Talanta 51 (2000) 1125–1147

How to succeed in analytical chemistry: a bibliography ofresources from the literature

Charles A. Lucy *Department of Chemistry, Uni6ersity of Alberta, Edmonton, Alta, Canada T6G 2G2

Received 30 July 1999; received in revised form 9 December 1999; accepted 13 December 1999

Abstract

Technical excellence is necessary to succeed in a career in analytical chemistry. However there are many other skillsnecessary for success for which analysts receive no formal training. Talanta has had a tradition of publishing articleson practical aspects of our profession, such as how to write a paper in spectrophotometry or on ion selectiveelectrodes. This article culls the literature for advice on how to purchase equipment, how (and when) to write amanuscript, how to review an article, how to give oral, poster and computer presentations, and how to get a job inanalytical chemistry. © 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Analytical chemistry; Bibliography; Literature; Career

www.elsevier.com/locate/talanta

1. Introduction

Probably the best place to start a discussion ofhow to succeed in analytical chemistry is to de-scribe what analytical chemistry is. However, thisis not an easy task. The late Professor Charles N.Reilley of the University of North Carolina atChapel Hill glibbly stated that [1,2]:

Analytical chemistry is what analytical chemistsdo.

A more detailed definition is provided by theDivision of Analytical Chemistry of the AmericanChemical Society [3]:

Analytical Chemistry seeks e6er impro6ed meansof measuring the chemical composition of naturaland artificial materials. The techniques of thisscience are used to identify the substances whichmay be present in a material and to determinethe exact amounts of the identified substances.

They then go on to define the duties of ananalytical chemist as:

Analytical chemists work to impro6e the reliabil-ity of existing techniques to meet the demandsfor better chemical measurements which ariseconstantly in our society. They adapt pro6enmethodologies to new kinds of materials or toanswer new questions about their composition.

* Corresponding author. Fax: +1-780-4928231.E-mail address: charles.lucy@ualberta.ca (C.A. Lucy)

0039-9140/00/$ - see front matter © 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

PII: S0 039 -9140 (00 )00284 -8

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They carry out research to disco6er completelynew principles of measurement and are at theforefront of the utilization of major disco6eriessuch as lasers and microchip de6ices for practicalpurposes. They make important contributions tomany other fields as di6erse as forensic chem-istry, archaeology, and space science.

Finally, in 1992 the Federation of EuropeanChemical Societies held a paper competition todefine ‘what is analytical chemistry?’. The winningentry by K. Cammann of the University of Mun-ster (Germany) stated [4]:

Analytical Chemistry pro6ides the methods andtools needed for insight into our materialworld…The Analytical Chemist is specialized inpro6iding reliable tools for answering four basicquestions about a material sample: What?Where? How much? What arrangement, struc-ture or form?

Regardless of the precise definition, it is obvi-ous that analytical chemistry is a wide-rangingand interdisciplinary subject, such as is reflectedin each issue of Talanta. As such, it is difficult forany one individual to possess all, or even most, ofthe skills necessary to succeed in this field. Giventhis, it is not surprising that basic skills necessaryto a career in analytical chemistry, as opposed tothe science of analytical chemistry, are oftenoverlooked.

In the 1970’s a series of landmark papers werepublished in Talanta. These papers did not reportnovel and significant advances in analytical chem-istry. Rather they discussed what informationshould be included in a manuscript describing anew spectrophotometric, gravimetric, or titrimet-ric method. As such they were unique within theanalytical chemistry literature. Essentially all ofthe scholarly literature in analytical chemistry de-scribes the science and application of analyticalchemistry. Little discussion is devoted to practicalissues such as what career opportunities exist foranalytical chemists, how to communicate yourresults, or how to purchase an instrument. Yet

these issues are critical to the success of everyanalytical chemist’s career.

The objective of this paper is to provide alisting of the information and advice relevant toanalytical chemists which exists in the literature.The purpose is not to exhaustively detail thisadvice, but rather to bring these resources to theattention of the reader so that they may make useof them. It is also hoped that this article willcatalyze a revival of Talanta’s publication of pro-fessional aspects of analytical chemistry.

2. A career in analytical chemistry

2.1. Ad6ice for scientists in general

There are a number of books that providepractical advice about how to succeed in a careerin science [5–8]. These are summarized in Table 1.The briefest of these books, and in many ways themost readable, is ‘A Ph.D. is Not Enough’ byPeter J. Feibelman [7]. The philosophy of thisbook is best summarized by the quotation in thelast chapter: ‘‘Experience is the best teacher (butonly when the experience isn’t fatal)’’. The bookcovers topics primarily of interest to individualsstarting their careers in science.

A more cynical and calculating book of advicefor a career in science is Carl J. Sindermann’s‘Winning the Games Scientists Play’ [5]. Thisbook answers the most essential questions forsuccess. A subsequent book by Sindermann is‘Survival Strategies for New Scientists’ [6]. Thisbook is aimed at the younger scientist. Indeed,W.S. Lyon of the Analytical Chemistry Divisionof Oak Ridge National Laboratory states that thisbook

…should be required reading for graduate stu-dents and young professionals who aspire to par-take successfully in The Joy of Science.

There are also a number of Web sites devotedto issues related to success in a career in science.These include Science’s Next Wave from theAmerican Association for the Advancement of

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Table 1Practical advice on a career in science

A Ph.D. is Not Enough [7]How to choose a thesis advisor and a post-doctoral

position.How to give talks.How to write papers (‘Publishing without perishing’).A comparison of the merits of jobs in academia, industry,

and government laboratories.What happens in a job interview and what you may be

asked.How to prepare a successful grant proposal.How to establish a successful research program.

Winning the Games Scientists Play [5]How to overcome bureaucracy and bureaucrats.How to get on the fast track.How to organize a meeting and attract top people.How to publish papers.How to act at a meeting.How to get and use power.How to review a paper.How to write a review.How to prepare a talk.How to organize a symposium or conference.

Sur6i6al Strategies for New Scientists [6]What happens at conferences.Issues to consider in choosing a thesis supervisor.Issues associated with recruitment.How to prepare notes for a lecture.What are the characteristics of the scientific workplace.What is the appropriate etiquette for a junior scientist.

Getting What You Came For [12]Do you need to go?Choosing a School: The Thesis Adviser and Secondary

Aspects.Application and Admission.Master’s and Doctorate: The HurdlesManaging YourselfChoosing and Managing Your Thesis CommitteeThe ThesisDealing with Stress and DepressionBringing It All Together: The Job

To Boldly Go [8]Career planning.How to explore the job market.How to network.Review of books on careers in science (including those

above).Listing of Web sites (some of which are listed below)

which advertise jobs and give practical advice for thejob search.

CV versus resume, there is a difference.How to construct your resume to be scanneda.Case studies of how to tailor one’s resume for a particular

job application.

Table 1 (Continued)

The interview.How to negotiate an offer.

Science’s Next Wa6e [9]Career transitions.Alternative science careers.Career and job-hunting news.Family and career issues.Women in science.Science’s big debates.

a Many larger companies and agencies will scan resumes,and then use computer programs to search for desirableemployees.

Science [9], the Career Planning Center sponsoredby the National Academy of Sciences [10], andChemCenter of the American Society of Chem-istry [11]. Science’s Next Wave is a weekly onlinepublication that covers scientific training, careerdevelopment, and the science job market. Agen-cies in Canada, China, Germany, New Zealand,the United Kingdom and Japan support country-wide access to the Next Wave for scientists atuniversities, research institutions, and governmentagencies. In the United States, many universities,research establishments, and government agencieshave subscribed to the web page. The Next Waveweb page has a listing of these universities andagencies. Alternatively, individuals can alsosubscribe.

2.2. Graduate school

There are numerous steps involved in a careerin analytical chemistry. The book ‘Getting WhatYou Came For’ [12] by Robert L. Peters providesexcellent advice for students who are consideringor who have just started graduate school. Peters’experiences during his ‘‘eight long, painful years’’getting his doctorate in fish biology providespoignant and useful advice to students consider-ing analytical chemistry. The chapters in thisbook are summarized in Table 1. Some of theadvice is surprising (‘‘it is important to find agood thesis adviser before you choose the univer-sity’’, and ‘‘don’t concentrate too much on teach-ing’’) and some anecdotes are alarming (a physicsprofessor at MIT compromised and reduced a

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student’s lab time to 95 h a week). However, thediscussion is merely meant to open undergradu-ates eyes as to what is entailed in graduate school.In that regard, it does a very good job. Dermer[13] gives a briefer discussion of choosing a gradu-ate advisor and a research project. I give thisarticle to all prospective graduate students thatvisit my lab, and they always find it thought-provoking.

