How organizational behaviour helps manager solve practical problems at the individual level

of analysis:

Organizational Behaviour

Organizational Behaviour (OB) is the study and application of knowledge about how people,

individuals, and groups act in organizations. It does this by taking a system approach. That is,

it interprets people-organization relationships in terms of the whole person, whole group,

whole organization, and whole social system. Its purpose is to build better relationships by

achieving human objectives, organizational objectives, and social objectives.

Elements of Organizational Behaviour

The organization's base rests on management's philosophy, values, vision and goals. This in

turn drives the organizational culture which is composed of the formal organization, informal

organization, and the social environment. The culture determines the type of leadership,

communication, and group dynamics within the organization. The workers perceive this as

the quality of work life which directs their degree of motivation. The final outcomes are

performance, individual satisfaction, and personal growth and development. All these

elements combine to build the model or framework that the organization operates from.

Managerial Duties

Managers perform a broad range of activities like allocating resources, making decisions

directing the attitudes of others to achieve goals. Organizational Behaviour helps managers to

gain the following outcomes by replacing intuition with systematic study:

Increasing Productivity

A manager’s main objective should be increasing productivity continuously by changing

employee behavior by applying motivation theories and learning concepts. By doing so the

manager can help the organization to achieve its goals.

An organization is productive if it achieves its goals and does so by transferring inputs to

outputs at the lowest cost. As such, Productivity implies a concern for both effectiveness and

efficiency. For example, a hospital is effective when it successfully meets the needs of its

clientele. It is efficient when it can do so at a low cost. A business firm is effective when it

attains its sales or market share goals, but its productivity also depends on achieving those

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goals efficiency include return on investment, profit per dollar of sales, and output per hour

labor.

Reducing Turnover

Organizational Behavior Studies helps managers to reduce employee turnover rate. Reducing

turnover is one of the main management issues because organizations don’t want their

experienced and skilled workers to lose.

Turnover is the voluntary and permanent withdrawal form an organization. A high turnover

rate results in increased recruiting, selection, and training costs. A high rate of turnover can

also disrupt the efficient running of an organization when knowledgeable and experienced

personal leave and replacements must be found and prepared to assume positions of

responsibility. All organizations, of course, have some turnover. Infect if the “right” people

are leaving the organization-the marginal and sub marginal employee’s turnover can be

positive. But turnover often involves the loss of people the organization does not want to

lose.

Increasing Job satisfaction

Job satisfaction is the difference between the amount of rewards worker receive and the

amount they believe they should receive and the amount they believe they should receive. Job

satisfaction represents an attitude rather than a behavior. The belief that satisfied employees

are productive then dissatisfied employees has been a basic tenet among managers for years.

Although much evidence questions that assumed causal relationship, it can be argued that

advanced societies should be concerned not only with the quantity of life- that is, Concerns

such as productivity and material acquisitions –but also with its quality. Those researchers

with strong humanistic values argue that satisfaction is a legitimate objective of an

organization.

Reduce Absenteeism

Absenteeism is the failure to report to work. Its annual cost has been estimated at over $40

billion for U.S. organizations and $12 billion for Canadian firms. It is obviously difficult for

an organization to operate smoothly and to attain its objectives if employees fail to report to

their jobs. The work flow is disrupted, and the often important decisions must be delayed. In

organization they are rely heavily upon assembly-line production, absenteeism can be

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considerably more than a disruption, It can result in a drastic reduction in quality of output,

and in some cases, it can bring about a complete shutdown of the production facility. But

levels of absenteeism beyond the normal range in any organization have a direct impact on

that organizations effectiveness and efficiency.

Establishing Organizational citizenship

Organization citizenship is discretionary behavior that is not part of an employee’s formal job

requirements, but that nevertheless promotes the effective functioning of the organization.

Successful organizations need employees who will do more than their usual job duties and

provide performance that is beyond expectations. Into days dynamic workplace, where tasks

are increasingly done in teams and where flexibility is critical, organizations need employees

who will engage in “good citizenship” behaviors such as making constructive statement about

their work group and the organization, helping others on their team, volunteering for extra job

activities, avoiding unnecessary conflicts, showing care for organizational property, \

respecting the spirit as well as the letter of rules and regulations, and gracefully tolerating the

occasional work-related impositions and nuisances.

Changing Individual Behaviour

Managers shape individuals behaviour by enforcing learning concepts to solve individual

level of problems.

Operant Conditioning: Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the

occurrence and form of behaviour. Operant conditioning is distinguished from classical

conditioning (also called respondent conditioning, or Pavlovian conditioning) in that operant

conditioning deals with the modification of "voluntary behaviour" or operant behaviour.

Operant behaviour "operates" on the environment and is maintained by its consequences.

