Planning and Design

he

IGHTH EDITION

ical

aul D. Leedy Late ofAmerican University

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod University of Northern Colorado (Emerita)

University of New Hampshire

PEARSON

Merrill Prentice Hall

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Columbus, Ohio

BRIEF NT

PART I THE FUNDAMENTALS

CHAPTER 1 What Is Research? 1

CHAPTER 2 Tools of Research 12

PART 11 FOCUSING YOUR RESEARCH EFFORTS

CH A PT E R 3 The Problem: The Heart of the Research Process 43

CHAPTER 4 Review of the Related Literature .64

CHAPTER 5 Planning Your Research Project . .85

CHAPTER 6 Writing the Research Proposal 115

PART 111 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

CHAPTER 7 Qualitative Research .133

C H A PTE R 8 Historical Research .161

PART IV QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

CHAPTER 9 Descriptive Research . .179

CHAPTER 1 0 Experimental and Ex Post Facto Designs .217

CHAPTER 1 1 Statistical Techniques for Analyzing Quantitative Data . . . .245

PART V PREPARING THE RESEARCH REPORT

CHAPTER 12 Technical Details: Style, Format, and Organization of the Research Report 282

ApPENDIX: USING SPSS 303

REFERENCES 309

INDEX 313

ix

co ENT

INTRODUCTION xxi

PART I THE FUNDAMENTALS

CHAPTER 1

WHAT Is RESEARCH? 1

What Research Is Not 1

What Research Is 2

Discovering the Discipline of Research 7

1,/ Browsing the Periodicals Section ofthe Library 8 IJSlN6 Findingjournals on the Internet 8TEcHI\IIJLD6V

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Evaluating the Research ofOthers 9

CHECKLIST: Refleetive Questions to Consider When Evaluating Research 9

GUIDELINES: Benefiting from Others' Research 10

For Further Reading 11

CHAPTER 2

TOOlS OF RESEARCH .....................12

General Tools of Research 12

The Library and Its Resources as a Tool of Research 13

The Library of the Quiet Past 13

The Library of the Stormy Present 14

.~ How to Access Information Quickly and Efficiently 14 ~\(",) IJSlN6 The Computer and Its Software as a Tool of Research 17TECHI\IDLIJ6V

Taking Advantage of the Internet 17

Accessing the Internet 19

Learning More About the Internet 19

XI

Contentsxii

~ :;\U U!l11\I6 TEI:HNDLD6Y

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Using the Inrernet co Facilitate Communication

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Using E-mail 20

20

-< G UIDELI NES: Writing to Communicate 36 U!iINIi

TEa:itNDLOIiY

GUIDELINES: Getting Started on E-mail 21

Measurement as a Tool of Research 21

Measuring Insubstantial Phenomena: All Example 22

Interpretation 01 the Data 24

Four Seales 01 Measurement 25

Validity and Reliability 01 Measurement 27

Statistics as a Tool of Research 29

The Lure 01 Statisties 30

Primary Funetions olStatisties 30

The Human Mind as a Tool of Research 31

Deduetive Logie 3]

Indlletive Reasoning 32

The Seientifie Method 33

Critieal Thinking 33

Collaboration with Others 34

Language as a Tool of Research 34

The Value 01 Knowing Two ar More Languages 35

The Impartanee olWriting 36

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Communicating Effectively Through Writing 36

GUIDELINES: Using a Word Processor 38

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Idenrifying Imporranr Tools in Your Discipline 40

CHECKLIST: Ioterviewing an Expert Researcher 40

Reflecrions on Significanr Research 41

For Further Reading 41

PART 11 FOCUSING YOUR RESEARCH EFFORTS

CHAPTER 3

THE PROBLEM: THE HEART OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS .. . 43

Finding Research Projecrs 43

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Idenrifying and Describing the Research Problem 45

Sttbpl'oblems Versus PseudoSubproblems 5 ]

Charaeteristies 01 Subproblems 5]