Another excellent discussion of choosing a the-sis advisor is Sindermann’s chapter entitled ‘HaveYou Hugged Your Major Professor Today?’ in‘Survival Strategies for New Scientists’ [14]. Inthis chapter Sindermann gives an extensive discus-sion of the importance of the advisor–studentrelationship, and even provides a checklist ofquestions to consider when choosing a thesisadvisor.

2.3. Post doctoral

A post doctoral position is an important step-ping-stone in a career in analytical chemistry [15].In Chapter 2 of ‘A Ph.D. is Not Enough!’ [7]Feibelman discusses the selection of both thePh.D. supervisor and post-doctoral position. Hestresses that there are three important tasks toaccomplish in your post-doctoral years: to decidein what area of science to make your name; tofinish at least one significant project; and to estab-lish your identity in the research community suffi-ciently to land an assistant professorship or ajunior position in an industrial or governmentlaboratory. These imply that you do not want aposition where your field of research is undefined(you want to get to work on a significant projectupon arrival or shortly afterwards), and you donot want to get involved in a project where thechances of producing results in time for your jobsearch are low. Further if you are changing fields,you want to start reading and learning before youarrive at the post-doc site. This will again help toensure quick results.

A number of articles on issues related to postdoctoral positions are available on the Web atScience ’s Next Wave site [9]. These identify anumber of characteristics for ‘good’ post doctoralpositions [16]: a flexible advisor and project.

These allow the post doc to best approximate thereal world of research science by allowing one todevelop new areas of research and seek outsources of funding; a decent salary and benefits;many good colleagues and good facilities; andprestige. However, Jensen [17] asserts that thequality of the science should be the overridingpriority. He advises one to check out recent pa-pers from the lab, ask opinions of colleagues andfaculty about the principle investigator, and talkto recent lab graduates. Further, the projectshould force the post doc to aquire new skills.This rounds out your knowledge and experience,allowing you to come out from under your Ph.D.advisor’s shadow and establish your independentresearch program.

But how do you get a post-doctoral position? Akey is for a Ph.D. graduate to have proven pro-ductivity in the lab, and be an interested andinvolved member of their local scientific commu-nity. The former is obvious, and involves publica-tions on your graduate work. The latter point isnot as obvious. Interacting within your scientificcommunity will have the obvious benefits of in-creasing your knowledge and exposure, and helpyou establish your network. These points are im-portant because your letters of reference are acritical ingredient to getting a post doc position[18]. Obviously, one letter of recommendationmust come from your thesis supervisor, and yourproductivity will have a significant impact on thisletter. However, it is equally important to havestrong letters from others. Name recognition andreputation are important factors, but only whencoupled with some years of positive interactionwith the recommender. The recommender shouldbe enthusiastic about you, and have followedyour career with interest. Such interest is morelikely to come about if you have actively inter-acted with your colleagues.

You should start your search for a post doc ayear and a half before you graduate. Once youhave selected a few labs, based on the criteriondescribed above, you should write to the principleinvestigator expressing your wishes. The lettershould be specific to the lab, not a form letter. Itshould describe your experience and interestsbriefly, and should reflect a knowledge of the

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current work in the laboratory. Your CV andpublications should also be included. It can alsobe useful to have your thesis supervisor contactyour potential post doc advisor on your behalf.After a few weeks follow up your letter with aphone call or e-mail.

2.4. A ‘real’ job

General discussions of careers in science aregiven in books mentioned at the beginning of thisarticle. Feibelman [19] and Sindermann [20] dis-cuss the pluses and minuses of jobs in academia,government, and industry. Fiske [8] focuses pri-marily on how to get a non-traditional science job(see below). In addition to discussing writing re-sumes and CV’s, interviewing skills, and how tonegotiate an offer, he offers unique advice on howto research job opportunities beforehand. Similaradvice is also available on the Web at the NextWave site [9], which has articles discussing man-aging first impressions at an interview, how topresent your weaknesses at an interview, dressingfor success, and how to network.

The Career Planning Center [10] provides elec-tronic bulletin boards on: graduate schools, postdoctorals, careers and teaching; an advice servicewhich will match you with an on-line mentor(professionals can also volunteer to act as men-tors); and provides job postings.

ChemCenter provides a listing of jobs adver-tised in Chemical & Engineering News. This ser-vice is only available to members of the AmericanChemical Society (ACS). ACS members can alsopost their personal employment profile, which canbe searched by potential employers. The site alsoprovides a limited array of articles on topics suchas networking, job-hunting in mid-career, andsearching for jobs using the net.

A recent article details the resources availablefrom the American Chemical Society Career Ser-vices [21]. They provide a number of publications.‘Careers for Chemists: A World Outside the Lab’illustrates possible chemistry careers by profilingmore than eighty chemists in more than twentyfields. ‘Tips on Resume Preparation’, ‘The Inter-view Handbook’, and ‘Targeting the Job Market’review the basics for getting a job. ‘Career Transi-

tions for Chemists’ covers personal assessment,salaries, resumes, and networking for laboratoryjobs and other careers. It also discusses otherservices offered such as: workshops; the ACSProfessional Data Bank; and the job bank (avail-able only to ACS members) [11]. In addition totechnical competence, Marasco stresses that anumber of other competencies are important to acareer in chemistry. These include: communica-tion skills — you need good oral and writtenskills, as well as an ability to listen; interpersonalskills — you must be able to approach peopleyou do not know to discuss career options anddirections, and in the workplace you need to becomfortable talking to diverse groups of peopleboth inside and outside the company; and initia-tive — in searching for a job, do not mail outresumes and then passively wait for the telephoneto ring. Be self-motivated, assertive and self-start-ing. These are the qualities that employers arelooking for, and so they should be reflected inyour job search.

Stu Borman provided an interesting, if some-what dated, comparison of analytical chemistrycareers in academia or industry [15]. A morerecent description is offered in an article on train-ing analytical chemists for industry [22]. Industrialanalytical chemistry is characterized as focussingon real world problems (often several at once)quickly with the resources at hand and involvingcollaboration with teams of chemists and engi-neers who may be located throughout the world.The projects will be diverse. Therefore the analystmust be flexible and willing to approach eachproblem as a unique challenge. Generally theanalytical chemist must make use of the toolsavailable in or around the lab. An elegant answertoo late is useless. Finally, industry values analyt-ical chemists for their problem solving ability.

Sindermann [23] characterizes industrial re-search in a variety of settings from large industrialresearch laboratories to small entrepreneurial ven-tures. He provides advice for young scientists inindustrial settings: establish an early reputation asa good team player; charge ahead, but give othersappropriate credit; be mindful of patent possibili-ties for processes or equipment that you develop.Applying for patents will increase your visibility

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within the company; if a project is going nowhere,or headed by an unassertive team leader, take thefirst opportunity to move to another project. Butdo not do this too many times, or it will appearthat you cannot complete an assignment; and ifyou have science management as a career goal,begin early to acquire training. Take advantage ofcompany policies on released time and tuitionpayment. Again, the Web site Next Wave has anumber of articles discussing industrial jobs [24],as well as alternative careers [25] such as technol-ogy transfer, patent law, and science journalism.Finally, Newman [26] provides case studies of sixanalytical chemistry professor’s activities asentrepreneurs.

With regard to applying to government agen-cies, Sindermann [20] provides useful advice. Hestresses that it is important to write the initialletter to a person, and not just to an office. Youshould be prepared to be ignored, and then send afollow-up letter, followed in turn by a phone callto the appropriate le6el — too high and youirritate, too low and you get nowhere. The key insuch initial contacts is to be aggressive, but polite.Emphasis your particular talents or expertise.Seek internships or temporary positions, as theywill allow you to study this complex system fromwithin, so as to place you in an advantageousposition when a permanent job does develop.

Many scientists now find themselves seeking‘non-traditional science jobs’. The book ‘ToBoldly Go’ by Peter S. Fiske [8] is based onseminars from the Stanford University CareerPlanning and Placement Center, and provides awealth of advice for such individuals, as well asanyone seeking a job in science. It emphasizesthat training in science develops a number ofskills that are important in a variety of careers.However, the book stresses that simply havingsuch skills will not land you a job. It emphasizesthat career planning does not start with lookingfor a job. Rather career planning is a host ofprofessional and personal actions undertaken toeducate oneself and the outside world about yourunique talents, gifts, and capabilities.

An expanding area in industrial jobs is consult-ing. A series of short articles were recently pub-lished in Canadian Chemical News [27–29] andgive advice on careers in consulting. The book‘Inside the Technical Consulting Business’ [30] byHarvey Kaye provides a more detailed and com-prehensive discussions of issues relating to start-ing and succeeding as a consultant. Some of theDo’s and Don’ts that arise from these discussionsare summarized in Table 2.

