofall the cables and fibers before you go in the field. Store all records, passing andfailing into the tester. Passing test records can be printed for the customer, andfailed fibers can be repaired and re-tested.



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A note on eye safety...Fiber optic sources, including test equipment, are generally too low in power tocause any eye damage, but it’s still a good idea to check connectors with a powermeter before looking into it. Some telco DWDM and CATV systems have very highpower and they could be harmful, so better safe than sorry.

Visual Inspection

Visual TracingContinuity checking makes certain the fibers are not broken and to trace a path of afiber from one end to another through many connections. Use a visible light “fiberoptic tracer” or “pocket visual fault finder”. It looks like a flashlight or a pen-likeinstrument with a lightbulb or LED source that mates to a fiber optic connector.Attach a cable to test to the visual tracer and look at the other end to see the lighttransmitted through the core of the fiber. If there is no light at the end, go back tointermediate connections to find the bad section of the cable.

A good example of how it can save time and money is testing fiber on a reel beforeyou pull it to make sure it hasn’t been damaged during shipment. Look for visiblesigns of damage (like cracked or broken reels, kinks in the cable, etc.). For testing,visual tracers help also identify the next fiber to be tested for loss with the test kit.When connecting cables at patch panels, use the visual tracer to make sure eachconnection is the right two fibers! And to make certain the proper fibers areconnected to the transmitter and receiver, use the visual tracer in place of thetransmitter and your eye instead of the receiver (remember that fiber optic linkswork in the infrared so you can’t see anything anyway.) The VFF5 is also useful toquickly detect connectors where the fiber has been chipped or cracked duringtermination. A good connector ferrule will not leak light through the side while abad connector will clearly glow red when the far end of the fiber is illuminated witha visible laser source.

Visual Fault LocationA higher power version of the tracer uses a laser that canalso find faults. The red laser light is powerful enough toshow breaks in fibers or high loss connectors. You canactually see the loss of the bright red light even throughmany yellow or orange simplex cable jackets except black orgray jackets. You can also use this tool to optimizemechanical splices or prepolished-splice type fiber opticconnectors. In fact- don’t even think of doing one of thoseconnectors without one no other method will assure you of high yield with them.The IDEAL VFF5 is a great choice for this procedure.



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A low-loss connector has a round, clear, featureless core.

Shattered end Smeared spoxyon a connector

Visual Connector InspectionFiber optic microscopes are used to inspect connectors to check the quality of thetermination procedure and diagnose problems. A well made connector will have asmooth, polished, scratch free finish and the fiber will not show any signs of cracks,chips or areas where the fiber is either protruding from the end of the ferrule orpulling back into it.

The magnification for viewing connectors can be 30 to 400 power, but it is best touse a 100 power magnification for multimode and 200 to 400 power forsinglemode. The IDEAL Fiber Inspection Microscope (45-332) with its OptionalAdapter is the perfect choice for this testing. Check to make sure the microscopehas an easy-to-use adapter to attach the connectors of interest to the microscope.Pictured below are various connector end-face finishes.

And remember to check that no power is present in the cable before you look at it ina microscope protect your eyes!

Optical Power - Power or Loss? (“Absolute” vs. “Relative”)Practically every measurement in fiber optics refers to optical power. The poweroutput of a transmitter or the input to receiver are “absolute” optical powermeasurements, that is, you measure the actual value of the power. Loss is a“relative” power measurement, the difference between the power coupled into acomponent like a cable or a connector and the power that is transmitted through it.This difference is what we call optical loss and defines the performance of a cable,connector, splice, etc.

Example of a non-round core

Scratches due toincompletepolishing

Scratches dueto

contaminationof polishing

fil

Polishinggrit on core



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Measuring powerPower in a fiber optic system is like voltage in anelectrical circuit - it’s what makes things happen! It’simportant to have enough power, but not too much. Toolittle power and the receiver may not be able todistinguish the signal from noise; too much poweroverloads the receiver and causes errors too.