GUIDELINES: Finding a Legitimate Problem 45

GUIDELINES: Stating the Research Problem 47

CHECKLIST: Evaluating the Research Problem 50

Dividing the Research Problem ioto Subproblems 51

Contents xiii

Identilying SubproblenlJ 52o ~~ lJ!iIN6 Every Problem Needs Further Delineation 54 TEQtNDLDIiY

Stating the Hypotheses and/or Research Questions 54

Delimiting the Research 55

Defining the Terms 55

Stating the Assumptions 56

Importance 01 the Study 57

Ordering the Topics in a Research Proposal 57

A Sampie Research Proposal 57

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Writing the First Seetions of a Proposal 60

CHECKLIST: Evaluating Your Proposed Research Projeet 60

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Reappraising a Proposed Research Problem 62

GUIDELINES: Fine-Tuning Your Research Problem 62

For Further Reading 63

CHAPTER 4

REVIEW OF THE RElATED LITERATURE 64

2..;;,. ~~ LJ§11\l6 TECHNDLDIiY

/. Using Online Databases 67

lJ!iIN6 TEettNDLD6Y

2..0 Organizing the Information You Have Colleeted 75 ::'0 LJ§Il\lG TECHNDLD6Y

Understanding the Role of the Review 64

Sources and Strategies for Locaring Related Literature 65 Using the Library Catalog 65

Using Indexes, Abstracts, and Other General Relerences 66

Additional Strategies lor Zeroirlg in on Relevant Literature 69

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Conducting a Literature Search 71

GUIDELINES: Using Your Library Time Efficiently 72

Creating Computer Databases 75

Knowing When to Quit 76

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Beginning Your Review of the Related

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Writing the Seetion on the Related

Literature 76

Evaluating, Organizing, and Synthesizing the Literature 77

Literature 79

GUIDELINES: Writing a Clear and Cohesive Review 79

A Sampie Research Proposal 81

For Further Reading 84

CHAPTER 5

PlANNINC YOUR RESEARCH PROJECT 85 Planning a General Approach 85

The Basic Format 01 AI! Research 85

Research Planning VersttS Research Methodology 87

General Criteria lor a Research Pro}ect 88

Contentsxiv

The Nature and Role of Data in Research 88

What Are Data? 88

Data Are Transimt and Ever Changi17g 89

Primary Data Versus Secondary Data 89

Criteria for the Admissibility of Data 91

Identifying Appropriate Measurement Instruments 91

Linking Data and Research Methodology 93

Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches 94

Considering the Validity of Your Method 97

InternaI Validity 97

External Validity 99

Validity in Qualitative Research 100

Ethical 1ssues in Research 101

Protection from Harm 101

Informed Consent 101

Right to Privacy 102

Horzesty with Professional Co//eagues 102

InternaI Review Boards 102

Professional Codes ofEthics 104

Planning for Data Collection 104

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Choosing a Research Approach 105

GUIDELINES: Deciding Whether to Use a Quantitative or Qualitative Approach 105

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: ]udging the Feasibility of a Research Projecr 107

CHECKLIST: Determining Whether a Proposed Research Projecr 1s Realistic and Practical 107

When You Can't Anticipate Everything in Advance: The Value of a Pilot Study 110

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Establishing Research Criteria and ]ustifying Your Research Methodology 110

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Developing a Plan of Attack 1112:.~ ~CO LJ51N6 Using Project Memagernent Software emd Electronic Planners 113TECHI\lOLOIi'V

Keeping an Optimistic and Task-Oriented Outlook 113

For Further Reading 113

CHAPTER 6

WRITING THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL 11 5

Researcher and Archi tect: Planners in Common 115

Characteristics of a Proposal 116

A Proposalls a Straightforward Domment 117

A Proposal 1J Not a Literary Production 117

A Proposalls C/ear/y Organized 117

Organizing a Research Proposal 119

Forrnatting Headings and Subheadings 120

Con te nts xv

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Wriring Your Proposal 121

GUIDELINES: Wriring rhe Firsr Drafr 121

GUIDELINES: Revising Your Proposal 124

Common Weaknesses in Research Proposals 126

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Srrengthening Your Proposal 127