Reinforcement and punishment, the core tools of operant conditioning, are either positive

(delivered following a response), or negative (withdrawn following a response). This creates

a total of four basic consequences, with the addition of a fifth procedure known as extinction

(i.e. no change in consequences following a response).

Reinforcement is a consequence that causes behaviour to occur with greater frequency.

Punishment is a consequence that causes behaviour to occur with less frequency.

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Extinction is the lack of any consequence following a response. When a response is

inconsequential, producing neither favourable nor unfavourable consequences, it will occur

with less frequency.

Positive reinforcement occurs when behaviour (response) is followed by a favourable

stimulus (commonly seen as pleasant) that increases the frequency of that behaviour. In the

Skinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food or sugar solution can be delivered when the

rat engages in target behaviour, such as pressing a lever.

Negative reinforcement occurs when a behaviour (response) is followed by the removal of an

aversive stimulus (commonly seen as unpleasant) thereby increasing that behaviour’s

frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, negative reinforcement can be a loud noise

continuously sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages in the target behaviour, such as

pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is removed.

Positive punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent stimulation") occurs when

behaviour (response) is followed by an aversive stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud

noise, resulting in a decrease in that behaviour.

Negative punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent withdrawal") occurs when a

behaviour (response) is followed by the removal of a favourable stimulus, such as taking

away a child's toy following an undesired behaviour, resulting in a decrease in that behaviour

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  Outcome of Conditioning

  Increase Behaviour Decrease Behaviour

Positive

Stimulus

Positive

Reinforcement

(add stimulus)

Response Cost

(remove stimulus)

Negative

Stimulus

Negative

Reinforcement

(remove stimulus)

Punishment

(add stimulus)

Examples of Operant Conditioning

We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us, such as children

completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher or employees finishing

projects to receive praise or promotions. In these examples, the promise or possibility of

rewards causes an increase in behaviour, but operant conditioning can also be used to

decrease behaviour. The removal of an undesirable outcome or the use of punishment can be

used to decrease or prevent undesirable behaviours. For example, a child may be told they

will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may

lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviours.

Classical Conditioning

Also Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning is a form of associative learning that was first

demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov. The typical procedure for inducing classical conditioning

involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance. The

neutral stimulus could be any event that does not result in an overt behavioral response from

the organism under investigation. Pavlov referred to this as a Conditioned Stimulus (CS).

Conversely, presentation of the significant stimulus necessarily evokes an innate, often

reflexive, response. Pavlov called these the Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and Unconditioned

Response (UR), respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two

stimuli become associated and the organism begins to produce a behavioral response to the

CS. Pavlov called this the Conditioned Response (CR).

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Behaviour Analysis

Behaviour analysis is a science concerned with the behaviour of people, what people do and

say, and the behaviour of animals. It attempts to understand, explain, describe and predict

behaviour.

Behaviour analysis differs from most psychological attempts to understand behaviour.

Psychological theories study entities such as “the mind” or “the personality” or “cognitive

structure"” or “self-concept” or “drives.” These are usually viewed as the basic subject matter

of psychology; they are causal and behaviour is merely a derivative of them. Unfortunately,

these assumed entities do not exist in the natural world of the other sciences; they do not

reside in the same physical natural science realm as electrons, atoms, magnetism, cells, and

so forth. Where they actually exist is unclear, perhaps in some “mental” or “hypothetical”

universe. As a result, it is difficult to define and measure them unambiguously and even

harder to understand how they re

Behavioral Problem Solving

Whether we are managers are not, we all solve behavioral problems every day.  Whenever we

attempt to intervene or change the behavior of others, we use some type of behavioral

problem solving process.  Managers in organizations confront behavioral problems on a daily

basis.  Oftentimes they are dealing with behavior of a single individual, making a quick

decision as to what to do.  In other cases, organizations attempt to change behavioral patterns

of hundreds of employees.

Stages of the Behavioral Problem Solving Process

Problem Identification- Behavioral problem solving begins with the identification of the

specific behaviour that is either dysfunctional or that you wish to change. It identifies the

specific group of employees whose behaviour is in question, and justifies the importance of

changing that behaviour. It is generally helpful to relate the desired behaviour to the

organization's competitive advantage. The key outcome of the Problem Identification Stage

is the specification of the Behavioral Gap (also called the Performance Gap), which is the

difference between expected/desired employee behaviour and actual/observed employee

behaviour.