3. Communicating your science

A first question that arises in writing amanuscript is what constitutes publishable mate-rial? The Aims and Scope of Talanta [61] statesthat the journal ‘‘provides a forum for publica-tion...in all branches of pure and applied analyti-cal chemistry...[with] papers on fundamentalstudies and novel instrumentation develop-ment...especially encouraged.’’ Professor R.A.Chalmers, former Editor-in-Chief of Talanta,stresses that novelty alone is not sufficient tojustify publication of a new method [37]. Ratherthe method should also represent a significantimprovement over competently performed con-ventional methods. Numerous others express sim-ilar emphasis on the need for the novel techniqueto provide superior performance [31,44]. Further,the novel method should have useful applications[32,44]. As early as 1933 Lundell [32] stressed the

Table 2Do’s and Don’ts for being an independent consultant

Do’sDo define the consulting services you intend to provide.Do study your target market, to find out who needs your

services, and who is providing such services and howyou will compete.

Do maintain and expand your contact network. Most ofyour initial work comes from word of mouth

Do develop a support network. Find others whose skillsand expertise complement your own so as to better serveyour clients.

Do develop an office infrastructure (word processing,courier services, internet provider, etc.)

Don’tsDon’t try to stay attached to the company you left.

Expand your client market.Don’t let your clients down.Don’t hesitate to get help, both legal and technical.

C.A. Lucy / Talanta 51 (2000) 1125–1147 1131

Table 3Statistical analysis of analytical chemistry journal articles

Journal Turn-aroundNumber of words Citation

Mean 90% Days10% Impact factora

Anal. Chim. Acta 2514 4308 6101 264 1.7785731Analystb 81923270 135c 1.6145147 75572737 222Anal. Chem.d 4.743

1705Anal. Sci.b 3279 4853 134 0.8924163 6609Elec. Actae 1861717 1.5223484 51951773 277Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem.f 1.398

3267J. Electroanal. Chem.g 4968 6669 215 1.5901980J. Amer. Soc. Mass Spec.h 4983 7985 225 2.855

3842 52732411 203J. Chromatography Ai 2.6973760 5402Talantaj 3222118 1.149

a 1997 Science citation impact factor.b Based on a random sample of ten articles from the March 1999 issue.c From January 1999 Analyst editorial, based on last six issues of 1998.d Based on a random sample of 25 articles from the February 01, 1999 issue. Accelerated Articles were excluded.e Based on a random sample of ten articles from volume 44 (17), April 15, 1999.f Based on a random sample of eight articles from volume 363.g Based on a random sample of ten articles from volume 465 (2), April 29, 1999.h Based on a random sample of eight full articles from the April 1999 issue.i Based on a random sample of ten full articles from volume 837, April 2, 1999.j Based on a random sample of 25 articles from the March 1999 issue.

need for new methods to be applicable to ‘‘realsamples’’.

A more cynical view of what constitutes pub-lishable material is the concept of ‘least publish-able unit’; a euphemism for fragmentation ofwork to the smallest unit that is still publishable[33]. Additionally, Sindermann [34] proposes theconcepts of ‘optimal publishable unit’ and ‘maxi-mum publishable unit’. The optimum publishableunit includes ‘‘an amount of data that can becomfortably encompassed in a reasonable paperof five to eight printed pages of text, with noartificial subdivisions, with conclusions that arefew and crisp, and with discussion that is sharplyfocused and relevant’’. Additionally, Sindermann[34] states that the characteristics of the maximumpublishable unit include: an overly long method-ology section with too much subdivision;difficulty in maintaining continuity in the discus-sion section; and more than six conclusions. Fur-ther, exceeding the maximum publishable unitmay result in important results and ideas withinthe paper being lost in the sea of discussion.

However since pagination differs between jour-nals, it is difficult to translate Sindermann’s ‘‘fiveto eight printed pages’’ definition of the ‘optimalpublishable unit’. To better define these publish-able units a sampling of recent analytical chem-istry journals was made. This yielded the statisticslisted in Table 3. It can be presumed that theoptimum publishable unit for a journal would bethe average length of articles in that journal.Similarly, the least publishable unit and maximumpublishable unit could then be estimated as the 10and 90% limits of the distribution.

3.1. When to write a manuscript

While there is a great deal of advice as to howto write manuscripts (see below), there is littlediscussion of when one should write a manuscript[35]. Ramırez-Munoz [36] states that ‘‘Writersshould not write just for pleasure, but to satisfyother people’s needs, and to help their col-leagues… offering them clear information, well-tested results, and reproducible working

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procedures.’’ Scientists must guard against writingup the work too early. This will result in fragmen-tary discussion of the topic, incomplete studiesand potentially erroneous conclusions. Thesecharacteristics invariably lead to long lists of cor-rections from reviewers, having to return to thebench for more experiments, and ultimately longdelays in publication, if not outright rejection.Sindermann [48] states that ‘‘The science on whichthe manuscript is based must be impeccable; inad-equate or sloppily planned research seldom resultsin data that can be massaged or manipulated intoanything but a paper that transmits the deficien-cies… Quality is always enhanced by more-than-adequate data and by at least a few days of quietcontemplation of the research results before theword processor keyboard is approached.’’

Similarly, scientists must avoid unduly delayingwriting manuscripts due to fear of publishing anerror or because of ‘writer’s block’. Feibelman[35] suggests that research should be planned as aseries of short, complete projects leading towardsyour overall long-term goal. Each project is thenwritten as an independent piece of work describ-ing a new kernel of knowledge, placed in thecontext of the long-term goal in the Introduction.Such a plan ensures a regular publication record,establishes scientific priority, and helps preventhaving to write overly long and complex articlesthat tend to cause writer’s block. It also bettersatisfies the short time schedules of job reviewsand granting agencies.

Another advantage of planning research as aseries of short projects is that it makes it clearerwhen a significant body of work is complete, andit is time to write. Certainly one of the best piecesof advice that I received early in my career is that‘‘A scientist should spend an hour a day workingon the manuscript closest to completion.’’ It iseasy to get distracted by the many exciting resultsand projects going on in your lab. Sometimes somuch so that many papers are partially written,but never brought to completion. Focussing atten-tion on the manuscript closest to completion facil-itates getting your manuscripts out, therebyshrinking the number of balls in the air.

3.2. Where to submit the manuscript

An important question is where to submit yourmanuscript. The obvious answer to this questionis Talanta. But more seriously, there are a numberof factors to consider. These include whether thejournal is appropriate for your article, whetherthe journal will give your work the audience thatyou want, and the timeliness of publication (im-portant for job reviews or grant applications).Table 3 includes statistics on the time betweensubmission and publication and the citation im-pact factor for a number of analytical journals.The citation impact factor is one indicator of theattention that a journal receives. However, cita-tion impact factors primarily reflect the attentionthat an article receives within academia. In anapplied field such as analytical chemistry manypapers are widely read and their methodologieswidely used in analytical laboratories, withoutreceiving citation. Also experience has shown thatalways publishing in the same journal limits theaudience for your work. Occasionally submittingarticles to other journals increases the overallexposure of your work within the scientificcommunity.

The first- and most important- step in choosingan appropriate journal for your manuscript is toread the journal on a regular basis. This reinforcesthe Aims and Scopes of each journal, which alsoshould be read carefully. Reading the journal alsomakes one aware of its special areas of emphasis,such as sensors in Talanta. One useful techniquefor choosing a journal is to review the referencescited in your manuscript. If there is a preponder-ance of references from a particular journal, thenthat is probably the most appropriate journal towhich to submit the article.

3.3. Content and paper style

Table 4 lists references dealing with writingscientific papers in general, and analytical chem-istry papers in particular. The references in the‘General’ section describe structural and gram-matical aspects of writing scientific manuscripts.The ‘Specific’ section lists a series of papers thatappeared in Talanta in the 1970s. These papers

C.A. Lucy / Talanta 51 (2000) 1125–1147 1133

Table 4Writing a paper on chemical analysis

Topic Reference

GeneralC. Potera, J. Chem. Educ. 61 (1984)Scientific writing246.T. Spector, J. Chem. Educ. 71 (1994)47.J.S. Dodd, Ed, The ACS StyleGuide, 2nd ed., American ChemicalSociety, Washington, DC, 1997.M. Alley, The Craft of ScientificWriting, 3rd ed., Springer, NewYork, 1996.C.J. Sindermann, Survival Strategiesfor New Scientists, Plenum Press,New York, 1987. Ch. 6Writing Guidelines for Engineeringand Science Students, http://fbox.vt.edu:10021/eng/mech/writing/.

Analytical papers R.A. Chalmers, CRC Crit. Rev.Anal. Chem. 1 (1970) 217.Idem, In Essays on AnalyticalChemistry; Wanninen, E., Ed.; Perg-amon Press; Oxford, U.K., 1977. p.551–7.Idem, Talanta 40 (1993) 121.

