how casinos enable gambling addicts - the atlantic€¦ · money appeared from his occasional wins,...
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7/7/2019 How Casinos Enable Gambling Addicts - The Atlantic
https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2016/12/losing-it-all/505814/ 1/32
NTHEMORNINGofMonday,August13,2012,ScottStevensloadedabrownhuntingbagintohisJeepGrandCherokee,thenwenttothemasterbedroom,wherehehuggedStacy,hiswifeof23years.“Ilove
you,”hetoldher.
Stacythoughtthatherhusbandwasofftoajobinterviewfollowedbyanappointmentwithhistherapist.Instead,hedrovethe22milesfromtheirhomein
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Steubenville,Ohio,totheMountaineerCasino,justoutsideNewCumberland,WestVirginia.HeusedthecasinoATMtocheckhisbank-accountbalance:$13,400.Hewalkedacrossthecasinofloortohisfavoriteslotmachineinthehigh-limitarea:TripleStars,athree-reelgamethatcost$10aspin.Maybethistimeitwouldpayoutenoughtosavehim.
Itdidn’t.Hespentthenextfourhoursburningthrough$13,000fromtheaccount,plugginganywinningsbackintothemachine,untilhehadonly$4,000left.Aroundnoon,hegaveup.
Stevens,52,leftthecasinoandwroteafive-pagelettertoStacy.AformerchiefoperatingofficeratLouisBerkmanInvestment,hegavehercarefulfinancialinstructionsthatwouldenablehertoavoidresponsibilityforhislossesandkeephercreditintact:Shewastodeposittheenclosedcheckfor$4,000;moveherfundsintoanewcheckingaccount;declinetopaythemoneyheowedtheBellagiocasinoinLasVegas;disregardhiscredit-carddebt(itwasinhisnamealone);filehertaxreturns;andsignupforSocialSecuritysurvivorbenefits.Heaskedthatshehavehimcremated.
Hewrotethathewas“cryinglikeababy”ashethoughtabouthowmuchhelovedherandtheirthreedaughters.“OurfamilyonlyhasachanceifI’mnotaroundtobringusdownanyfurther,”hewrote.“I’msosorrythatI’mputtingyouthroughthis.”
Heplacedtheletterandthecheckinanenvelope,drovetotheSteubenvillepostoffice,andmailedit.ThenheheadedtotheJeffersonKiwanisYouthSoccerClub.Hehadraisedfundsforthesegreenfields,tendedthemwithhislawnmower,andwatchedhisdaughtersplayonthem.
StevensparkedhisJeepinthegravellotandcalledRickyGurbst,aClevelandattorneywhosefirm,SquirePattonBoggs,representedBerkman,whereStevenshadworkedfor14years—untilsixandahalfmonthsearlier,whenthefirmdiscoveredthathehadbeenstealingcompanyfundstofeedhisgamblinghabitandfiredhim.
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Stevenshadarequest:“Pleaseaskthecompanytocontinuetopaymydaughters’collegetuition.”Hehadreceivednotificationthatthetuitionbenefitthecompanyhadprovidedwouldbediscontinuedforthefallsemester.Failinghisdaughtershadbeenthefinalblow.
Gurbstsaidhewouldpassalongtherequest.
ThenStevenstoldGurbstthathewasgoingtokillhimself.
“What?Wait.”
“That’swhatI’mgoingtodo,”Stevenssaid,andpromptlyhungup.
HenextcalledJ.TimothyBender,aClevelandtaxattorneywhohadbeenadvisinghimontheIRS’sinvestigationintohisembezzlement.Upuntilthatpoint,hehadputonabravefaceforBender,sayinghewouldacceptresponsibilityandservehistime.NowhetoldBenderwhathewasabouttodo.Alarmed,Bendertriedtotalkhimoutofit.“Look,thisishardenough,”Stevenssaid.“I’mgoingtodoit.”Click.
At4:01p.m.,StevenstextedStacy.“Iloveyou.”Hethentextedthesamemessagetoeachofhisthreedaughtersinsuccession.
Hetookoffhisglasses,hisglucosemonitor,andhisinsulinpump—Stevenswasadiabetic—andtuckedthemneatlyintohisbluethermallunchbagwiththesandwichandapplehehadn’ttouched.
HeunpackedhisBrowningsemiautomatic12-gaugeshotgun,loadedit,andsatononeoftherailroadtiesthatrimmedtheparkinglot.
Thenhedialed911andtoldthedispatcherhisplan.
COTTSTEVENSHADN’Talwaysbeenagambler.AnativeofRochester,NewYork,heearnedamaster’sdegreeinbusinessandfinanceattheUniversityofRochesterandbuiltasuccessfulcareer.Hewonthetrustof
thesteelmagnateLouisBerkmanandworkedhiswayuptothepositionofCOOinBerkman’scompany.Hewasmeticulousaboutfinances,bothprofessionallyand
7/7/2019 How Casinos Enable Gambling Addicts - The Atlantic
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personally.WhenhefirstmetStacy,in1988,heinsistedthatshepayoffhercredit-carddebtimmediately.“Yourcreditisallyouhave,”hetoldher.
Theymarriedthefollowingyear,hadthreedaughters,andsettledintoacomfortablelifeinSteubenvillethankstohispositionwithBerkman’scompany:asix-figuresalary,threecars,twocountry-clubmemberships,vacationstoMexico.Stevensdotedonhisgirlsandthrewhimselfintocausesthatbenefitedthem.Inadditiontothesoccerfields,heraisedmoneytorenovatethemiddleschool,tobuildanewsciencelab,andtosupporttheFrenchClub’striptoFrance.Hespenttimeonweekendspaintingthehigh-schoolcafeteriaandstrippingthehallwayfloors.
Stevensgothisfirsttasteofcasinogamblingwhileattendinga2006tradeshowinLasVegas.Onasubsequenttrip,hehitajackpotonaslotmachineandwashooked.
ScottandStacysoonbeganmakingseveraltripsayeartoVegas.Shelikedshopping,sittingbythepool,evenoccasionallyplayingtheslotswithherhusband.TheybroughtthekidsinthesummerandmadeafamilyvacationofitbyvisitingtheGrandCanyon,theHooverDam,andDisneyland.Backhome,StevensbecamearegularattheMountaineerCasino.Overthenextsixyears,hisgamblinghobbybecameanaddiction.Thoughhewonoccasionaljackpots,someofthemsixfigures,helostfarmore—asmuchas$4.8millioninasingleyear.
