human growth and development chapter twelve the school years: cognitive development powerpoints...
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Human Growth and
Development
Chapter Twelve The School Years:
Cognitive DevelopmentPowerPoints prepared by Cathie Robertson, Grossmont CollegeRevised by Jenni Fauchier, Metropolitan Community College
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Building on Piaget and Vygotsky
• Concrete Operational Thought– Piaget’s 3rd stage– children reason logically about the
things and events that they perceive• Vygotsky did not believe the child was a
socially isolated learner– instruction by others is crucial
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Logical Principles
• Classification• Identity• Reversibility• Reciprocity
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• Classifying Objects, Ideas, and People– Classification—process of organizing things
into groups according to some shared property
– Children have an understanding categories can be any of the following:•hierarchical•overlapping•separate
– Children that can categorize can analyze problems, derive correct solutions, and ask follow-up questions
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• Identity, Reversibility, and Reciprocity – identity—the idea that certain characteristics of an
object remain the same even if other characteristics change
– reversibility—the idea that sometimes an object that has been changed can be returned to its original state by reversing the process by which it was changed
– Reciprocity occurs when 2 things change in opposite ways in order to balance each other out; e.g., conservation experiment with liquid
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• Identity, Reversibility, and Reciprocity– all three concepts are relevant to
mathematical processes– these concepts can be (but are
not always) applied to everyday social encounters
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Logic and Culture
• Piaget’s ideas still remain logical– research shows that sometimes
older children may make mistakes when applying new logic
• Vygotsky’s premise is that, added to Piaget’s ideas, the social cultural context of learning is important
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• Most research in U.S. and England– but in Brazil, research has shown
that street children who do not attend school can still think in complex ways, and that a special relationship exists between thinking and experience
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• Focus is on Kohlberg’s theory– built on Piaget’s theory and
research, theory describes moral developmental stages
Moral Development
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Kohlberg’s Stages
• Kohlberg studied responses of subjects presented with ethical dilemmas to see – how a person reasons determine
stage of moral development
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Kohlberg’s Stages, cont.
• Kohlberg found 3 levels of moral reasoning
• I. Preconventional: Middle Childhood– these first 2 stages of moral
thinking relate to preoperational thought, in being egocentric •emphasis on getting rewards and avoiding punishment
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• II. Conventional: End of Middle Childhood, Beginning of Adolescence
- these 2 stages relate to concrete operational thought, in referencing observable practices in community
•emphasis on social rules
Kohlberg’s Stages, cont.
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• III. Postconventional : Adolescence and Adulthood
– these 2 stages similar to formal or postformal thought, which includes ideas and ideals
•emphasis on moral principles
Kohlberg’s Stages, cont.
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Kolhberg’s Critics• Kohlberg’s basic scheme has been
replicated, but his ideas have been widely criticized
• Three Major Criticisms – flawed research methods
– hierarchy biased in favor of Western elite
– moral development of women ignored
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Kohlberg’s Critics, cont.
• Criticism 1: Methodology: To avoid Kohlberg’s cumbersome methodology, James Rest devised Defining Issues Test (DTI)— a questionnaire that measures moral thinking by asking people to read various dilemmas and then rank 12 statements as possible resolutions for each statement - DIT confirms validity of Kohlberg’s three levels
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• Criticism 2: Cultural Differences- research suggests that in non-Western
cultures, preeminent values are different from western ones, making it harder for non-Westerners to score at Kolberg’s preconventional level
- research suggests that Kohlberg’s hierarchy may underestimate reasoning capacity of some school-age children in some cultures
Kohlberg’s Critics, cont.
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Kohlberg’s Critics, cont.