SpecificL. Erdey, L. Polos, R.A. Chalmers,GravimetryTalanta, 17 (1970) 1143.IUPAC, Pure Appl. Chem., 53(1981) 2303.A. Berka, J. S& evcık, R.A. Chalmers,TitrimetryTalanta, 19 (1972) 747.G.F. Kirkbright, Talanta, 13 (1966)Spectrophotometry1.IUPAC, Pure Appl. Chem., 50(1978) 237.L. Meites, B.H. Campbell, P. Zu-Polarographyman, Talanta, 24 (1977) 709.

Ion selective elec- G.J. Moody, J.D.R. Thomas, Ta-lanta, 19 (1972) 623.trodesIUPAC, Pure Appl. Chem., 53(1981) 1907.

Atomic absorption J. Ramırez-Munoz, Talanta, 20spectrophotome- (1973) 705.try

J. Inczedy, Talanta, 27 (1980) 143.Ion-exchange (chro-matography) IUPAC, Pure Appl. Chem., 52

(1980) 2553.H.B. Mark, Jr., Talanta, 20 (1973)Kinetic methods257.Y. Marcus, Talanta, 23 (1976) 203.Solvent extraction

Table 4 (Continued)

Topic Reference

Stability constants H.S. Rossotti, Talanta, 21 (1974) 809.IUPAC, Pure Appl. Chem., 61 (1989)1161.

Surface analysis IUPAC, Pure Appl. Chem., 51 (1979)techniques 2243.

Chromatography J. Chromatography A, Instructions toAuthors, Append. 1 (http://www.elsevier.nl/inca/publications/store/5/0/6/8/8/502688.pub.istaut.shtml).

present advice on the development and presenta-tion of manuscripts on specific analytical method-ologies such as spectrophotometry, titrimetry,gravimetry, polarography and many other tech-niques. These papers are unprecedented in thatthey discuss the factors that need to be consideredin developing a new analytical method and explic-itly state what information is considered essentialin a manuscript to provide maximum utility toothers in the field. Further they included explana-tions as to why this information was regarded asimportant. As such, they are extremely valuableto a neophyte in the field, and serve as usefulchecklists for more experienced practitioners.

Robert Chalmers, former editor of Talanta, haswritten a number of articles on writing, reviewing,and editing in analytical chemistry [37–39]. Thesearticles discuss concerns about potential sourcesof error, use of statistics, basic chemical knowl-edge, and reference accuracy.

3.4. Format

The format of a scientific paper (Introduction,Experimental, Results and Discussion) has re-mained essentially unchanged since scientific jour-nals first appeared in the 1660s. Each of thesesections will be discussed individually below. Inwriting an analytical chemistry paper, Ramırez-Munoz [36] recommends the use of a climacticorder in the general presentation of the paper.That is, the order of the information presentedshould keep the reader in crescendo through the

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paper. Further, experimental and results sectionsshould be written in a passive voice, but theintroduction and discussion should be written inthe more succinct active voice.

3.5. Re6iew papers

Ramırez-Munoz [36] provides some sound ad-vice on writing review papers. Readers generallylook to review articles ‘‘to save them the troubleof going to the library to look for details of ageneral subject or of a definite field of that sub-ject’’. Meanwhile, writers must balance being ex-haustive with the space limitations imposed by thejournal. However, the writer must also guardagainst unintentional biases within the referencescited. Such biases can result from: (a) topic. Theauthor’s own personal interests are emphasized,leaving other areas untouched; (b) language.Many interesting papers are ignored becausethey are written in a language the author cannotread. The reader may not have that samelimitation; (c) commercial literature. Potential ref-erence articles should be judged on theirinformative and formative value, not on whetherthe journal is profit-oriented or not; (d) countryof origin. Valuable contributions may comefrom any country, regardless of whether thatcountry’s research is considered ‘state-of-the-art’ or not; and (e) accessibility. The writershould not pre-impose their own limitationsto the literature upon the readers. If informationwas not available to the writer when themanuscript was being prepared, they shouldnonetheless mention the unavailable reference ac-companied by the Chemical Abstracts index num-ber.

To overcome the restrictions to references listedabove, and yet provide more than a ‘single sen-tence’ description is a formidable task. Ramırez-Munoz [36] notes that often the most appreciatedreviews are those restricted to selected fields,such as instrumentation, trace analysis,environmental analysis, etc. This allows the writerto keep the information lively and focused.Also, the writer is more capable of beinga specialist in the area discussed, and so is moreable to provide as much of the information avail-

able without rejecting or ignoring too many pa-pers. In writing focused reviews, some care mustbe taken in the introduction to help the readermake the transition from a known area to a newone.

3.6. Specialty papers

Mark [40] states that any manuscript describinga new analytical method must cover:

Accuracy and precision – It is essential that astatistical analysis of repetitive analyses be given.Statistical evidence in support of the optimal con-ditions should also be given. Justification of con-ditions simply through theoretical arguments aregenerally not sufficient as they often neglect un-suspected effects.

Applications – At least brief discussion shouldbe included regarding procedures suitable for al-ternative sample matrices. If the method is poten-tially unsuitable for a sample matrix, this shouldbe pointed out.

Justification – The value of a method must berealistically compared with other methods for thesame species. Key criteria are speed, accuracy,selectivity, and cost.

Ramırez-Munoz [36] divides specialty papersinto three groups. The first group of papers fo-cuses on instrumentation. These shouldpresent information such that the reader is able toconstruct any homebuilt instrumentation oraccessories described, or to judge the real value ofany commercial instrument described. Thesecond group of papers describes the determina-tion of specific analytes. The key measure ofwhether a paper of this kind is well written iswhether the reader can reproduce the work,even with different instrumentation. The thirdgroup of papers describes specific sampleapplications. In this type of paper the authorshould try to prepare the paper so that the readermay replicate the sample preparation and instru-mental procedures, with only the minor adjust-ments necessary for differences in theinstrumentation.

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3.7. Title

Most scientists rely on browsing or abstractingservices to keep abreast of the literature. Suchservices generally provide only the title. Thus, thetitle must draw the reader’s attention just as anewspaper headline does [41]. Ideally it shouldattract attention by providing a succinct descrip-tion of what is noteworthy in the paper. Further-more, while short it nonetheless should include allkeywords potentially used in database searches.Thus it is important that authors think carefullyabout their choice of title.

Murray [42] has identified and commented onsix styles of titles. Snappy titles attempt to inventa phrase or label to describe a new technique orsubject. These can be successful if the subject isgenuinely new, but more often they simply gener-ate confusion and so should be used infrequentlyand only with discretion. Announcement titles,such as ‘Ion chromatography of complex surfac-tants’, provide a topical description of the work.Care must be taken to not make such titles toobrief (e.g., ‘Determination of lead’), in which casethey are uninformative. Furthermore, such titlesgive no indication of the results or conclusions ofthe work. Assertion titles state a central conclu-sion of the paper. An example is ‘Chemicallymodified tips enable selective atomic forcenanoanalysis’. The aggressive nature of such titlescan be effective in capturing the reader’s interest.Acronym titles contain excessive abbreviations,and are most common with hyphenated methods.The effectiveness of such titles is limited to thosereaders already intimately familiar with the sub-ject. Buzzword titles incorporate trendy topics orprefixes to capture the reader’s interest. An exam-ple is the increased use of ‘nano-‘ rather than‘micro-‘. Series titles primarily convey that theauthor has studied the field for a while. Sinder-mann [48] and Feibelman [41] also identify thecutesy title, for example ‘Stable environments forseahorses’. Such titles should be avoided.

3.8. Abstract

Ramırez-Munoz’s [36] rule for abstract prepa-ration is to consider that the reader may read the

abstract instead of reading the paper itself. Thus,like the title, the abstract must provide the keyinformation from the paper, while hopefully entic-ing the reader to read the rest of the paper. It isbest to not repeat the article title in the abstract,and to keep it short (50–150 words, with a maxi-mum of 250). Such a limit should be followedeven if the journal allows longer. A short conciseabstract has a better chance of being read.

For experimental papers, abstracts should listthe analytes studied and/or samples tested. Signifi-cant working conditions and procedure character-istics (sensitivity, accuracy, and precision) shouldbe mentioned [36]. No mention of future work orthe work of others should be made in theabstract.

In industry and government laboratories, it isalso necessary to write an executive summary forthe upper management. Like an abstract, the ex-ecutive summary should concisely summarize theessence of the work and emphasize its importance.Unlike a journal abstract however, the executivesummary must minimize the use of jargon.