Measuring power requires only a power meter (mostcome with a screw-on adapter that matches theconnector being tested) and a little help from the networkelectronics to turn on the transmitter. Remember whenyou measure power, the meter must be set to the proper function (usually dBm,sometimes microwatts, but never “dB;” that’s a relative power range used only fortesting loss!) and the proper wavelengths matching the source being used. Refer tothe instructions that come with the test equipment for setup and measurementinstructions (and don’t wait until you get to the job site to try the equipment)!

To measure power, attach the meter to the cable that has the output you want tomeasure. That can be at the receiver to measure receiver power, or to a referencetest cable (tested and known to be good) that is attached to the transmitter, actingas the “source”, to measure transmitter power. Turn on the transmitter/source andnote the power the meter measures. Compare it to the specified power for thesystem and make sure it’s enough power but not too much.

Testing lossLoss testing is the difference between the power coupled into the cable at thetransmitter end and what comes out at the receiver end. Testing for loss requiresmeasuring the optical power lost in a cable (including connectors, splices, etc.) witha fiber optic source and power meter by mating the cable being tested to knowngood reference cable.

In addition to our power meter, we will need a test source. The test source shouldmatch the type of source, include VCSEL (vertical cavity surface emiting laser) andwavelength (850, 1300, 1550 nm). Again, read the instructions that come with theunit carefully.



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We also need one or two reference cables, depending on the test we wish toperform. The accuracy of the measurement we make will depend on the quality ofyour reference cables. Always test your reference cables by the single endedmethod shown below to make sure they’re good before you start testing othercables!

Next we need to set our reference power for loss of our “0 dB” value. Correct settingof the launch power is critical to making good loss measurements!

Clean your connectors and set up your equipment like this:

Turn on the source and select the wavelength youwant for the loss test. Turn on the meter, select the“dBm” or “dB” range and select the wavelength youwant for the loss test. Measure the power at the meter.This is your reference power level for all lossmeasurements. If your meter has a “zero” function, setthis as your “0” reference.

Some reference books and manuals show setting thereference power for loss using both a launch andreceive cable mated with a mating adapter. Thismethod is acceptable for some tests, but will reduce the loss you measure by theamount of loss between your reference cables when you set your “0dB loss”reference. Also, if either the launch or receive cable is bad, setting the referencewith both cables hides the fact. Then you could begin testing with bad launchcables making all your loss measurements wrong. EIA/TIA 568 calls for a singlecable reference, while OFSTP-14 allows either method.

Testing LossThere are two methods that are used to measure loss,which we call “single-ended loss” and “double-endedloss”. Single-ended loss uses only the launch cable,while double-ended loss uses a receive cable attachedto the meter also.

Single-ended loss is measured by mating the cable youwant to test to the reference launch cable andmeasuring the power out the far end with the meter.When you do this you measure one, the loss of theconnector mated to the launch cable and two, the loss ofany fiber, splices or other connectors in the cable you are testing. This method isdescribed in FOTP-171 and is shown in the drawing. Reverse the cable to test theconnector on the other end.



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In a double-ended loss test, you attach the cable totest between two reference cables, one attached tothe source and one to the meter. This way, youmeasure two connectors’ loses, one on each end,plus the loss of all the cable or cables in between.This is the method specified in OFSTP-14, the testfor loss in an installed cable plant.

What Loss Should You Get When Testing Cables?While it is difficult to generalize, here are some guidelines:

-For each connector, figure 0.5 dB loss (0.75 max)

-For each splice, figure 0.3 dB

-For multimode fiber, the loss is about 3 dB per km for 850 nm sources, 1 dB per kmfor 1300 nm. This roughly translates into a loss of 0.1 dB per 100 feet for 850 nm,0.1 dB per 300 feet for 1300 nm.

-For singlemode fiber, the loss is about 0.5 dB per km for 1300 nm sources, 0.4 dBper km for 1550 nm. This roughly translates into a loss of 0.1 dB per 600 feet for1300 nm, 0.1 dB per 750 feet for 1300 nm.