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It is important to refrain from the attribution of causes of the Behavioral Gap in this stage

of the problem solving process. Likewise, these problems should not be defined in terms of

attitudes, personality, or other variables that you believe are causing the Behavioral Gap

Diagnosis- In the diagnosis stage, the problem solver identifies what he or she believes to be

causes of the Behavioral Gap.  This process starts with a First Level Diagnosis.  This level of

diagnosis is used to determine which of the four fundamental causes of performance is

attributable to the performance problem (Motivation, Skills, Role Perception, or

Resources).  This diagnosis may reveal that the Behavioral Gap is a function of more than

one of these fundamental causes.

The Second Level Diagnosis attempts to uncover the root causes of the first level cause.  

For example, if it is determined that the first level cause of the Behavioral Gap is low

motivation, than the second level diagnoses would attempt to determine the root causes of

low motivation. Most successful managers use complex theories of motivation to help them

with this part of the analysis.  Solution Generation- In this stage process, we list a number of

potential solutions to our behavioral problem.  These potential solutions should be aimed

directly at changing the behavior specified in the behavioral gap and should be consistent

with the causes outlined in the diagnosis stage.

Solution Choice- In choosing among the alternative solutions, we consider cost-

effectiveness, likelihood of success, ease of implementation, the level of disruption to other

systems, and likely effect on other organizational stakeholders.

Solution Evaluation- An often forgotten stage of the problem solving process is the

evaluation of the effectiveness of not only the solution chosen (did it eliminate the behavioral

gap), but also the evaluation of the decision-making process.  This is especially important if

the chosen solution did not eliminate or reduce the behavioral gap.  Evaluation of the process

involves questions such as: Were the right people involved? Were the mental models used in

our process accurate? Did the process we used have an adverse effect on the solution chosen?

And what can we do next time to insure a better result?

Using Motivation theories

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Organizational Behaviour helps managers providing motivation theories to motivate

employees in order to:

Promote a healthy work force- satisfy employee’s physiological needs by providing

incentives for mental and physical health

Provide financial security- an important safety need

go beyond traditional forms of compensation

address issue of job security, including out placement services

Promote opportunities to socialize- organize events that help to satisfy social needs

Recognize employee’s accomplishments- award programs satisfy esteem needs

Managers that utilize these tools and ideas can be successful motivators.

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Diagnosis of Behavioral Diagnosis of Behavioral ProblemsProblems

Define Expected or Desired Behaviour

Described actual Behavioral Patterns

GAP: What change in behaviour is desired?

Why does Gap Exist?

Motivation Role Expectations

Skills/Ability/

Knowledge

Resources

Orientation Process

Leader/Team Coaching

Performance Review Process

Selection/Recruitment Process

Training & Development

Process

Inducement SystemsSatisfaction1Motivation2RewardEquity: Perceived

fairnessExpectancy: Perceived tie between ERB and PayTaskTask VarietyConditional Task Feedback

Autonomy, Significance, Identity, ChallengeManagerialAffirmation of worthConditional Social

Feedback validating Self ConceptSocialAffirmation of worthConditional Social Feedback

validating Self Concept

The extent to which expectations are met resulting in positive feelings regarding this inducement systems. Dissatisfaction reduces membership motivation and may reduce the motivation to exhibit Extra Role Behaviour. Removing Dissatisfaction (increasing Satisfaction) generally does not, in itself, motivate ERB.Motivation is a function of the extent to which individual believes increased rewards, positive task feedback, or social feedback are a function of increased performance (ERB). See Sources of Motivation

Leader/Team Coaching

Conclusion

Behaviour generally is predictable if we know how the person perceived the situation and

what is important to him or her. An observer often sees behaviour as non rational because the

observer does not perceive the environment in the same way. Certainly there are differences

between individuals, placed in the same situation all people don’t act exactly alike. However

there are certain fundamental consistencies underlying the behaviour of all individuals that

can be identified and then modified to reflect individual development. Organizational

Behaviour helps managers predict employee behaviour, shape them and remove undesired

behaviours. As management deals with people, Organizational Behaviour Studies helps to

manage these people in a systematic way.

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References

Stephen P. Robbins, 2001, Organizational Behavior, Prentice Hall Inc, Upper Saddle River,

New Jersey, 07458

Stephen P. Robbins, Mary Coulter, 2007, Management, Pearson-Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle

River, New Jersey, 07458

Richard W. Scholl, Professor of Management, University of Rhode Island

September 15, 2002. [Online] Available:

http://www.uri.edu/research/lrc/scholl/Notes/Behavioral_Diagnosis.html

Motivation Theories: Individual Needs [online]. Available:

http://www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/CliffsReviewTopic/Defining-

Motivation.topicArticleId-8944,articleId-8907.html

Organizational Behaviour, Wikipedia [online]. Available:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_behavior#Overview_of_the_field

Organizational Behaviour, [online] Available:

http://iris.nyit.edu/~shartman/mba0299/120_0299.html

What Is Behavior Analysis? [Online] Available on:

www.behavior.org

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