CHECKLIST: Featutes Detraeting from Proposal Effectiveness 127

Final Thoughts About Proposal Writing 128

A Sampie Research Proposal 129

For Further Reading 132

PART 111 QUALITATIVE RES EARCH M ETHODOLOG I ES

CHAPTER 7

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 133

The Nature of the Research Problem and Planning in Qualitative Research 134

When to Choose a QuaLitative Approach 134

Qualitative Research Designs 135

Case Study 135

Ethnography 137

PhenomenoLogicaL Study 139

GroundedTheoryStudy 140

Content AnaLysis 142

Collecting Data in Qualitative Reseatch 143

SampLing 144

Observations 145

lntel'views 146

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Conducting Interviews in a Qualitative Scudy 146

u. GUIDELINES: Condueting a Produetive Interview 147 . U!ill\l& Using TechnoLogy to PaciLitate Data CoLLection and Transcripti011 149TEI:HI\IOLD&Y

Organizing and Analyzing the Data from Qualitative Scudies 150o ~~U!ill\l& Using Computer Databases to PaciLitate Data Organization and lntelpretation 151 TEI:HI\IDLD6Y

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning a Qualitative Scudy 152

CHECKLIST: Planning a Qualitative Scudy 152

Ctiteria for Evaluating Qualitative Research 154

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Evaluating a Qualitative Scudy 155

C HECKLI ST: Evaluating Qualitative Reseatch Scudies 155

A Sampie Dissertation 156

For Further Reading 160

XVI Contents

CHAPTER 8

161H ISTORICAL RESEARCH

Data SOUtces in Historical Research 162

_~, Colleeting Historical Records 165 -:;:.'U U!i11\l6

TEl:HI\IDLDIiY Onlim Databases Abottt Historical El/ents ] 65

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Handling Historical Data Systematically 166

_C~ A Paper­and-Pencil Approach ]66-:;:.Q:.) U!i11\l6 TECHI\IOLDIiY A Compttterized Approach to Colleetinf!. emd Organizing Your Data ]66

Internal Evidence ] 67

Historical Time ] 69

Evaluating and Interpreting Historical Data 167

External Evidence ] 67

Considering Historical Time and Historical Space 168

Historical Space 170

Psychological or Conceptual Historical Research 172

The Fascination of Searching for Roots 172

PRACTICAL APPLICATIOf\I: Historical Research Writing 172

CHECKLIST: Comparing Two Records of a Significant Event in History 173

GUIDELINES: Writing the Historical Research Report 174

A Sampie Dissertation 174

For Further Reading 177

PART IV QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

CHAPTER 9

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH ............... .. 179

Descriptive Research Designs 179

Correlational Research ]80

Developmental Desigm ]82

Survey Research ] 83

An Example in Ittternational Relations ]88

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Constructing and Administering a

Observation Studies ] 79

Using Checklists and Rating Scales 185

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning and Conducting Interviews 187

GUIDELINES: Conducting Interviews in a Quantitative Study 187

Questionnaire 190

GUIDELINES: Constructing a Questionnaire 190

GUIDELINES: Maximizing YOUt Return Rate for a Mailed Questionnaire 192 "/

Using DatabaseJ, Word ProceJJing, and Mail Merge in Developing Questionnaire:::~ USI1\I6 TECHIIIDLD6Y Materials ] 96

Contents xvii

Using Scanners to Faci/itate Data Tablllation 197 v

::1(.) U§11\I6 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Computerizing Data Colleccion in Descriptive Research 197

Choosing a Sample in a Descriptive Study 198

TECHI\IOL06Y

Sampling Designs 199

Sampling in Surve)'s ofVery Large Populations 206

Identifying a SlIfficient Sampie Size 207

Bias in Research Sampling 208

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Population Analysis for a Descriptive Survey 210