So for the loss of a cable plant, calculate the approximate loss as:

(0.5 dB X # connectors) + (0.2 dB x # splices) + fiber loss on the total length ofcable

Troubleshooting HintsIf you have high loss in a cable, make sure to reverse it and test in the oppositedirection using the single-ended method. Since the single ended test only tests theconnector on one end, you can isolate a bad connector - it’s the one at the launchcable end (mated to the launch cable) on the test when you measure high loss.

High loss in the double-ended test should be isolated by retesting single-endedand reversing the direction of test to see if the end connector is bad. If the loss isthe same, you need to either test each segment separately to isolate the badsegment or, if it is long enough, use an OTDR.

If you see no light through the cable (very high loss - only darkness when testedwith your visual tracer), it’s probably one of the connectors, and you have fewoptions. The best one is to isolate the problem cable. To try and determine whichconnector the fiber is broken at, use a laser visual fault finder at one side of thecable and slide the boot down from the opposite connector. If you see light leakingfrom the back of the connector, the fiber is broken. Re-terminate that connector. Ifthere is no light visible, switch the laser to the opposide side and check again. Ifthere is no light visible from either connector, the break is mid-span. UseTRACETEK to identfy the location of the break.



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OTDR TestingAs we mentioned earlier, OTDRs are always used on OSP cables to verify the lossof each splice. But they are also used as troubleshooting tools. Let’s look at how anOTDR works and see how it can help testing and troubleshooting.

TRACETEK vs. OTDR

OTDR Operating PrinciplesThe OTDR (Optical Time Domain Reflectometer) is a device that is able to “look” ata fiber optic cable and display a graphical representation of the events that occuron the cable. The basic concept is that a high-speed laser fires a precise pulse oflight into the fiber after which the device monitors the same fiber for reflections. Thetime between the launched pulse and reflected pulses is computed to represent thedistance to the events that caused the pulses. This gives the OTDR the ability to notonly measure the length of the fiber but also measure the distance to each event onthe fiber. This function allows the OTDR to be used as a trouble-shooting tool tofind breaks in the fiber and to identify the location of individual connectors andsplices.

The second feature of an OTDR is its ability to measure the tiny amounts of lightthat are reflected back by the fiber optic cable itself. This phenomenon is known asRayleigh scattering and is caused by light reflecting off of molecules in the glasswhose diameter is 1/10 the wavelength of the light. This is the same phenomenonthat makes the sky appear blue. When the OTDR is able to detect this these tinyreflections it can calculate the loss of the cable as well as the insertion loss ofconnectors and splices on the fiber cable. This technology does not come cheap, infact the high-sensitivity detector and the supporting electronics required to “see”these tiny reflections are responsible for most of the cost of the OTDR itself.

OTDR Block Diagram



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OTDR HistoryOTDRs were first used in long distance outside plant fiber optic installations suchas telecom or CATV to help document and troubleshoot fiber networks. The firstgenerations of OTDRs were massive, complex and very expensive. Most modelsrequired the use of a cart or dolly of some type to be moved, as they were heavyand bulky. These early machines didnot offer any of the automatic setupfeatures we are used to seeingtoday, meaning that the operator hadto have a very thoroughunderstanding of the operation of theequipment to properly configure it.Lastly, many of the first field-OTDRscost upward of $60,000 putting themout of reach of everyone except largeservice providers.

Today, OTDRs are smaller, less expensive and easier touse. But that still does not mean that the average installercan pick one up and begin using it. The technician still needs to understand thecomplex relationship between pulse width, dynamic range, acquisition time,Rayleigh scattering, and a myriad of other factors that determine what type ofpicture the technician will get from and OTDR. But nonetheless, the improvedfunctionality smaller size and lower cost have brought the OTDR into the realm ofshort-haul LANs. Whereas an OTDR was once only used to find problems in short-haul networks, they are now being used as documentation tools to help map outfiber links, showing the location of connections and precise length of each link.