DidScottStevensdiebecausehewasunabletoreininhisownaddictiveneedtogamble?Orwashethevictimofasystemcarefullycalibratedtopreyonhisweakness?
Stevensmethodicallyconcealedhisaddictionfromhiswife.Hehandledallthecouple’sfinances.Hekeptseparatebankaccounts.Heusedhisworkaddressforhisgamblingcorrespondence:W-2Gs(theIRSformusedtoreportgamblingwinnings),wiretransfers,casinomailings.Evenhisbestfriendandbrother-in-law,CarlNelson,whooccasionallygambledalongsideStevens,hadnoinklingofhis
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problem.“IwasshockedwhenIfoundoutafterwards,”hesays.“TherewasawholeScottIdidn’tknow.”
WhenStevensranoutofmoneyatthecasino,hewouldleave,writeacompanycheckononeoftheBerkmanaccountsforwhichhehadcheck-cashingprivileges,andreturntothecasinowithmorecash.Hesometimesdidthisthreeorfourtimesinasingleday.Hiscolleaguesdidnotquestionhisabsencesfromtheoffice,becausehisjobinvolvedoverseeingvariouscompaniesindifferentlocations.Bythetimethefirmdetectedirregularitiesandheadmittedtheextentofhisembezzlement,Stevens—thelikable,responsible,trustworthycompanyman—hadstolennearly$4million.
Stacyhadnoidea.InVegas,Stevenshadalwayskeptplanstojoinherandthegirlsforlunch.Athome,hewasalwaysontimefordinner.Saturdaymornings,whenhetoldherhewasheadedintotheoffice,shedidn’tquestionhim—sheknewhehadalotofresponsibilities.SoshewasstunnedwhenhecalledherwithbadnewsonJanuary30,2012.Shewasonthestairswithaloadoflaundrywhenthephonerang.
“Stace,Ihavesomethingtotellyou.”
Sheheardtheburdeninhisvoice.“Whodied?”
“It’ssomethingIhavetotellyouonthephone,becauseIcan’tlookinyoureyes.”
Hepaused.Shewaited.
“Imightbecominghomewithoutajobtoday.I’vetakensomemoney.”
“Forwhat?”
“Thatdoesn’tmatter.”
“Howmuch?Tenthousanddollars?”
“No.”
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“More?Onehundredthousand?”
“Stace,it’senough.”
Stevensneverdidcomecleanwithherabouthowmuchhehadstolenorabouthowoftenhehadbeengambling.Evenafterhewasfired,Stevenskeptgamblingasoftenasfiveorsixtimesaweek.Hegambledonhisweddinganniversaryandonhisdaughters’birthdays.Stacynoticedthathewasirritablemorefrequentlythanusualandthathesometimessnappedatthegirls,butshefiguredthatitwasthefalloutofhisunemployment.Whenheheadedtothecasino,hetoldherhewasgoingtoseehistherapist,thathewasnetworking,thathehadotherappointments.Whenmoneyappearedfromhisoccasionalwins,heclaimedthathehadbeendoingsomeonlinetrading.Whiletheylivedoff$50,000thatStacyhadinaseparatesavingsaccount,hedrainedtheir401(k)of$150,000,emptied$50,000outofhiswife’sanddaughters’ETradeaccounts,maxedouthiscreditcard,andlostallofa$110,000personalloanhe’dtakenoutfromPNCBank.
Stacydidnottrulyunderstandtheextentofherhusband’saddictionuntiltheafternoonthreepoliceofficersshowedupatherfrontdoorwiththenewsofhisdeath.
Afterward,Stacystudiedgamblingaddictionandthewaysslotmachinesenticecustomerstopartwiththeirmoney.In2014,shefiledalawsuitagainstbothMountaineerCasinoandInternationalGameTechnology,themanufactureroftheslotmachinesherhusbandplayed.AtissuewasthefundamentalquestionofwhokilledScottStevens.Didhediebecausehewasunabletoreininhisownaddictiveneedtogamble?Orwashethevictim—asthesuitalleged—ofasystemcarefullycalibratedtopreyuponhisweakness,onethatrobbedhimofhismoney,hishope,andultimatelyhislife?
ESSTHAN��YEARSAGO,casinogamblingwasillegaleverywhereintheUnitedStatesoutsideofNevadaandAtlanticCity,NewJersey.ButsinceCongresspassedtheIndianGamingRegulatoryActin1988,tribaland
commercialcasinoshaverapidlyproliferatedacrossthecountry,withsome1,000
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nowoperatingin40states.Casinopatronsbetmorethan$37billionannually—morethanAmericansspendtoattendsportingevents($17.8billion),gotothemovies($10.7billion),andbuymusic($6.8billion)combined.
Thepreferredmodeofgamblingthesedaysiselectronicgamingmachines,ofwhichtherearenowalmost1millionnationwide,offeringvariationsonslotsandvideopoker.Theirprevalencehasacceleratedaddictionandreapedhugeprofitsforcasinooperators.Asignificantportionofcasinorevenuenowcomesfromasmallpercentageofcustomers,mostofthemlikelyaddicts,playingmachinesthataredesignedexplicitlytolullthemintoatrancelikestatethattheindustryreferstoas“continuousgamingproductivity.”(Ina2010report,theAmericanGamingAssociation,anindustrytradegroup,claimedthat“theprevalenceofpathologicalgambling…isnohighertodaythanitwasin1976,whenNevadawastheonlystatewithlegalslotmachines.And,despitethepopularityofslotmachinesandthedecadesofinnovationsurroundingthem,whenadjustedforinflation,therehasnotbeenasignificantincreaseintheamountspentbycustomersonslot-machinegamblingduringanaveragecasinovisit.”)
“Themanufacturersknowthesemachinesareaddictiveanddotheirbesttomakethemaddictivesotheycanmakemoremoney,”saysTerryNoffsinger,theleadattorneyontheStevenssuit.“Thisisn’tnegligence.It’sintentional.”