3.9. Keywords [36]

An author can best determine the appropriatekeywords by placing themselves in the position ofneeding to search for the information containedwithin the paper. They should then include allwords that they would consult in searching thejournal’s index. Words contained in the titleshould be included. In fact, some journals do notexplicitly list keywords, in which case relevantkeywords should be included in the title andabstract. Analytes, samples, instrumental method,sample preparation, and words related to themain steps of the experimental procedure shouldbe included.

3.10. Introduction

The Introduction must provide a discussion ofwhat the paper is about, why it is important andwhat approach is taken. Sufficient details from theliterature must be included to allow the reader tocompare the work being reported with the priorliterature. The Introduction is not the place for

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exhaustive literature reviews [39,48]. Ramırez-Munoz [36] recommends that papers discussinginstrumental aspects of a technique devote roughly1/9 of the paper to the Introduction while papersdealing with analysis of specific analyte or samplesdevote roughly 2/9 of the paper to the Introduc-tion

The Introduction should define the problemand/or approach taken. Ramırez-Munoz [36]states that in a paper focussing on instrumenta-tion, the advantages of the instrument or acces-sory should not be presented in the Introduction.This should be left until later, once enough datahas been presented to allow discussion. This al-lows the paper to build to a climax. Feibelman[41], on the other hand, argues that many readersskim articles by reading only the Introduction andConclusions. He therefore argues that the impor-tant results must be highlighted in the Introduc-tion to catch the reader’s attention.

Feibelman [41] also offers interesting adviceregarding how to draft the Introduction. Imaginebeing on the telephone with a scientist friend withwhom you have not spoken for awhile. The friendasks, ‘‘What have you been doing lately?’’ Yourimagined response is the outline of yourIntroduction.

3.11. Experimental

Regardless of whether a paper focuses on in-strumentation or the determination of a particularanalyte, this section along with the Results andDiscussion makes up the bulk of the paper.Ramırez-Munoz [36] states that these sectionsshould comprise about 2/3 of the body of thepaper. As to what should be included, it is herethat the papers published in Talanta on writingpapers for specific areas of analytical chemistry areparticularly valuable. These articles are listed inTable 4. In particular, Berka et al.’s [43] discussionof the development of a new titrimetric methodsare highly informative, and strongly recommendedto anyone teaching quantitative analysis.

The overriding consideration in the Experimen-tal Section is ‘‘No matter how precious space injournals is or becomes, it makes no sense topublish data without giving the reader enough

information to enable him to interpret or repro-duce them.’’ [44].

In the Apparatus section, descriptions of ap-paratus must provide sufficient detail for thereader to assess its performance and reliability.For commercial instruments, this simply requiresidentification of the manufacturer and make. Forhome-built instruments, greater detail will berequired.

The Materials and Reagents section should con-tain a full characterization of the chemicals andreagents used [44]. Systematic (IUPAC) names ofthe compounds studied should be provided. Iftrivial names or abbreviations are used, the correctname should be given in parentheses upon firstusage. The purity of the chemicals should also begiven, although statements such as ‘‘of the highestavailable purity’’ are meaningless. Defined puritygrades such as ‘‘analytical reagent grade’’ areacceptable.

The composition of the solvent and purityshould be given. For water the methods of purifi-cation (distillation or ion exchange) and storageshould be stated. For non-aqueous solvents, thewater content and how it was measured should beindicated. For mixed solvents, it is important toindicate the proportions, and whether these areweight or volume based. If volume based propor-tions are used, whether the proportions were mea-sured before or after mixing should be stated.

In methodologies as diverse as polarography[44] and gravimetry [45], a factorial experimentdesign has been recommended. Such an approachconsiderably reduces the development time andgreatly increases the amount of useful informationobtained. The tolerances on the various experi-mental conditions should be stated along withevidence regarding how they were determined.

3.12. Results and discussion

A key here is to use a logical order, rather thana chronological history of the experiments per-formed. Headings can help organize the order andflow of the text. The significance of any tables andfigures should be explained, rather than forcingthe readers to extract the information forthemselves.

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In discussing the Results, what constitutes‘good’ reliability can vary greatly depending onthe system studied and the available standardsand alternative methods. However, sufficientreplicate analyses should be performed to enablethe reader to form a fair estimate of the precisionof the procedure, and whether and how thatprecision depends on the nature of the sample[44]. Also, the accuracy is best demonstrated bycomparison with the analytical results of an alter-native procedure, if a suitable procedure exists.There must be adequate validation of results,supported by statistical analysis.

Even accurate and precise methods can proveunreliable because critical conditions or points oftechnique have been omitted in the manuscript.The best method of avoiding such omissions is togive the manuscript and a few representative sam-ples to a colleague or technician (preferably onewho was not involved with the procedure develop-ment), and request that the procedure be used toanalyze the samples [44]. If the results are consis-tent with the claims made of the procedure, themanuscript is ready for submission.

3.13. Conclusions

It is in this section that there is probably thegreatest variability in the format of different ana-lytical journals. Analytical Chemistry states thatthe Conclusion section should only be used forinterpretation, not for summarizing data alreadypresented in the Abstract or text. In contrast, inhis article in Talanta, Ramırez-Munoz [36] recom-mended a long (2/9 of the paper) closing forpapers that discussed instrumentation. The con-clusions for such a paper should clearly state thesignificance and new information offered by thepaper. Information which should be included arethe capabilities of the instrument (sensitivity, ac-curacy, precision, speed handling, versatility andreliability), how the instrument/accessory resolvespresent problems, and what advantages it offersover similar existing instruments. The conclusionsshould also indicate what additional work is re-quired, and where future developments may lie.

For papers discussing the determination of aparticular analyte, Ramırez-Munoz [36] recom-

mends a shorter conclusion section (1/9 of paper).In this type of paper the conclusions shouldbriefly summarize the achievements and appli-cability of the proposed conditions. If the paperfocuses on the determination of an analyte in aparticular matrix, Ramırez-Munoz states that thissection should be brief, and focus on the useful-ness of the method and its validation with othermethods and collaborative studies.

3.14. References

Authors are expected to cite literature thatdeals with issues closely related to the contributedwork. In a recent editorial, Royce Murray, editorof Analytical Chemistry, comments that ‘‘theoverwhelming majority of authors fully under-stand the need to provide proper literature cita-tions’’ [46]. However, in some instances importantreferences are not included in manuscripts. Mur-ray’s comments on this are instructional [46]:

Why do authors fail to cite rele6ant literature...?I belie6e that the 6ast majority of such cases aresimple, honest mistakes. In spite of powerfulliterature-searching technology, the literature is6ast, and important work can be missed… A fewoccurrences are less ob6iously mistakes. Some-times a failure of referencing appears to be basedon genuine disagreement between authors as tothe significance or priority of pre6ious publica-tions, and one author chooses to ignore the exis-tence of another. This is a disser6ice to thereader and borders on the unethical. Finally, asmall number of cases do appear to cross ontounethical grounds, and the Editor pays specialattention, with sometimes special actions, tothese. These include not referencing a similarpaper in press elsewhere (duplicate publication)and ob6iously and repeatedly ignoring a competi-tor. These often are pointedly brought to light byre6iewers.

Obviously, our ability to search the vast litera-ture is critical. But what resources are availablefor searches? Jane Henley’s article entitled ‘‘TheAnalytical Chemist: Online’’ is an excellent place

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to start [47]. Although somewhat specific to theUnited Kingdom and dated by the explosion ofinformation on the Web, this article still providesa wealth of practical advice for performingsearches of relevance to analytical chemists. Itstresses that careful pre-search preparation andknowledge of the types of source material avail-able in the database are essential for a successfulsearch. Common reasons for disappointingsearches are [47]:� making the search too broad� using the wrong search terms� forgetting synonyms and variations of spelling,

and� using inappropriate databases.

Henley then proceeds to make recommenda-tions as to the most appropriate databases forvarious categories of searches that an analyticalchemist may wish to conduct. However, itshould be noted that these recommendationsare pre-Web, and so other options are now avail-able.

In addition to citing a reference, it is necessaryto ensure the accuracy of the citation. In a surveyof 23 manuscripts in 1991 [37], there were 55errors in authors’ names, three in journal names,two in year of publication, five in volume numberand five in page number! Two more referenceswere so completely wrong, it was impossible todetermine what they should have been.

3.15. Acknowledgments

A general rule is for authors to extend ‘reason-able generosity’ [36,48,49]. All who have con-tributed to the research or manuscript beyondtheir job description should be acknowledged.Such acknowledgments do not detract from therecognition of the authors, yet are greatly appreci-ated by the recipient. Acknowledgments should bedirect and sincere. Reviewers acknowledgedshould be provided a disclaimer, and must haveprovided prior approval to include their name.

Any assistant who performed a significant por-tion of the practical work should be considered asa co-author.