• Criticism 3: Gender Issues• Carol Gilligan (1982)
– females develop more of a morality of care—a reluctance to judge right and wrong in absolute terms because they are socialized to be nurturant, compassionate, nonjudgmental
– males develop more of a morality of justice—a tendency to emphasize justice over compassion, judging right and wrong in absolute terms
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• Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories in relation to moral development– both recognize ages 7 to 11 are time
for moral growth– children eager to develop moral
values in stages (Kohlberg, inspired by Piaget)
– or in response to cultural norms (Vygotsky and Gilligan)
Information Processing
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Information Processing
• Information Processing Theory- processes by which the mind
•analyses•stores•retrieves
• Mind is like a computer- capacity can be upgraded with
development
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• Sensory memory aka sensory register—stores incoming stimulus for split second then sends it on– sensations become perceptions
• Working (short-term) memory—where your current, conscious mental activity occurs
• Long-term memory—stores information for minutes, hours, days, months, years
Memory
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• Older children are quicker thinkers than younger children
• Thinking speed continues to increase throughout adolescence
• Automatization helps free up thoughts for speed of processing
Speed of Processing
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• Knowledge base—broad body of knowledge in a particular subject area that makes it easier to master new learning in that area
• Connections between bits of information improve as the knowledge base expands
Knowledge Base
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• Control processes—regulate the analysis and flow of information within the system– helped by maturation of
prefrontal cortex
Control Processes
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• Selective attention—ability to concentrate on relevant information and disregard distractions
• Memory and thought depend on this ability- focusing on what needs to be
remembered• Improved control
– emotional regulation shows it
Selective Attention
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• “Thinking about one’s thoughts”
• Older children approach cognitive tasks more strategically and analytically
Metacognition
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The Pragmatics of Language
• Pragmatics—using language fluently in many types of situations; from play through school years, distinguished by– logic– memory– ability to make connections between
one bit of knowledge and another
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Teaching and Learning
• Worldwide, many ideological debates swirl around the content and practice of elementary education
• A review of practices in 5 cultures found
– discrepancy between “expressed claim and observed reality”
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Which Curriculum?
• Intended curriculum—content political and educational leaders decide to endorse
• Implemented curriculum—what teachers and school administrators actually offer
• Attained curriculum—what students actually learn
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• Hidden curriculum—unspoken and often unrecognized lessons children learn in school
– organization and schedule arise from hidden curriculum
•e.g., classroom size
Which Curriculum, cont.
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• Phonics• Whole language• “Reading Wars”—clashes over
these two methods of teaching children to read
The Reading Wars
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• Phonics approach—teaching reading by requiring children to learn the sounds of each letter before they begin to decipher simple words
Phonics Versus Whole Language
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• Whole-language approach—teaching reading by encouraging children to develop all their language skills— talking and listening, reading and writing—all with the goal of communication
Phonics Versus Whole Language, cont.
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The Socioeconomic Divide• Language development, reading
attainment correlate with socioeconomic status– the lower the family income, the less developed a
child’s vocabulary and grammar
• Crucial factor seems to be actual exposure to language (children exposed to language at home will have larger vocabularies)
• vocabulary size the best predictor of school achievement and overall intelligence
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• Math and science are key areas in which children should be ready for the challenges of the future
– gains in U.S. have faded
• Traditionally taught through rote learning
– children came to hate math taught this way
The Math Wars
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• New curriculum developed that teaches
– concepts, problem solving, estimating, and probability
– this approach may be working
•proportion of 4th graders who were “proficient” doubled (26%)
The Math Wars, cont.
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The Math Wars, cont.
• Technology is another area of controversy
– Specifically, computers
– digital divide—gap between rich and poor in computer access
– students in U. S. twice as likely to use computers in math and science than students in other nations . . . but our math and science scores relatively low
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• Learning a 2nd language
– best time to be taught it is in middle childhood
Bilingual Education
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• Total immersion—approach that teaches a second language in which instruction occurs entirely in that language and the learner’s language is not used at all
Various Approaches
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• Success or failure in 2nd language learning seems to lie in the attitude of– teachers– parents– the larger community
• Additive bilingualism—both languages valued and used
• Semilingual—neither language learned well
Attitudes and Achievement