Noffsinger,72,hasbeenherebefore.Asoft-spokenpersonal-injuryattorneybasedinIndiana,hehasfiledtwopreviouslawsuitsagainstcasinos.In2001,hesuedAztarIndianaGaming,ofEvansville,onbehalfofDavidWilliams,then51yearsold,whohadbeenanauditorfortheStateofIndiana.Williamsbegangamblingafterhereceiveda$20voucherinthemailfromCasinoAztar.Hedevelopedagamblingaddictionthatcosthimeverything,whichinhiscaseamountedtoabout$175,000.NoffsingerallegedthatAztarhadviolatedthe1970RacketeerInfluencedandCorruptOrganizationsActbyengagingina“patternofracketeeringactivity”—usingthemailtodefraudWilliamswithcontinuedenticementstoreturntothecasino.ButtheU.S.DistrictCourtfortheSouthernDistrictofIndianagrantedsummaryjudgmentinfavorofAztar,andtheU.S.CourtofAppealsforthe
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SeventhCircuitinstructedthedistrictcourttodismissthecase,declaring,“Evenifthestatementsinthesecommunicationscouldbeconsidered‘false’or‘misrepresentations,’itisclearthattheyarenothingmorethansalespufferyonwhichnopersonofordinaryprudenceandcomprehensionwouldrely.”
Fouryearslater,NoffsingerfiledasuitonbehalfofJennyKephart,then52yearsold,againstCaesarsRiverboatCasino,inElizabeth,Indiana,allegingthatthecasino,awarethatKephartwasapathologicalgambler,knowinglyenticedherintogamblinginordertoprofitfromheraddiction.KepharthadfiledforbankruptcyaftergoingbrokegamblinginIowa,andmovedtoTennessee.Butaftersheinheritedcloseto$1million,CaesarsbeganinvitinghertotheIndianariverboatcasino,whereshegambledawaythatinheritanceandmore.Whenthecasinosuedherfordamagesonthemoneysheowed,Kephartcountersued.ShedeniedthebasisoftheCaesarssuitonnumerousgrounds,includingthatbygivingher“excessiveamountsofalcohol…andthenclaimingthatitwasinjuredbyheractionsorinactions,”CaesarswaivedanyclaimitmighthavehadfordamagesunderIndianalaw.AlthoughKephartultimatelylosthercountersuit,thecasewentallthewaytotheIndianaSupremeCourt,whichruledin2010thatthetrialcourthadbeenmistakenindenyingCaesars’smotiontodismisshercounterclaim.“Theexistenceofthevoluntaryexclusionprogram,”thejudgewrote,referringtotheoptionIndianaofferspeopletobanthemselvesfromcasinosinthestate,“suggeststhelegislatureintendedpathologicalgamblerstotakepersonalresponsibilitytopreventandprotectthemselvesagainstcompulsivegambling.”(Caesarsdidnotrespondtorepeatedrequestsforcomment.)
NoffsingerhadbeenplanningtoretirebeforehereceivedStacyStevens’sphonecall.ButafterhearingthedetailsofScottStevens’ssituation—whichhadfarmoreseriousconsequencesthanhisprevioustwocases—heeventuallychangedhismind.Unlikeinhisearliergamblingcases,however,hedecidedtoincludeaproducts-liabilityclaiminthisone,essentiallyarguingthatslotmachinesareknowinglydesignedtodeceiveplayerssothatwhentheyareusedasintended,theycauseharm.
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Infocusingonthequestionofproductliability,Noffsingerwasborrowingfromtherulebookofearlyantitobaccolitigationstrategy,which,overthecourseofseveraldecadesandcountlesslawsuits,ultimatelysucceededingettingcourtstoholdtheindustryliableforthedamageitwroughtonpublichealth.Noffsinger’shopewastodothesamewiththegamblingindustry.WhenNoffsingerfiledtheStevenslawsuit,JohnW.Kindt,aprofessorofbusinessandlegalpolicyattheUniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaign,describeditasapotential“blockbustercase.”
VENBYTHEESTIMATESoftheNationalCenterforResponsibleGaming,whichwasfoundedbyindustrymembers,1.1to1.6percentoftheadultpopulationintheUnitedStates—approximately3millionto4million
Americans—hasagamblingdisorder.ThatismorethanthenumberofwomenlivingintheU.S.withahistoryofbreastcancer.Thecenterestimatesthatanother2to3percentofadults,oranadditional5millionto8millionAmericans,meetssomeoftheAmericanPsychiatricAssociation’scriteriaforaddictionbuthavenotyetprogressedtothepathological,ordisordered,stage.Othersoutsidetheindustryestimatethenumberofgamblingaddictsinthecountrytobehigher.
Suchaddictssimplycannotstopthemselves,regardlessoftheconsequences.“Whenyou’redealingwithanaddictactiveintheiraddiction,they’velostalljudgment,”saysValerieLorenz,theauthorofCompulsiveGambling:What’sItAll
About?“Theycan’tcontroltheirbehavior.”
Gamblingisadrug-freeaddiction.Yetdespitethefactthatthereisnoexternalchemicalatworkonthebrain,theneurologicalandphysiologicalreactionstothestimulusaresimilartothoseofdrugoralcoholaddicts.Somegamblingaddictsreportthattheyexperienceahighresemblingthatproducedbyapowerfuldrug.Likedrugaddicts,theydevelopatolerance,andwhentheycannotgamble,theyshowsignsofwithdrawalsuchaspanicattacks,anxiety,insomnia,headaches,andheartpalpitations.
Approximately3millionto4millionAmericansarepathologicalgamblers—andoneinfivegamblingaddicts
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attemptssuicide.
Neuroscientistshavediscoveredcharacteristicsthatappeartobeuniquetothebrainsofaddicts,particularlyinthedopaminergicsystem,whichincludesrewardpathways,andintheprefrontalcortex,whichexertsexecutivecontroloverimpulses.“We’veseenadisregulatedrewardsystem,”saysJonGrant,aprofessorinthedepartmentofpsychiatryandbehavioralneuroscienceattheUniversityofChicago.“Thefrontalpartsofthebrainthattellus‘Hey,stop!’arelessactive,andpartsthatanticipaterewardstendtobestronger.”
Gamblingaddictsmayhaveageneticpredisposition,thoughaspecificmarkerhasnotyetbeenuncovered.Environmentalfactorsandpersonalitytraits—abiggamblingwinwithinthepastyear,companionswhogambleregularly,impulsivity,depression—mayalsocontributetothedevelopmentofagamblingproblem.Whateverthecauses,there’swidespreadagreementthatcertainsegmentsofthepopulationaresimplymorevulnerabletoaddiction.“Youcan’tturnonandturnoffcertainactivitiesofthebrain,”saysRezaHabib,apsychologyprofessoratSouthernIllinoisUniversity.“It’sanautomaticphysiologicalresponse.”