3.16. Supporting information

An often-overlooked part of a manuscript isSupporting Information [50]. Supporting Infor-mation can be used to present additional docu-mentation of relevant experimental details,experimental responses and numerical data, fullerdetails of data analysis and computations, com-puter code, figures in color, and even rotatablethree-dimensional figures. As such, the use ofSupporting Information enables the writing ofshorter, more concise and more readable descrip-tions of research without compromising the detailof the discussion.

It is essential however that the printed researchpaper be a self-contained and coherent story. TheSupporting Information must remain an adjunctto the presentation in the printed paper. Essen-tially, the Supporting Information should be in-formation that would be desired by an interestedspecialist, but not essential to the primary story.

4. Presentations

A number of references discuss how to giveeffective oral and poster presentations. Advicefrom these is summarized below. In addition, JeffRadel of the Kansas University Medical Centerprovides an excellent on-line tutorial on EffectivePresentations [51].

One of the best summaries of how to prepareand deliver an oral presentation is the article byVince Giardina [52], which Pittcon provides to itsspeakers. It concisely presents some commonsenserules for giving effective presentations. The ingre-dients of a good presentation are: good science topresent; careful organization; preparation; and aforceful delivery. Also, important is a realizationthat you are speaking to present information onyour topic, and to achieve understanding on thepart of the audience. Many speakers overlook thelatter goal.

A good presentation starts with careful plan-ning. Know your goal, and how to reach it.Assemble your material in a logical fashion. Thiswill enable the audience to follow the steps inyour work and appreciate the conclusions. Winn

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[53] states that a key step in planning a talk is toprepare a single declarative sentence which sum-marizes the central idea of the talk. Doing sofocuses the speaker’s thoughts, such that the restof the speech preparation comes easily. The nextstep is to identify the three or four most impor-tant points (no more!) of the central idea (thesingle-sentence summary). The arrangement ofthese points can then take on one of a number ofdesigns. For scientific presentations, the mostcommon designs are:

Categorical — some topics fall naturallyinto categories. For example: offense anddefense; pros and cons; basic research and appli-cations.

Sequential — a sequential design followsa time order. (e.g., the steps in an analyticalprocedure or the main stages in the developmentof an instrument) However, a chronological his-tory of experiments tried is not a good design touse.

Spatial — some topics break down naturallyinto physical parts. For instance, you might movethrough an instrument schematic from left toright, or alternatively move through a pie chart ina clockwise fashion.

Comparison–contrast — start with the similar-ities and then describe the differences. Thiscan lead to discussion of the problems that resultfrom failing to recognize the differences or theopportunities that exist in exploiting the differ-ences.

Simple-to-complex — gradually build from saya simple model or schematic towards a morecomplete model or diagram. This allows the audi-ence to follow the logic of the argument. Thispattern works especially well with technicaltopics.

Problem–solution — this design is best whenthe audience is likely to be resistant to yoursolution. People are more likely to agree on theproblem than on the solution. Thus, examine theproblem first. This allows you to demonstratesound logic and build credibility with your audi-ence before presenting the more controversial partof your talk.

Residual — when the audience agrees upon theproblem, you can use the process of elimination.

Examine possible solutions and logically eliminatethem one at a time, until you finish with a defenseof the recommended solution.

Winn [53] describes other designs for presenta-tions, but these are better suited to motivationalor marketing presentations.

As to the actual presentation, the Giardinaarticle [52] presents a series of ‘Do’s and Don’ts’for oral presentations:

DO tell your story briefly and in a conversa-tional style.DO develop good speech habits. Don’t speaktoo quickly or softly.DO use graphics such as charts, slides, pictures,etc. But keep them simple. Include no moredetail than is necessary to make your point.DO use good speaking posture.DO practice your talk. This will allow you tomemorize the outline of the talk and to developan expressive speaking voice. It will also giveyou a sense of the timing of the talk.DO NOT read your paper in full. You shoulduse only an outline of the talk. This will enableyou to speak more extemporaneously.DO NOT waste your time on something that isnot part of your paper.DO NOT stare vacantly at the audience. Selecta few individuals distributed throughout theaudience and speak to them in a direct andconversational manner.DO NOT walk aimlessly about the podium ormake unconscious gestures such as playing withthe pointer, or pulling on your ear. Movementssuch as walking or gesturing with your handsshould only be used to emphasize and clarifypoints.DO NOT let your story run down. Keep up theinterest and your voice until you come to theend – and then stop! Include a brief summaryand then finish with a good concludingstatement.DO NOT overrun your time! Overrunning timeleaves the impression of poor preparation anddoes not leave any time for discussion.

Winn further suggests that the following at-tributes will help you hold the audience’sattention:

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Sentence 6ariety – A succession of sentences ofthe same type and length sedates the audience.

Concrete language – Saying ‘‘A 30 kV CEpower supply can throw a 6’2’’ man twelve feetacross a room.’’ better conveys the need for cau-tion with a capillary electrophoresis instrumentthan ‘‘You will be injured if you do not exercisecaution.’’

Figurati6e language – Occasional similes,metaphors and other figures of speech perk thelistener’s attention and help emphasize points.Overuse however can make the talk ‘cutesy’, andturn the audience off. Similarly, Sindermann [54]states that humor in talks should appear sponta-neous, or should be very clever without being‘cute’. Humor is an art form that must be handleddelicately and with finesse. Otherwise it should beavoided.

Over-and-above all the designing and calculationthat has been discussed above is a simple rule.Enjoy yourself! Controlled but obvious enthusi-asm for your topic is infectious, and will causeyour audience to overlook minor ‘technical’ flawsin your presentation.

4.1. Visual aids

Visual aids, whether they are overhead trans-parencies, 35-mm slides or computer projections,are an essential part of any scientific presentation.Winn [53] provides some simple rules to ensureeffective visuals.

Rule of six – It should be possible to read anunprojected transparency from 6 feet away. Thereshould not be more than six words on a line.There should not be more that six lines on a page.

Color – Color accelerates learning and recall byover 55% and comprehension by 70%. HoweverWinn cautions against overuse of color. As a rule,use only two colors on a slide. Use additionalcolors only for accent. Bright colors should onlybe used as accents, not as the primary colors.

Gradually build complexity – If it is necessary topresent a complex figure or graph, it is best tostart with a simple version, and then gradually on

successive slides increase the complexity. This isparticularly effective using computer projectionprograms such as PowerPoint.

Is it necessary? – Do not include anything on atransparency that you do not intend to discuss.

Visual aids must look professional – Nothingdetracts from a presentation more than poorlyprepared unreadable visual aids. Modern presen-tation programs such as Freelance Graphics, Har-vard Graphics, or Microsoft PowerPointmake generation of professional visual aidsstraightforward and easy, and are strongly recom-mended.

4.2. Computer projection

Direct projection of computer screens is becom-ing much more common in scientific talks. Re-cently, Smith provided a detailed discussion of theuse of multimedia in scientific presentations [55].In general, the considerations for preparing suchpresentations are much the same as for transpar-encies and slides as discussed above. Programssuch as Harvard Graphics, Freelance Graphics,PowerPoint, and Corel can be used, with thelatter two being most popular. These programsmake a wide array of visual and audio effectsavailable for a presentation. Below are some con-siderations, as discussed by Smith [55].� As with any presentation, a graph almost al-

ways conveys information to the audience bet-ter than a table.

� As stated above, it can be effective to start witha simple graph or schematic and then gradu-ally, over subsequent slides, build the complex-ity of the visual. This works particularlyeffectively in computer-projected presentations.

� Again, as stated above, colors can enhance apresentation. However, with computer pro-jected presentations there is a greater tendencyto use a colored background. In such cases it isessential to maintain a high contrast betweenthe text and the background color.A particularly effective use of color is when a

series of lines of text is being discussed. Individuallines can appear sequentially. As each new lineappears it is presented in bold text, and the previ-ous lines remain on the screen but are dimmed.

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This draws the listener’s attention to the informa-tion being discussed, while allowing them to referback to previous items.� Cartoons and photographs can both be in-

cluded with ease. However, such figures can beoverly complex for the audience, and may de-tract from the talk. Thus, care must be taken.Also, scanned figures can generate large filesthat may load slowly during a talk. Thus,figures should be scanned at the minimum res-olution that will provide a sharp image whenpresented.

� Sound can be used to highlight or emphasizeparticular events during a talk such as intro-ducing a new element to a figure. However,sound should be used sparingly, as it may beperceived as ‘cute’. Also, computer generatedsounds may not be heard by the audience inlarger lecture rooms where microphones arenecessary.

� Many of the presentation programs allow textto ‘fly in’. These features should be used withcaution. Some are subtle and work well, butmany are too ‘glitzy’ for science presentations.