CHECKLIST: Analyzing a Population 211

Interpreting Data in Descriptive Research 212

Some Final Suggestions 212

A SampIe Dissertation 212

For Further Reading 216

CHAPTER 10

EXPERIMENTAL AND Ex POST FACTa DESIGNS 217

Independent and Dependent Variables 218

The Importance ofControl 219

Overview of Experimental and Ex POSt Facro Designs 222

Pre-Experimental Designs 223

Design 1: One-Shot Experimental Case Study 223

Design 2: One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design 224

Design 3: Static GrQ1.fp Comparison 224

True Experimental Designs 225

Design 4: Pretest-Posttest Control Grotlp Design 225

Design 5: Solomon Four-Grotlp Design 225

Design 6: POStlest-Onl)' Control Group Design 226

Design 7: W/ithin-Subjects Design 226

Quasi-Experimental Designs 227

Design 8: Nonrandomized Control G1'OUP Pretest-Posttest Design 227

Design 9: Simple Time-Series Design 228

Design 10: Control Grollp, Time-Series Design 228

Design 11: Reversal Time-Series Design 229

Design 12: Alternating Treatment Design 229

Design 13: Multiple Base/ine Design 229

Using Designs 11, 12, and 13 in Single-Subject Studies 231

Ex Post Facro Designs 232

Design 14: Simple Ex Post Facto Design 232

Facrorial Designs 233

Design 15: Randomized Two-Factor Design 233

Design 16: Combined Experimental and Ex Post Faeto Design 233

Meta-Analyses 238

xviii Contents

c.~ Condueting Experimenrs on rhe Inrerner 239

Tesring Your Hyporheses, and Beyond 239~US11\I6 TEl:HI\IOL06Y

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Idenrifying Research Designs 239

A Sampie Disserration 240

For Furrher Reading 244

CHAPTER 11

STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR ANALYZINC

QUANTITATIVE DATA 245 Exploring and Organizing a Data Set 245

Organizing Data to Make The7ll Easier to Think About and Interpret 248b7;<0 LJ!!i11\l6 Using Computer SpreadJheets to Organize and Analyze Data 249TEl:HI\IOLOliY

Choosing Appropriate Statistics 251

Functions ofStatistics 252

Considering the Nature of the Data 253

Descriptive Statistics 257

Points ofCentral Tendency 257

Measures ofVariability: Dispersion and Deviation 261

Meamres of Relationship: Correlation 265

Inferenrial Statistics 267

Estimatillg PojN.lation Parameters 267

Testing Hypotheses 270

v. Meta-Analysis 273 ':;;"'-1 USI1\I6 Using Statistical Software Packages 275TEl:HI\IOL06Y

Inrerpreting the Data 276

A Sampie Disserration 277

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Analyzing Data in a Quanritative Srudy 279

CHECKLIST: Questions co Consider When Choosing a Statistical Procedure 280

For Furrher Reading 281

PART V PREPARINC THE RESEARCH REPORT

CHAPTER 12

TECHNICAL DETAILS: STYLE, FORMAT, AND ORCANIZATION

OF THE RESEARCH REPORT 282 ;/'. Gerring Starred 282

~'U U!il1\I6 "Surfing" the Internet for Writing Assistance 283TEOII\IOUJGY

Learn by Looking 283

Planning a Research Reporr 284

Descriptiort of the Research Problenz 284

Description of the Method 285

Contents xix

Presentation of the Data 285

Interpretation of the Data 286

Concluding the Report 287

AGraphie Organizer for the Research Report 288

Front Matter and End Matter 289

Pre!iminary Pages 289

Endnotes and Footnotes 290

Reference List 290

2..~';.0 U§II\I& TEl:HI\IOL06Y

,. Appendix Content 292 i)

Organizing the Research Report 292

Preparing the Report 295

Style of Prose 295

Principles of Writing 295

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Developing a Writing Schedule 296

GUIDELIN ES: Developing a Workable Schedule 297

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Critiquing a Research Report 298

CHECKLIST: Criteria for Critiquing a Research Report 298

Beyond the Unpublished Research Report: Presenting and Publishing 300

Paper Presentations 300

Journal Articles 300

Sharing Authorship 301

A Closing Thought 301

For Further Reading 301

Appendix Using SPSS

Creating a Data Set 303

Computing Basic Descriptive Statistics 305

Computing Inferential Statistics 306

References 309

Index 313

NOTE: Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internet information in this book. However, the Internet and information pos ted on it are constantly changing, so it is inevitable that some of the Internet addresses listed in this textbook will change.