ScottStevens’sstoryisnotanomalous.Giventheguiltandshameinvolved,gamblingaddictionfrequentlyprogressestoaprofounddespair.TheNationalCouncilonProblemGamblingestimatesthatoneinfivegamblingaddictsattemptssuicide—thehighestrateamongaddictsofanykind.Therearenoaccuratefiguresforsuicidesrelatedtogamblingproblems,butthereareampleanecdotes:thepoliceofficerwhoshothimselfintheheadataDetroitcasino;theaccountantwhojumpedtohisdeathfromaLondonskyscraperindespairoverhisonline-gamblingaddiction;the24-year-oldstudentwhokilledhimselfinLasVegasafterlosinghisfinancial-aidmoneytogambling;and,ofcourse,Stevenshimself.
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ROBLEMGAMBLERSAREworthalotofmoneytocasinos.Accordingtosomeresearch,20percentofregulargamblersareproblemorpathologicalgamblers.Moreover,whentheygamble,theyspend—whichistosay,lose
—morethanotherplayers.Atleastnineindependentstudiesdemonstratethatproblemgamblersgenerateanywherefrom30to60percentoftotalgamblingrevenues.
Casinosknowexactlywhotheirbiggestspendersare.Accordingtoa2001articleinTimemagazine,backinthe1990scasinooperatorsboughtrecordsfromcredit-cardcompaniesandmailinglistsfromdirect-mailmarketers.Oneofthelatter,titledthe“CompulsiveGamblersSpecial,”promisedtodeliverthenamesof200,000peoplewith“unquenchableappetitesforallformsofgambling.”Thecasinosusedtheserecordsandliststotargetcompulsivegamblers—asCaesarswasallegedtohavedonewithJennyKephart.
Thesedays,thecasinoshavetheirowninternalmethodsfordeterminingwhotheirmostattractivecustomersare.AccordingtoNatashaDowSchüll,anNYUprofessor
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whospentmorethan15yearsresearchingtheindustry,culminatinginher2012book,AddictionbyDesign:MachineGamblinginLasVegas,70percentofpatronsnowuseloyaltycards,whichallowthecasinostotracksuchdatapointsashowfrequentlytheyplayelectronicgamingmachines,howlongtheyplay,howmuchtheybet,howoftentheywinandlose,whattimesofdaytheyvisit,andsoon.EachtimeapatronhitstheSpinortheDealbutton,whichcanbeasfrequentlyas900to1,200timesanhour,thecasinoregistersthedata.Evengamblerswhochoosetoforgoloyaltycardsdonotnecessarilyescapethecasino’swatchfuleye.Insomemachines,miniaturecameraswatchtheirfacesandtracktheirplayingbehavior.
SeveralcompaniessupplycasinoswithATMsthatallowpatronstowithdrawfundsthroughbothdebitandcash-advancefunctions,insomecaseswithouteverleavingthemachinestheyareplaying.(SomeofthecompaniesalsosellinformationontheirATMcustomerstothecasinos.)“Thewholepremiseofthecasinoistogetpeopletoexceedtheirlimits,”saysLesBernal,thenationaldirectoroftheadvocacyorganizationStopPredatoryGambling.“Ifyou’reusingthecasinoATM,it’slikepaintingyourselforange.”
Allofthesedatahaveenabledcasinostospecificallytargettheirmostreliablespenders,primarilyproblemgamblersandoutrightaddicts.Despitethosecustomers’biglosses—orrather,becauseoftheirlosses—thecasinoslurethemtoreturnwithperksthatincludecomplimentarydrinksandmeals,limoservice,freebiesfromthecasinogiftshop,golfexcursionsfortheirnongamblingspouses,andinsomecasesevenfirst-classairfareandsuitesinfive-starhotels.Theyalsoemployhostswhobefriendlargespendersandusespecialofferstoencouragethemtostaylongerorreturnsoon.Somehostsreceivebonusesthataretiedtotheamountcustomersspendbeyondtheirexpectedlosses,whicharecalculatedusingthedatagatheredfrompreviousvisits.AsRichardDaynard,alawprofessoratNortheasternUniversityandthepresidentofthePublicHealthAdvocacyInstitute,explainedatthegroup’sforumoncasinogamblinginthefallof2014,“Thebusinessplanforcasinosisnotbasedontheoccasionalgambler.Thebusinessplanforcasinosisbasedontheaddictedgambler.”
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Casinoshavedevelopedformulastocalculatethe“predictedlifetimevalue”ofanygivenindividualgambler.Gamblersareassignedvaluerankingsbasedonthisamount;thebiggestlosersarereferredtoas“whales.”Thesegamblersbecomethecasinos’mostsought-afterrepeatcustomers,theonestowhomtheymarketmostaggressivelywithcustomizedperksandVIPtreatment.
CarolineRichardson,forexample,becameawhalefortheAmeristarCasinoinCouncilBluffs,Iowa.In2011alone,shelostnearly$2million,primarilyonthecasino’sslotmachines.Thecasinoallegedlyallowedhertogobehindthecashier’s“cage,”anareanormallyoff-limitstopatrons,tocollectcashtogamble.Itincreasedthelimitsonsomeslotmachinessothatshecouldspendmoreonsinglegames.Italsomadeanewmachineoff-limitstoothercustomerssothatRichardsoncouldbethefirsttoplayit.ManagementassignedRichardsonanexecutivehost,whoofferedherfreedrinks,meals,hotelstays,andticketstoentertainmentevents.
SoclaimedasuitbroughtagainstthecasinobyRichardson’semployer,ColomboCandy&TobaccoWholesale.Richardson,thecompany’scontroller,embezzled$4.1millionoverthecourseoftwoyearstosupporthergamblingaddiction.(In2014,Richardson,then54,wassentencedto14to20yearsinprisonforthecrime.)Thetheftsultimatelyputthecompanyoutofbusiness.ThesuitclaimedthatthecasinohadamplereasontopresumethatRichardson,whoearnedabout$62,000ayear,hadcomeintothemoneyshegambledbyfraudulentmeans.(ArepresentativeforAmeristarCasinodeclinedtocommentonthelawsuit.)
TheU.S.DistrictCourtforNebraskaagreedthatColombohadsufficientlyproveditsinitialclaimofunjustenrichment,whichthecasinowouldhavetodefenditselfagainst.Thesuit,however,stalledwhenColombo’spresidentandCEO,MonteBrown,andhiswife,Jenise,ranoutofmoneytopaytheirattorneysandhadtofileforpersonalbankruptcy.“Theyfoundsomeonewhohadtheaddictionandtheabilitytosteal,andtheyexploitedit,”MonteBrownsays.“Thecasinoembezzledfromusthroughanemployee.”Jeniseadds,“Forpeopletodothattootherpeople,it’sevil.”