� Drawings of a figure may be allowed to movethrough a series of steps to illustrate phe-nomenon such as electroosmotic flow in capil-lary electrophoresis. Alternatively, video clipscan be used to illustrate phenomenon such asthe movement of DNA through a sieving gel.Both of these can be extremely effective inpresentations. If a VCR is used for video clips,the tape should be cued to the start of the clipbefore the presentation. Also, speakers shouldfamiliarize themselves with the VCR before thepresentation. If a computer is used to play aclip or animation, consideration should bemade of the speed of the computer. Whatappears as a short illustrative clip on youroffice computer may become a long tediousclip if a slower microcomputer is used duringthe presentation. Therefore, either one shoulduse one’s own computer for the presentation orinquire beforehand regarding the facilitiesavailable for the presentation.

� The more complex the presentation, the morethings that can go wrong. Thus, from personalexperience, one should prepare for failure. It is

recommended that the presenter have a back-up version of the talk are available on over-head transparencies.

4.3. Poster presentations

Poster sessions are a ubiquitous part of scien-tific conferences. Yet very few discussions of howto prepare and present a good poster are availablein the literature. One exception is the chapter byBarbara Schowen in ‘The ACS Style Guide’ [56].A first consideration is ‘When is a poster mostappropriate?’ Schowen feels that a poster is idealfor reporting a contained body of work, a singleexperiment (or related set of experiments), orsomething with a straight-forward question posedand a clear and clean-cut conclusion. Posters donot work well for instruction, persuasion, devel-opment of arguments, evaluation (of conflictingdata or theories, for example), for critical litera-ture review, or for reporting on a number ofloosely related experiments. Such topics are bettersuited to oral presentations.

To be successful, a poster must do two things.Firstly, it must attract a conferencee’s attentionand interest. Secondly, it must effectively conveyyour scientific message. To accomplish the formertask, the poster must be pleasing to the eye — usea minimum number of words and panels, use areadable font, and be well laid out. Indeed, theentire poster should be easily read from a distanceof at least 3–4 feet. Schowen recommends thatfont size and style for text be uniform across theposter. Type should be 3/8 inch high, with TimesNew Roman 24 point boldface being the absoluteminimum for text. Headings should be of largertype and should have blank lines above and belowthem. Figures should be of similar size through-out the poster. Finally, Schowen recommends per-sonalizing or ‘spicing-up’ the poster by adding aneye-catcher such as a molecular model glued ontoa colored piece of paper, a photo of your appara-tus or of computer generated graphics or models,an actual piece of equipment, or a vial of brightlycolored or crystalline compound. However, shestresses that one of these accessories is probablysufficient.

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To effectively convey your scientific messagewith a poster is not as simple task as it sounds.Visitors will seldom have more than five minutesto devote to your poster. Therefore, the postermust deliver your message quickly and efficiently.Thus, the poster must use a minimum of wordsand panels. Each panel should be designed suchthat it can be understood and appreciated in lessthan a minute. For instance, the Introductionshould be summarized in a paragraph or less on asingle sheet of paper. Likewise the purpose orstatement of the problem should be expressed inone or two succinct sentences, again on a separatesheet of paper. The length of the Experimental orTheoretical section will be highly variable, de-pending on the topic. Regardless of the lengthhowever, only the essentials should be given, notall the details as would appear in the same sectionin a paper. For presenting data, the same rulesshould be used as for transparencies or slides.That is, graphs better convey information thannumerical tabulations. Similarly, chemical struc-tures should be used rather than names whereverpossible. Key spectral and chromatographic peaksshould be labeled. Each figure, graph, or spectrumshould be completely labeled so that it can standon its own. Interpretation should be concise. Useshort numbered or bulleted phrases wherever pos-sible. Conclusions should be no longer than twosentences.

In presenting the poster, you want to hang thepanels at a height that can easily be read. That is,below eye level and above hip height. Plan to beat the poster for the entire time designated in theschedule. You should stand next to the poster butnot obscure it. Have your nametag clearly visibleso that a visitor can easily identify you as thepresenter. Avoid socializing with friends or neigh-bors during the poster session, as visitors will bereluctant to interrupt.

You should also prepare a short (5 min max.)summary of the main points (purpose, results,conclusions) of your poster, as some visitors willask you to ‘tell’ them about your poster. Likewiseyou should prepare a brief oral explanation ofimportant features of the poster such as tables,figures, chromatograms, etc. Finally, it is effectiveto have copies of a one-page handout on your

poster. This should include your name, postertitle, affiliation, meeting date, and addresses (in-cluding e-mail), along with a summary of yourposter including the key aspects of your poster.These should be placed in an envelope at the endof your poster along with a note saying, ‘Takeone’. An alternative approach is to hang up anenvelope into which interested visitors can placetheir business card to receive a copy of the poster.(Students who do not have a business card shouldprepare copies of a small note containing theirname and address along with a statement such as‘‘I am very interested in your poster, and wouldappreciate receiving a copy.’’)

5. Reviewing

…The accuracy of our publications lies at thevery heart of our system of communicatingscientific progress. The reviewer communityprovides an enormous service in preserving it.[46]

Thus, reviewing of scientific manuscripts has animportant role within science. Yet, it is a task forwhich most scientists receive no formal training,and little guidance. Chalmers, a former Editor ofTalanta, provides an overview of the entire pub-lishing process, including the role and responsibil-ity of the reviewer [38]. Royce Murray, Editor ofAnalytical Chemistry, provides a short discussionof his expectations of reviewers [57]. Sindermannalso provides detailed advice regarding reviewingscientific manuscripts [58,59]. Chong has writtenan excellent discussion of reviewing and editingmanuscripts for agricultural journals, which isnonetheless highly relevant to analytical chemistrypublications [60]. These discussions can be sum-marized into the following guidelines.� The reviewer first and foremost should have a

genuine competence in the subject matter ofthe manuscript. In instances where competenceis lacking, the reviewer should return themanuscript to the editor as soon as possiblewithout reviewing. A decline to review is betterthan a cursory or inadequate review.

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� The reviewer should consider the manuscriptwith respect to the scope of the journal and anyinstructions for reviewers from the journal. Ta-lanta’s Aims and Scope have been clearlystated by the editors [61], and instructions areon the back page of each issue.

� A reviewer will have to invest a significantamount of time to review a manuscript prop-erly. The same care, diligence, and thorough-ness should be used in reviewing a manuscriptas when writing one. It has been estimated thatreviewers spend 6 h per manuscript on rejectedpapers and 6.25 h on accepted papers [62].

� The reviewer must ask: is the work novel?; doesit represent a significant improvement overcompetently performed conventional methods?[37].

� A reviewer should not be harsh or belittling.Good reviews are constructive in nature. Al-ways highlight and emphasize the positive as-pects of a paper. Authors appreciate reviewerswho make an effort to improve the manuscript.However such comments will be best received ifthey are written in a humble and caring tone.

� A reviewer must make gentle but firm and clearstatements of deficiencies in the manuscript.Most reviews give a short paragraph or two ofgeneral comments including: a statement of theresearch problem; an indication as to how wellthe paper achieved its objectives; and whatchanges are required to improve themanuscript or make it acceptable for publica-tion. The general comments are usually fol-lowed by more specific comments listed bypage and line number.

� A reviewer should make due allowance forlimitations in the author’s command of thelanguage.

� Finally, sometimes a paper is rejected. In suchcases, the reasons for rejection should beclearly stated. Recommendations as to whatchanges are necessary to make the work pub-lishable should also be included.

Ideally, the review process offers a learningopportunity for both the reviewer and author.However, the success of the review exercise liesnot only with the reviewer. Authors must consider

the reviewers’ comments seriously. The authorshould revise the manuscript according to thosecomments that improve the manuscript. In in-stances where the comment reflects a misunder-standing, the author should consider whether thetext adequately expresses the point. If not, thetext warrants revision. However, the author doesnot need to accept every comment. If major com-ments by the reviewer are not accepted, the au-thor should write to the editor explaining clearlyand completely why the comment is not accepted.However, if the rebuttal is long or elaborate, itmay be better if the discussion were added to theoriginal text. Finally, it must be appreciated thatif an error or misconception is not caught duringthe review process, it cannot be corrected once thepaper is in print. Thus, the author must appreci-ate that a review, even a negative one, is a gift ofthe reviewer’s time and experience.

6. Economics of analytical chemistry

6.1. Purchasing equipment

Analytical chemistry has become increasinglydependent on complex and expensive instrumen-tation. As such, one of the most pivotal andstressful events in an analyst’s career is the pur-chase of a new instrument. ‘Olson’s Four Tenetsof Instrument Purchasing’ (E.C. Olson, Upjohn,Kalamazoo, Michigan) provide some homespunwisdom for purchasing equipment [63]:1. Make sure it’s necessary. The instrument

should fulfill an important need, not just be a‘nice’ addition.