The TRACETEK SolutionTRACETEK is able to provide most of the troubleshooting functions of an OTDR ata fraction of the cost with a simple, easy-to-use interface that requires almost notraining. Like and OTDR, TRACETEK fires a precise laser pulse into a fiber andmonitors the fiber for return pulses. This means that like an OTDR, TRACETEK canmeasure the overall length of a fiber, as well as measure the distance to reflectiveevents within the fiber. Unlike fiber test kits that also measure overall length,TRACETEK only needs to be connected to one side of the fiber to make itsmeasurements. Traditional fiber test kits need to either have hardware connectedat both ends of the fiber, or a loop-back cable installed at the far end to make itslength measurement. This means that two technicians are required to test thelength, or one technician can perform the test by walking back and forth to test eachstrand, taking twice as long to finish the job.

Typical OTDRTrace



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TRACETEK displays its measurement data in a graphical format similar to that ofan ODTR, with the X-axis representing the distance from the handset and the Y-axis displaying the relative reflection (Return Loss) of each event. TRACETEKinstantly displays the overall length to the end of the fiber and allows the operatorto scroll a cursor to find the distance to any event on the screen. This functionalityallows the operator to quickly measure overall fiber length, locate breaks in thefiber, locate individual reflective events, and check the relative reflection of eventsto identify defective connections.

Unlike an OTDR, TRACETEK is exceptionally easy to use. The only setup consistsof choosing from one of three operating modes (High, Medium, or Low Resolution).The lightweight module is small enough that it can be carried in the installers testequipment case making it available in any situation that requires fibertroubleshooting. Since TRACETEK does not measure fiber scattering it cannotmeasure the insertion loss of the link or individual connectors like an OTDR can.But at _ or less than the cost of a traditional OTDR, and with the most importanttrouble shooting features of an OTDR, TRACETEK is the best choice for impromptufiber troubleshooting tasks.

Key Elements of TRACETEK Display

1) Start pulse (first connector)

2) Reflective events

3) End of fiber (last connector or break

in cable)

4) Moveable Cursor

5) Total length of fiber

6) Cursor position

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Fiber Optic TrainingGetting More TrainingThis guide has been written to provide you with the basics, but you need to decidewhere to go from here. There are many options for further training but first you needto figure out what your career choice is.

If you want to work in engineering for a component manufacturer, you will need tolearn the theory behind the technology, so you will probably need to start withuniversity level classes in physics and add classes in electronics, optics and fiberoptics. If you want to design networks, you probably need a university education inelectronics and communications system design.

If you just want to understand the technology so you can design, install andmaintain cable plants and networks for LANS, CATV systems, utilities, etc. youneed to know very little about the theory itself, but lots about cables, connectorsand hardware and how cable plants are designed, installed and tested. Yourtraining should focus on practical knowledge and lots of hands-on exercises.

Whatever your interest, make sure the courses you take are appropriate for yourinterests or you’ll be wasting time and money. Here are some options to consider:

Seminars - can run from one day to two weeks and cost nothing to severalthousand dollars. Make sure any seminar you attend is focused on what aspect offiber optics you want to learn and has lots of hands-on exercises. Also rememberthat company-sponsored seminars can be narrowly focused on their products only.If you plan on using this equipment it can be a real deal!

Continuing Education - Technical schools are now offering cable installationcourses, usually one or two nights a week for ten to twelve sessions. The bigadvantage of these courses is the extra time involved, usually more than twice asmuch as would be available in a seminar. As a result, you get more time to askquestions, practice hands-on lessons seminars. And if classes are in the evening,you do not have to take days off work for class.

Self Study Programs - Some of us just learn better on our own. A well-organizedself-study program will help us learn new technologies like cable installation easilyand quickly. A self-study program needs to have explanatory text, assignments andprobably hands-on exercises to get the basic concepts across, and thenrecommendations for additional practicing to gain skills.

Good videos can help too, especially with hands-on topics like cable pulling andtermination. Some videos are more entertainment than teaching, and they aresometimes out of date, but they can be helpful nonetheless.

Don’t overlook online resources either. Lots of websites are chock-full of goodtechnical information for free!

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What Makes a Good Cable Installation Seminar or Course ?Classroom courses should give you a good back-ground on all the basics ofcabling and all the components that make up a cabling network. Any premisescabling course should include a session on structured cabling standards as itapplies to both fiber and copper cabling. Then in hands-on workshops, you shouldactually prepare cables, pull, terminate and test them. A good course offers lots ofhands-on time so you really learn how to handle cabling components.