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ALKINTOTHEMountaineerCasinoinWestVirginia,andtheslotmachinesoverwhelmyou—morethan1,500ofthem,lightsblinking,animatedscreensflashing,thesimulatedsoundofclinkingcoins
blaringacrossthefloor.ThemachineshavenamessuchasKingMidas,RichDevil,CashIllusions,Titanic,andWizardofOz.It’saTuesdayafternoon,andhereinsidethewindowless,clockless,cavernousspace,afewpatronsareclusteredaroundacrapstable,aroulettetable,andahandfulofcardtables.Butthevastmajoritysitattheslotmachines.SlotsandvideopokerhavebecomethelifebloodoftheAmerican
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casino.Theygeneratenearly70percentofcasinorevenues,accordingtoa2010AmericanGamingAssociationreport,upfrom45percentfourdecadesago.Threeoutoffivecasinovisitorssaytheirfavoriteactivityisplayingelectronicgamingmachines.Theirpopularityspellsprofitsnotonlyforcasinosbutformanufacturersaswell.InternationalGameTechnology,which,astheworld’slargestmanufacturerofslotmachines,hasmademanyofthe900,000-plusslotmachinesintheU.S.,earned$2.1billioninrevenuesinfiscalyear2014.(Thatyear,Gtech,anItalianlotterycompany,acquiredIGTandadopteditsnameina$6.4billiondeal.)
Thesearenotyourgrandma’sone-armedbandits.Today’selectronicgamingmachines,orEGMs,featurehighlysophisticatedcomputersdrivenbycomplexalgorithms.Old-fashionedthree-reelslotmachinesconsistedofphysicalreelsthatweresetspinningbythepullofalever.Eachreelwouldhave,forexample,22“stops”:11differentsymbols,and11blankspacesbetweenthesymbols,foratotalof10,648possiblecombinations.Ifthesamesymbolalignedonthepaylineonallthreereelswhentheystoppedspinning,theplayerwouldwinajackpotthatvariedinsizedependingonthesymbol.Theoddswerestraightforwardandnotterriblyhardtocalculate.
Thebigbreakthroughinslotstechnologywastheinventionof“virtualreelmapping”in1982.AccordingtoNYU’sSchüll,about20to30percentofslotmachinestodayresembletheold-fashionedones,withphysicalspinningreels.Butwhereeachreelstopsisnolongerdeterminedbytheforceofagoodpullofthelever.Rather,acomputerchipwithinthemachinechoosesanoutcomeusing“virtualreels,”whichmayincludedifferentquantitiesofthevarioussymbols—moreblankspaces,forinstance,andfewersymbolsforbigjackpots.Thephysicalreelsarenotspinninguntiltheyrunoutofmomentum,asitmightappear.Rather,thechips“tell”themwheretostopthemomentacustomerpullstheleverorpushesthebutton.Thusitispossibleforgamedesignerstoreducetheoddsofhittingabigjackpotfrom1in10,648to1in137million.Moreover,itisalmostimpossibleforaslotsplayertohaveanyideaoftheactualoddsofwinninganyjackpot,howeverlargeorsmall.
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Virtualreelmappinghasalsoenabledadeliberatelymisleadingfeature,the“nearmiss.”That’swhenajackpotsymbolappearsdirectlyaboveorbelowthepayline.Theintentistogivetheplayertheimpressionofhavingalmostwon—when,infact,heorsheisnoclosertohavingwonthanifthesymbolhadnotappearedonthereelatall.Someslotmachinesarespecificallyprogrammedtoofferupthisnear-missresultfarmoreoftenthantheywouldiftheyoperatedbysheerchance,andthepsychologicalimpactcanbepowerful,leadingplayerstothink,Iwassoclose.Maybenexttime.(AsI.NelsonRose,aprofessoratWhittierLawSchoolandtheauthorofGamblingandtheLaw,haswritten,Nevadaregulationsoperateonthetheorythatasophisticatedplayerwouldbeabletotelltherealoddsofwinningbyplayingamachinelongenough.ThegamblingindustrymaintainsthatdeceptivenearmissesdonotoccurinNorthAmericangamingmachines,butasSchüllhasnoted,ithasdevelopedamorenarrowdefinitionofdeceptivenearmisses,whichstillallowsfor“subliminalinducements.”)
“Thebusinessplanforcasinosisnotbasedontheoccasionalgambler.Thebusinessplanforcasinosisbasedontheaddictedgambler.”
Researchhasshownthatanelevatednumberofnear-missresultsdoesincreaseplayingtime.Indeed,asearlyas1953,B.F.Skinner,thegodfatherofmodernbehaviorism,noted,“ ‘Almosthittingthejackpot’increasestheprobabilitythattheindividualwillplaythemachine.”Thiseffectisevenstrongerforgamblingaddicts,whosebrainsrespondtonearmissesmorelikewinsthanlikelosses.“Thenearmisses[trigger]thesamebrainresponseasawin,”saysRezaHabib,theSouthernIllinoisUniversitypsychologyprofessor.
Yetanotherfeaturemadepossiblebyvirtualreelmappingistheunevendistributionofwinningsymbolsamongvirtualreels,knownas“starvingreels.”Forinstance,a7maycomeupfourtimesonthefirstvirtualreelandfivetimesonthesecondbutonlyonceonthethird.Thefirsttworeelsarethusmuchmorelikelytohita7thanthelastone,butyouwouldn’tknowthisbylookingatthephysicalreels.Justasthe
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crapsplayerexpectsthedicetobenumbered1to6andtheblackjackplayerexpectsthedealertouseconventionaldecksof52cards,it’snaturalfortheslot-machineplayertoexpectequaloddsoneachofthereels,saysRogerHorbay,aformergambling-addictiontherapistandanexpertonelectronicgamingmachines.“UnbalancedreeldesignenablesEGMstopresenttotheplayerscreenswhicharerichinsymbolsbutwhicharedesignedtolimitwinningcombinationsinamannerincommensuratewiththeappearanceofthescreen,”Horbaywritesin“UnbalancedReelGamingMachines,”apaperheco-authoredwithTimFalkinerin2006.