2. Specify hardware that will minimize personnelcosts, because, in the long run, people areusually far more expensive than instruments.

3. Don’t buy serial number one of anything.4. Don’t buy the last serial number of any-

thing.However, once you are satisfied that Olson’s

tenets are fulfilled, how do you proceed? Numer-ous tabulations of vendor instrumentation specifi-cations have been reported for a wide range ofinstrumentation. Table 5 summarizes some suchreports. Further instrument comparisons can be

C.A. Lucy / Talanta 51 (2000) 1125–11471144

Table 5Surveys of commercial analytical instrumentationa

CitationInstrument

ElectrochemistryAnal. Chem., 69 (1997)Potentiostats369A

Mass spectroscopyElectrospray MS Anal. Chem., 69 (1997)

427AAnal. Chem., 71 (1999)Electrospray TOFMS197AAnal. Chem., 70 (1998)MALDI-TOFMS733A

MS/MS Anal. Chem., 67 (1995)265AAnal. Chem., 68 (1996)Secondary Ion MS683A

FAB-MS Anal. Chem., 69 (1997)625AAnal. Chem., 70 (1998)Quadrupole ion trap MS533AAnal. Chem., 68 (1996)Isotope ratio MS373A

SeparationsGas chromatography Anal. Chem., 71 (1999)

271ALC-GC, 17 (1999) 1113Used GC’s

GC-MS Anal. Chem., 71 (1999)401AAnal. Chem., 69 (1997)Portable GC and GC/MS195A

GC/FT-IR Anal. Chem., 70 (1998)801A

Thermionic NPD Anal. Chem., 70 (1998)599A

Electron capture detector for Anal. Chem., 67 (1995)439AGC

Electrochemical detectors for Anal. Chem., 66 (1994)LC 601A

Anal. Chem., 69 (1997)Evaporative light scattering561Adetector

Ion chromatography Anal. Chem., 71 (1999)465AAnal. Chem., 68 (1996)Size exclusion chromatography431AAnal. Chem., 69 (1997)Supercritical fluid

chromatography 683AAnal. Chem., 70 (1998)Supercritical fluid extraction333AAnal. Chem., 68 (1996)Capillary electrophoresis747A

Chromatography data stations Anal. Chem., 71 (1999)333A

SpectroscopyCircular dichroism Anal. Chem., 71 (1999)

545A

Table 5 (Continued)

Instrument Citation

FT-IR spectroscopy Anal. Chem., 70 (1998)273AAnal. Chem., 66 (1994)FT-IR photoacoustic

spectroscopy 757AAnal. Chem., 71 (1999)Near-IR spectroscopy625A

Open path IR Anal. Chem., 69 (1997)43A

Raman spectrometers Anal. Chem., 69 (1997)309AAnal. Chem., 67 (1995)Graphite furnace AAS51A

ICP-AES Anal. Chem., 70 (1998)211AAnal. Chem., 68 (1996)ICP-MS46A

X-ray photoelectron Anal. Chem., 67 (1995)675Aspectroscopy

X-ray fluorescence Anal. Chem., 69 (1997)493AAnal. Chem., 70 (1998)CCD camera663A

Surface analysisAtomic force microscopes Anal. Chem., 68 (1996)

267AScanning electron microscopy Anal. Chem., 69 (1997)

749A

MiscellaneousAnal. Chem., 70 (1998)Automatic protein sequencers401A

Thermal analyzers Anal. Chem., 71 (1999)689AAnal. Chem., 68 (1996)DNA sequencers493AAnal. Chem., 70 (1998)Dynamic and static light

scattering 59AAnal. Chem., 68 (1996)Electron paramagnetic resonance323AAnal. Chem., 71 (1999)Flow cytometry755AAnal. Chem., 68 (1996)Flow injection analysis203A

Laboratory robotics and Anal. Chem., 69 (1997)workstations 255A

Microplate fluorometer Anal. Chem., 71 (1999)39AAnal. Chem., 70 (1998)Microwave digestion467A

Quartz crystal microbalance Anal. Chem., 68 (1996)625AAnal. Chem., 68 (1996)Solid-state NMR559A

a Product reviews from Anal. Chem. published after Septem-ber 1997 (Anal. Chem. 69 (1997) 561A) are available on theworld wide web at http://pubs.acs.org/journals/ancham/in-dex.html.

C.A. Lucy / Talanta 51 (2000) 1125–1147 1145

found in the Product Review column of Analyti-cal Chemistry.

But how do you use these specifications to helpselect the appropriate instrument for your needs?One can take the cynical view as stated by the lateTomas Hirschfield and ‘‘Take all manufacturer’sspecifications and divide by two.’’ Alternatively,the Analytical Methods Committee of the RoyalSociety of Chemistry has devised a more detailedand systematic approach. They have developedtables of instrument features that should be con-sidered, along with the reasons why those featuresshould be considered, and some guidance for as-sessment of each feature. Table 6 lists the instru-ments for which these evaluation tables have beendeveloped. The objective of these evaluation ta-bles is not to recommend particular features, butrather to prompt the purchaser to explicitly con-sider the importance of each feature for theirapplication.

The Analytical Methods Committee of TheRoyal Society of Chemistry further stress that thefirst step in selecting an instrument is to determinethe range of determinations that it will be ex-pected to perform [64]. These requirements shouldnot be specified too narrowly, as they will changewith time, but must also avoid being too broad,as this will make the selection criteria too de-tailed. Based on these needs and the availablebudget, the choice of instruments can oftenquickly be reduced to a few instruments. At thispoint the detailed guidelines developed by theAnalytical Methods Committee become useful.

An additional criterion that can be used in thepurchase of an instrument is a ‘suitability test’. Todevelop a suitability test, determine what is thecritical analysis that the instrument must perform.Then ask the vendor to demonstrate the candidateinstrument’s capability to perform this analysis[65]. Such a condition may even be incorporatedwithin the purchase contract as a term of accep-tance [63].

6.2. Patents

The invention and refinement of instrumenta-tion is an integral part of analytical chemistry.However if one is to profit from this invention a

patent is necessary. The rationale for patenting aninvention is the monopoly that it obtains. Thismonopoly reduces the economic risk of bringingthe invention before the public, it gives the inven-tor a chance to establish their brand withoutcompetition, and it increases access to investmentcapital. Mitscher et al. [66] provide a summary ofthe most important points in the patent processdesigned for the patent novice. A second articleby Murphy and Svensson [67] also discussespatents with respect to chemistry, but is moredirected to the patenting of pharmaceuticalproducts.

The essential features necessary for an inven-tion to be patentable are novelty, utility andnon-obviousness. Patents can be issued for ananalytical method or assay if the method is noveland non-obvious. Additionally if the assay re-quires a novel or non-obvious apparatus or deviceto carry out the analysis, it may be possible topatent the apparatus. Generally obtaining apatent takes 1.5–3 years.

Table 6Instrument evaluation tables developed by the Royal Societyof Chemistrya

ReferenceInstrument

Analyst 123Flame atomic absorption spectrometer(1998) 1407Analyst 123Electrothermal atomic absorption

spectrometer (1998) 1415Anal. Proc. 23Polychromator for inductively coupled(1986) 109plasma atomic emission spectrometerAnal. Proc. 24Monochromator for inductively coupled

plasma atomic emission spectrometer (1987) 3Anal. Proc. 24Plasma sources for inductively coupled

plasma atomic emission spectrometer (1987) 266Analyst 122Inductively coupled plasma mass

spectrometer (1997) 393Wavelength dispersive X-Ray Anal. Proc. 27

(1990) 324spectrometerAnal. Proc. 28Energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer(1991) 312

Gas–liquid chromatography Anal. Proc. 30(1993) 296

High performance liquid Analyst 122chromatography (1997) 387

a Analytical Methods Committee, The Royal Society ofChemistry, Burlington House, Piccadilly, London, UK W1V0BN.

C.A. Lucy / Talanta 51 (2000) 1125–11471146

6.3. Expert witness

Analytical chemists have expertise in makingprecise and accurate measurements that are oftenused to solve complex and intricate problems. Assuch the analytical chemist may find themselvescalled as an expert witness in a court of law.Simpson [68] provides a highly readable descrip-tion of the expectations and duties of an expertwitness illustrated with her own experiences fromthe British judicial system.

Acknowledgements

The Natural Science and Engineering ResearchCouncil of Canada have supported this work.Also, my graduate students past and present arethanked. Their dedication and enthusiasm mademe want to be as effective a mentor as I possiblycould, which lead to this collection of advice fromthe literature. Finally, I thank Julian Tyson forhis enlightening discussion of ‘What is analyticalchemistry?’.

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