How can you find a good course to take?First, talk to the manufacturers of the products you plan to use, since many offertraining and certification to their installers. Try to find out if any local schools areoffering continuing education programs on cable installation. The cabling andcontractor magazines all have calendars of training in every issue. That will tell youa lot about course offerings and schedules. Call some schools and ask for abrochure on their program and a current schedule. Also, get recommendationsfrom students that have taken courses or talk to instructors in related fields. Trainingcan be a big investment, so be thorough!

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Glossary Of Fiber Optic TermsHere’s an alphabetical glossary of common fiber optic terms.

AAbsorption: That portion of fiber optic attenuation resulting of conversion of opticalpower to heat.

Analog: Signals that are continually changing, as opposed to being digitallyencoded.

Attenuation Coefficient: Characteristic of the attenuation of an optical fiber per unitlength, in dB/km.

Attenuation: The reduction in optical power as it passes along a fiber, usuallyexpressed in decibels (dB). See optical loss.

Attenuator: A device that reduces signal power in a fiber optic link by inducingloss.

Average power: The average over time of a modulated signal.

BBack reflection, optical return loss: Light reflected from the cleaved or polishedend of a fiber caused by the difference of refractive indices of air and glass.Typically 4% of the incident light. Expressed in dB relative to incident power.

Backscattering: The scattering of light in a fiber back toward the source, used tomake OTDR measurements.

Bandwidth: The range of signal frequencies or bit rate within which a fiber opticcomponent, link or network will operate.

Bending loss, microbending loss: Loss in fiber caused by stress on the fiber bentaround a restrictive radius.

Bit-error rate (BER): The fraction of data bits transmitted that are received in error.

Bit: An electrical or optical pulse that carries information.

Buffer: A protective coating applied directly on the fiber.

CCable: One or more fibers enclosed in protective coverings and strength members.

Cable Plant, Fiber Optic: The combination of fiber optic cable sections, connectorsand splices forming the optical path between two terminal devices.

CATV: An abbreviation for Community Antenna Television or cable TV.

Chromatic dispersion: The temporal spreading of a pulse in an optical waveguidecaused by the wavelength dependence of the velocities of light.

Cladding: The lower refractive index optical coating over the core of the fiber that“traps” light into the core. This material is never stripped off the fiber.



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Connector: A device that provides for a demountable connection between twofibers or a fiber and an active device and provides protection for the fiber.

Core: The center of the optical fiber through which light is transmitted.

Coupler: An optical device that splits or combines light from more than one fiber.

Cutback method: A technique for measuring the loss of bare fiber by measuringthe optical power transmitted through a long length then cutting back to the sourceand measuring the initial coupled power.

Cutoff wavelength: The wavelength beyond which singlemode fiber only supportsone mode of propagation.

DdBm: Optical power referenced to 1 milliwatt.

Decibel (dB): A unit of measurement of optical power which indicates relativepower on a logarithmic scale, sometimes called dBr. dB=10 log ( power ratio)

Detector: A photodiode that converts optical signals to electrical signals.

Digital: Signals encoded into discrete bits.

Dispersion: The temporal spreading of a pulse in an optical waveguide. May becaused by modal or chromatic effects.

EEDFA: Erbium-doped fiber amplifier, an all optical amplifier for 1550 nm SMtransmission systems.

Edge-emitting diode (E-LED): A LED that emits from the edge of thesemiconductor chip, producing higher power and narrower spectral width.

End finish: The quality of the end surface of a fiber prepared for splicing orterminated in a connector.

Equilibrium modal distribution (EMD): Steady state modal distribution inmultimode fiber, achieved some distance from the source, where the relative powerin the modes becomes stable with increasing distance.

ESCON: IBM standard for connecting peripherals to a computer over fiber optics.Acronym for Enterprise System Connection.

Excess loss: The amount of light lost in a coupler, beyond that inherent in thesplitting to multiple output fibers.

FFiber Amplifier: an all-optical amplifier using erbium or other doped fibers andpump lasers to increase signal output power without electronic conversion.