Astonishingly,thepatentapplicationforvirtualreelmapping,thetechnologythatmadeallthesedeceptivepracticespossible,wasstraightforwardaboutitsintendeduse:“Itisimportant,”theapplicationstated,“tomakeamachinethatisperceivedtopresentgreaterchancesofpayoffthanitactuallyhaswithinthelegallimitationsthatgamesofchancemustoperate.”CountriessuchasAustraliaandNewZealandhaveoutlawedvirtualreelmappingbecauseoftheharmtheinherentdeceptioninflictsuponplayers.
IntheUnitedStates,bycontrast,thefederalgovernmentgrantedthepatentforvirtualreelmappingin1984.IGTpurchasedtherightstoitin1989andlaterlicensedthepatenttoothercompanies.“Imaginesittingaroundaboardroomtable,thinkingofwhat’sfair,andcomingupwiththis,”saysKevinHarrigan,aco-directorofagambling-researchlabattheUniversityofWaterloo,inOntario.“Itjustseemswrongtome.”
TheNevadaStateGamingControlBoardapprovedvirtual-reelslotmachinesin1983.Interestingly,duringhearingsonthesubject,RayPike,theattorneyrepresentingIGT—theverycompanythatwouldsubsequentlybuytherightstothepatentforvirtualreelmappingandmanufacturehundredsofthousandsofslotmachines—calledtheseoverrepresentednearmisses“falseadvertising,”adding,“Thereisadeceptioninvolvedwiththiskindofamachine.”Yethealsostatedthatiftheboardapprovedvirtualreelmapping,“certainlywewouldliketobeabletodo
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that”—createtheappearanceofnearmissesaboveandbelowthepayline—“becauseIthinkthatisacompetitiveadvantage.”
Ofcourse,classic,spinning-reelslotmachinesmakeuponlyafractionoftheelectronicgamingmachinesavailableatmostcasinos.Technologyhasevolvedsuchthatmanymachineslackphysicalreelsaltogether,insteadmerelyprojectingthelikenessesofspinningsymbolsontoavideoscreen.Thesemachinesallow“multiline”play,aninnovationthatbecamecommoninthe1990s.Insteadofbettingononesimplepayline,playersareabletobetonmultiplepatternsofpaylines—asmanyas200onsomemachines.Thisallowsformoreopportunitiestowin,buttheresultsareoftendeceptive.Forinstance,ifyoubet$1oneachoffivedifferentpatternsandthengeta$3payoutononepattern,themachinewilltreatyoulikeawinner,withflashinglightsandcongratulatoryvideosandtherequisiteclinkingofvirtualcoins.Thereality,ofcourse,isthatyouhavelost$2.
“Thebrainsomehowregistersawin,”KevinHarrigansays.“Nomatterwhatyouthink,physicallyyou’rebeingaffectedbythesethings—thelights,thesounds,thegraphics—asawin.Youcanget150to200ofthesefalsewins,whichwealsocalllosses,anhour.That’salotofpositivereinforcement.”
Lossesdisguisedaswinsalsocreatea“smootherride,”assomewithintheindustrycallit,allowingamachinetoslowlydepleteaplayer’scashreserves,ratherthantakingtheminafewlargeswipes.Becausethemachineistellingtheplayerheorsheiswinning,thegradualsiphoningislessnoticeable.
Relatedtothevideoslotmachinesarevideo-pokerterminals,whichIGTbeganpopularizingin1979.Thestandardfive-card-drawgameshowsfivecards,eachofferingplayerstheoptiontoholdorreplacebydrawingacardfromthe47remaininginthevirtualdeck.Thegamesrequiremoreskill—oratleastabasicunderstandingofprobabilities—thantheslotmachinesdo.Assuch,theyappealtopeoplewhowanttohavesomesenseofexertingcontrolovertheoutcome.
Butovertime,designersofvideo-pokermachinesdiscoveredthattheycouldinfluencegamblers’behaviorbymanipulatinggamedetails.Theysaw,forinstance,
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patronsgoingmoreoftenforfourofakindthantheroyalflush,ararerbutmorelucrativehand,andtheyadjustedthemachinesaccordingly.Videopokeralsooffersitsownversionoflossesdisguisedaswins.Today’s“multihand”video-pokermachines—triple-play,10-play,andeven100-play—allowpatronstoplaymultiplehandssimultaneously.Thiscreatesanexperiencesimilartomultilineslots,inwhichplayersarelikelyto“winback”aportionofeachbetbyfrequentlyhittingsmallpotsevenastheyaresteadilylosingmoneyoverall.
Regardlessofthemachine—slots,videopoker—casinos’ultimategoalistomaximizeplayers’“timeondevice.”Thisiscrucialforcasinos,becausegivenenoughtime,thehousealwayswins.Localregulationstypicallystipulatethatmachinesmustpayout85to95percentofthebetsplacedonthem—whichmeansthatforevery$100insertedintothemachine,onaverage,theplayerwilllose$5to$15.Whatevertheexactfigure,thehouseoddsmakeitsuchthatifaplayerplayslongenough,shewilleventuallylosehermoney.
ECHNOLOGICALINNOVATIONShavenotonlyrenderedelectronicgamingmachineswildlyprofitable;theyhavealso,accordingtoexperts,madethemmoreaddictive.“They’recreatingproblemgamblersasmuchas
theyarepreyinguponproblemgamblers,”saysNatashaSchüll.
Acrucialelementinmoderngamblingmachinesisspeed.Individualhandsorspinscanbecompletedinjustthreeorfourseconds.Wanderthroughacasinoatalmostanyhour,andyou’llseepeopletransfixedbeforethemachines,theirfingerspoisedoverthebuttons,jabbingatthemlikeratsincages.Theabilitytoimmediatelyaccessadditionalcashatmanymachines“shrink[s]thetimethattranspiresbetweenaplayer’simpulsetocontinuegamblingandthemeanstocontinuegambling,thusminimizingthepossibilityforreflectionandself-stoppingthatmightariseinthatpause,”SchüllwritesinAddictionbyDesign.They’relulledintoa“stateofsuspendedanimationthatgamblerscallthezone.”
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Formanygamblingaddicts,thezoneitselfbecomesmoredesirableeventhanwinning.Schülldescribesitas“astateofongoing,undiminishedpossibilitythatcametotrumpthefiniterewardofawin.”Thezoneprovidesanescapefromlife’sdailytroubles,frompasttrauma,andevenfromthegamblingdebtaccumulatingwitheachspin.Playershavegonefor14,15,16hoursormoreplayingcontinuously.Theyhavebecomesoabsorbedinthemachinesthattheylefttheir
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youngchildrenunattendedincars,wetthemselveswithoutnoticing,andneglectedtoeatforhours.
Casinosandgamedesignershavecomeupwithmanywaystokeeppatronsattheirmachinesandplayingrapidly.Thechairsareergonomicallydesignedsothatsomeonecansitcomfortablyforlongstretches.Winningscanbeconvertedbacktocreditsorprintedonvoucherstoberedeemedlater.Waitressescomebytotakedrinkorders,obviatingtheneedforplayerstogetupatall.
Theall-consumingnatureofelectronicgamingmachinesalsospeedsuptheonsetofaddiction,whichhasearnedslotmachinesdescriptionssuchas“electronicmorphine”andthe“crackcocaineofgambling.”Schüllnotesthata2002studyshowedthat“individualswhoregularlyplayedvideogamblingdevicesbecameaddictedthreetofourtimesmorerapidlythanothergamblers(inoneyear,versusthreeandahalfyears),eveniftheyhadregularlyengagedinotherformsofgamblinginthepastwithoutproblems.”
Public-policyadvocatescompareslotmachinestocigarettes.Both,theyclaim,areproductsspecificallyanddeliberatelyengineeredtohaveaddictivepropertiesthatareknowntohookusers.“TheEGMandtobaccoindustriesintenduserstoconsumetheirproductsinpreciselythewaysthatdirectly,andwithoutfurthermediation,initiatethe[causal]chainthatresultsinknownharms,”writesJamesDoughney,aprofessorialfellowineconomicsatVictoriaUniversity,inMelbourne,ina2007paperpublishedintheInternationalJournalofMentalHealthandAddiction.
Regardlessofwhatever“pleasures”smokingandEGMsmayprovide,itistruethatbothproductsalsocausedeath…Almostallsmokerswillsmokepotentiallylethalamounts.TheEGMproduct,usedpreciselyasintended,willcauseuserstolosecontroloftimeandmoneyinsufficientnumbersfortheindustrytoflourish.
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CigarettemanufacturerswereheldaccountableforthehealthproblemscausedbytheirproductafterJeffreyWigand,aformerexecutiveatthetobaccocompanyBrown&Williamson,spokeoutinthemid-1990saboutthewayhisfirmhadmanipulatedthelevelsofnicotinetomakecigarettesmoreaddictive.
TerryNoffsinger’slegalteamgraspedthesimilarities,goingsofarastobringonboardSharonY.Eubanks,anattorneywiththeWestVirginialawfirmBordas&Bordas.EubankswastheleadcounselfortheJusticeDepartmentinsuccessfulfederallitigationagainstthetobaccoindustrybetween2000and2005.ShejoinedNoffsingerinrepresentingStacyStevensafterheconvincedherthatthedeceptionusedbythegamblingindustryparalleledthatofthetobaccoindustry.“Thetobaccoandgamblingindustriesarebasicallyworkingfromthesameplaybook,usinghighlyengineeredproductstohookconsumers,”Eubankssays.
ASINOSAREHIGHLYATTENTIVEtotheirpatrons’“painpoints”—themomentswhentheyaregettingclosetogivingup.Thedatatheytrackinrealtimeonplayercardsalertthemtothesepainpoints:abigloss,forinstance,or
whencreditsstarttorunlowafteradryrun.Hostsarealsoonthelookoutfortellingbehavior,suchassomeonestrikingamachineinfrustrationorslumpingoveritindiscouragement.Whenhostsspotsomeoneinastatelikethis,theymayswoopinandofferavoucherforsomefreecredits,adrink,orperhapsamealintherestaurant,wheretheplayercantakeabreakuntiltheresistancepassesandhecanresumegambling.ThehostsmayalsoofferencouragingwordssuchasYou’llwinitback.“Tome,thatisthemostvileandvenalexampleofthecasino’sintentiontotrapandkeepcaptiveproblemandaddictivegamblers,”LissyFriedman,aseniorstaffattorneyatthePublicHealthAdvocacyInstitute,saidatthegroup’s2014forum.
Whenplayersdoexhaustalltheirfunds,casinoswillsometimesloanthemadditionalmoney.ThisiswhathappenedtoNoffsinger’sformerclientJennyKephart.In2006,shespentanentirenightgamblingatCaesarsRiverboatCasino,drinkingstrongalcoholicbeveragesprovidedforfree.Whensheeventuallycametotheendofhermoneyplayingblackjack,thecasinoofferedheracountercheck,
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basicallyapromissorynote,toenablehertokeepplaying.Shesignedthecheckandgambledawaythemoney.Thathappenedfivemoretimes.Bytheendofthenight,shehadrackedup$125,000indebtowedtothecasino.Whenshecouldn’trepayit,thecasinosuedher.Noffsingercountersuedonherbehalf.AfterKephart’ssuitwasdismissed,thecasino’soriginalsuitwassettledconfidentially.
Playersbecomesoabsorbedinthemachinesthattheyleaveyoungchildrenunattended,wetthemselveswithoutnoticing,andneglecttoeatforhours.
Expertssaycasinosshouldbeawarethatwhentheyextendcredittolosingpatrons,theyarebydefinitionenablingproblemgamblers.“Anygamblerwhoseekscreditforcontinuedgamblinghasautomaticallyfulfilledone(andperhapsthree)ofthetendiagnosticcriteriaestablishedbytheAmericanPsychiatricAssociationfora‘pathologicalgambler’(aswellasfora‘problemgambler’),”wrotetheUniversityofIllinois’KindtintheMercerLawReview.“Theoretically,anygamblingfacilitygrantingcredit(particularlyover$200)toa[gambler]hasactualorconstructiveknowledgethatthegamblerisproblematic.”
Barsthatservealcoholtoinebriatedcustomerswhotheninjuresomeone,saybystrikingthatpersonwiththeirvehicle,canbeheldliableaccordingto“dramshop”laws.Casinosmightsimilarlybeheldliableforthefinancialconsequencessufferedbygamblerstowhomtheyextendcreditbeyondacertainlimit.In1994,thewidowofamanwhokilledhimselfafterrackingupinsurmountabledebtataMississippicasinosuedthecasinounderanextrapolationofdramshoplaws.AsherattorneytoldtheChicagoTribune,“FeedingEricKimbrowcreditwastheequivalentofgivinghimalcohol.”Buther$50millionlawsuitbecamemootwhenthecasinowentbankrupt.Sofar,noU.S.courthasruledonsuchacaseagainstacasinoandnostatelegislaturehasenactedcomparablelawsthatapplytocasinos.