Fiber Distributed Data Interface, FDDI: 100 Mb/s ring architecture data network.



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Ferrule: A precision tube that holds a fiber for alignment for interconnection ortermination. A ferrule may be part of a connector or mechanical splice.

Fiber continuity tester: An instrument that couples visible light into the fiber toallow visual checking of continuity and tracing for correct connections.

Fiber identifier: A device that clamps onto a fiber and couples light from the fiberby bending, to identify the fiber and detect high speed traffic of an operating link ora 2 kHz tone injected by a test source.

Fiber optics: Light transmission through flexible transmissive fibers forcommunications or lighting.

FO: Common abbreviation for “fiber optic.”

Fresnel reflection, back reflection, optical return loss: Light reflected from thecleaved or polished end of a fiber caused by the difference of refractive indices ofair and glass. Typically 4% of the incident light.

Fusion splicer: An instrument that splices fibers by fusing or welding them,typically by electrical arc.

GGraded index (GI): A type of multimode fiber that used a graded profile of refractiveindex in the core material to correct for dispersion.

IIndex of refraction: A measure of the speed of light in a material.

Index matching gel: A liquid used of refractive index similar to glass used to matchthe materials at the ends of two fibers to reduce loss and back reflection.

Index profile: The refractive index of a fiber as a function of cross section.

Insertion loss: The loss caused by the insertion of a component such as a splice orconnector in an optical fiber.

JJacket: The protective outer coating of the cable.

Jumper cable: A short single fiber cable with connectors on both ends used forinterconnecting other cables or testing.

LLaser diode, ILD: A semiconductor device that emits high powered, coherent lightwhen stimulated by an electrical current. Used in transmitters for singlemode fiberlinks.

Launch cable: A known good fiber optic jumper cable attached to a source andcalibrated for output power used as a reference cable for loss testing. This cablemust be made of fiber and connectors of a matching type to the cables to be tested.



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Light-emitting diode, LED: A semiconductor device that emits light whenstimulated by an electrical current. Used in transmitters for multimode fiber links.

Link, fiber optic: A combination of transmitter, receiver and fiber optic cableconnecting them capable of transmitting data. May be analog or digital.

Long wavelength: A commonly used term for light in the 1300 and 1550 nmranges.

Loss, Optical: The amount of optical power lost as light is transmitted through fiber,splices, couplers, etc.

Loss budget: The amount of power lost in the link. Often used in terms of themaximum amount of loss that can be tolerated by a given link.

MMargin: The additional amount of loss that can be tolerated in a link.

Mechanical splice: A semi-permanent connection between two fibers made withan alignment device and index matching fluid or adhesive.

Micron (um): A unit of measure, 10-6 um, used to measure wavelength of light.

Microscope, fiber optic inspection: A microscope used to inspect the end surfaceof a connector for flaws or contamination or a fiber for cleave quality.

Modal dispersion: The temporal spreading of a pulse in an optical waveguidecaused by modal effects.

Mode field diameter: A measure of the core size in singlemode fiber.

Mode filter: A device that removes optical power in higher order modes in fiber.

Mode scrambler: A device that mixes optical power in fiber to achieve equalpower distribution in all modes.

Mode stripper: A device that removes light in the cladding of an optical fiber.

Mode: A single electromagnetic field pattern that travels in fiber.

Multimode fiber: A fiber with core diameter much larger than the wavelength oflight transmitted that allows many modes of light to propagate. Commonly usedwith LED sources for lower speed, short distance links.

NNanometer (nm): A unit of measure, 10-9 m, used to measure the wavelength oflight.

Network: A system of cables, hardware and equipment used for communications.

Numerical aperture (NA): A measure of the light acceptance angle of the fiber.



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OOptical amplifier: A device that amplifies light without converting it to an electricalsignal.

Optical fiber: An optical waveguide, comprised of a light carrying core andcladding which traps light in the core.

Optical loss test set (OLTS): A measurement instrument for optical loss thatincludes both a meter and source.

Optical power: The amount of radiant energy per unit time, expressed in linearunits of Watts or on a logarithmic scale, in dBm (where 0 dB = 1 mW) or dB* (where0 dB*=1 microWatt).

Optical return loss, back reflection: Light reflected from the cleaved or polishedend of a fiber caused by the difference of refractive indices of air and glass.Typically 4% of the incident light. Expressed in dB relative to incident power.

Optical switch: A device that routes an optical signal from one or more input portsto one or more output ports.

Optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR): An instrument that uses back-scattered light to find faults in optical fiber and infer loss.

Overfilled launch: A condition for launching light into the fiber where the incominglight has a spot size and NA larger than accepted by the fiber, filling all modes inthe fiber.

PPhotodiode: A semiconductor that converts light to an electrical signal, used infiber optic receivers.

Pigtail: A short length of fiber attached to a fiber optic component such as a laser orcoupler.

Plastic optical fiber (POF): An optical fiber made of plastic.

Plastic-clad silica (PCS) fiber: A fiber made with a glass core and plastic cladding.

Power budget: The difference (in dB) between the transmitted optical power (indBm) and the receiver sensitivity (in dBm).

Power meter, fiber optic: An instrument that measures optical power emanatingform the end of a fiber.

Preform: The large diameter glass rod from which fiber is drawn.

RReceive cable: A known good fiber optic jumper cable attached to a power meterused as a reference cable for loss testing. This cable must be made of fiber andconnectors of a matching type to the cables to be tested.



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Receiver: A device containing a photodiode and signal conditioning circuitry thatconverts light to an electrical signal in fiber optic links.

Refractive index: A property of optical materials that relates to the velocity of lightin the material.

Repeater, regenerator: A device that receives a fiber optic signal and regeneratesit for retransmission, used in very long fiber optic links.

SScattering: The change of direction of light after striking small particles that causesloss in optical fibers.

Short wavelength: A commonly used term for light in the 665, 790, and 850 nmranges.

Singlemode fiber: A fiber with a small core, only a few times the wavelength of lighttransmitted, that only allows one mode of light to propagate. Commonly used withlaser sources for high speed, long distance links.

Source: A laser diode or LED used to inject an optical signal into fiber.

Splice (fusion or mechanical): A device that provides for a connection betweentwo fibers, typically intended to be permanent.

Splitting ratio: The distribution of power among the output fibers of a coupler.

Steady state modal distribution: Equilibrium modal distribution (EMD) inmultimode fiber, achieved some distance from the source, where the relative powerin the modes becomes stable with increasing distance.

Step index fiber: A multimode fiber where the core is all the same index ofrefraction.

Surface emitter LED: A LED that emits light perpendicular to the semiconductorchip. Most LEDs used in datacommunications are surface emitters.

TTalkset, fiber optic: A communication device that allows conversation overunused fibers.

Termination: Preparation of the end of a fiber to allow connection to another fiberor an active device, sometimes also called “connectorization”.

Test cable: A short single fiber jumper cable with connectors on both ends usedfor testing. This cable must be made of fiber and connectors of a matching type tothe cables to be tested.

Test kit: A kit of fiber optic instruments, typically including a power meter, sourceand test accessories used for measuring loss and power.

Test source: A laser diode or LED used to inject an optical signal into fiber fortesting loss of the fiber or other components.



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Total internal reflection: Confinement of light into the core of a fiber by thereflection off the core-cladding boundary.

Transmitter: A device that includes an LED or laser source and signalconditioning electronics that is used to inject a signal into fiber.

VVCSEL: vertical cavity surface emitting laser, a type of laser that emits lightvertically out of the chip, not out the edge.

Visual fault locator: A device that couples visible light into the fiber to allow visualtracing and testing of continuity. Some are bright enough to allow finding breaks infiber through the cable jacket.

WWatts: A linear measure of optical power, usually expressed in milliwatts (mW),microwatts (*W) or nanowatts (nW).

Wavelength: A measure of the color of light, usually expressed in nanometers (nm)or microns (*m).

Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM): A technique of sending signals ofseveral different wavelengths of light into the fiber simultaneously.

Working margin: The difference (in dB) between the power budget and the lossbudget (i.e. the excess power margin).

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