Norshouldthey,accordingtothegamblingindustry.“Thereisnoliabilitytothecasino,”saysGeoffFreeman,thepresidentandCEOoftheAmericanGaming
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Association.“Thereisasetstandardtodetermineinebriation.Nothingofthatsortexiststomeasurewhatthelevelistohavegambledtoomuch.”
TACYSTEVENS’SSUITchargedthattheMountaineerCasino,knowingwhatitknewaboutherhusbandandknowingabouttheharmthatcanbefallgamblingaddicts,“hadadutytoprotectScottStevensfromitself.”She
claimedthathissuicidewasforeseeablebythecasino,“yetnoattemptsweremadetointervene.”
DrawingontheresearchofNYU’sSchüll,theStevenssuitchargedthatMountaineerCasinoandIGT“haveknowinglyandintentionallytakenadvantageofcasinopatrons,exploitingandcausingharmtothem,byemployingandconcealingthepresentstateofgamblingwithslotmachines.”Itfurtherclaimedthat“modernslotmachinescreate,encourage,sustain,andexploitbehaviorsassociatedwithaddiction(e.g.,longer,faster,moreintensiveplay)”andthat“evenwhenplayedasintended,slotmachinescauseuserstosufferlossesandotherdetrimentaleffects.”ThisformedthefoundationofStacyStevens’scomplaintasaproducts-liabilitycase:Thedesignofthemachinesitself,thesuitalleged,wasresponsibleforherhusband’saddictionandeventualdeath.
MountaineerCasinoandIGTbothdeclinedrepeatedrequestsforcomment.Thecasino’sattorneysdidmaintaintheindustryposition,however,inamotiontodismisstheStevenscomplaint,assertingthat“nationallyutilizedandgovernmentapprovedslotmachinescannotbefounddefectivelydesignedorlackingproperwarningbecauseofaplaintiff’sunreasonablemisuse.”
MountaineerCasinofurthermaintainedthepartylinethatthedutytoprotectproblemgamblersfromgambling“belongstotheindividualgambler.”AstheAmericanGamingAssociation’sFreemanargues,“Theyshouldhavetheresponsibilitytoputthemselvesonalistnottobethere.”Heisreferringtotheoptionstatesofferresidentstovoluntarilyplacethemselvesonaself-exclusionlist,whichbansthemfromgamblingactivitiesinthatstate,andfromcollectingwinningsiftheyviolatetheban.(Itdoesnot,however,preventthemfromlosingmoneyiftheyvisitacasinodespitetherestriction.)Someexpertsbelieveself-
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exclusionlistsarenoteffective,becausetheyseemtobeerraticallyenforced.Despitethepresenceofsophisticatedsurveillancetechnology,patronsarenotroutinelyscreenedfortheirself-exclusionstatus.“Ifaself-excludedgamblergoestoacasino,it’sokayforthemtolosemoney,butoncetheystartwinning,aworkertapsthegamblerontheshoulderandsays,‘You’rebeingarrestedfortrespassing,’ ”saysLorenz,theauthorofCompulsiveGambling.“Gotoanycasino,andthegamblerswilltellyouthisishappeningwithregularity.”
Giventhatcasinooperatorsandslot-machinemanufacturersareadamantthattheblameforgamblingaddictionresideswiththeindividual,itisnotsurprisingthatresearchbytheindustry-fundedNationalCenterforResponsibleGamingfavorsstudiesdirectedtowardconfirmingthisconclusion.Oftheapproximately$17millionthattheNCRGhasallottedforresearchsinceitsinceptionin1996,ithasnotspentanickelstudyingslotmachinesandtheimpacttheyhaveonthosewhoplaythem.(AccordingtoChrisReilly,aseniorresearchdirectorattheNCRG,thoughthemajorityofthegroup’sfundingcomesfromcommercialcasinosandmanufacturers,thecentermaintainsafirewallbetweenitscontributorsanditsresearchers.Membersoftheboardofdirectors,sheasserts,donotmakeresearchdecisions,andthecenterhasaseparatescientificadvisoryboard.)
“It’samistaketofocusonthemachine,becauseit’sjustthisthing,”Reillysays.Shesaysthattheproblemisrootedintheindividual.“Wedon’tknowwhythegamblerhascognitivedisorders”orotherissues.“That’swhatfeedstheiraddiction.”
That’snotright,saysRogerHorbay,theEGMexpertandformergambling-addictiontherapist.IndependentresearchnotfundedbytheNCRGhasshownhowfalsewins,nearmisses,andothersuchfeaturesinfluencegamblers,especiallythewaytheyperceiveexpectedoutcomes.“We’vebeentreatingthesepeoplelikethey’remessedup,butit’sthemachinesthataremessingthemup,”hesays.“Alotoftheso-calledcognitivedistortionswereactuallycausedbythemachines,not[becausetheusers]weremakingerrorsinthinking.Mostofthemaremakingcorrectconclusionsbasedondeceptiveinformation.It’sthelieofthetechnologythat’stheproblem.”
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KeithWhyte,theexecutivedirectoroftheNationalCouncilonProblemGambling,saysthatalthoughtheindustryshouldhavearoleinresearchandpublic-educationefforts,itcannotbeeffectiveonitsown.(Thegroup,whichmaintainsaneutralstancetowardlegalgambling,receivesalargeshareofitsfundingfromtheindustry.)“Wecan’trelyonthepeoplewhoprovidetheproductandprofitfromittoeducatethepublicontherisks,”hesays.“Itneedstobeabroad-basedpublic-healtheffort.”
LMOSTADECADEafterthe1988IndianGamingRegulatoryActlaunchedthedramaticexpansionofcasinogamblingintonewjurisdictions,thefederalgovernmentappointedacommissiontostudytheimpactofthe
proliferation.Basedonfindingsthatsuggestedtherateofproblemgamblingcouldbetwiceashighwithina50-mileradiusofagamblingfacility,theNationalGamblingImpactStudyCommissionin1999recommended“apauseintheexpansionofgamblinginordertoallowtimeforanassessmentofthecostsandbenefitsalreadyvisible,aswellasthosewhichremaintobeidentified.”
Despitethatwarning,stateshavebeenunabletoresistthecontinuedexpansionofcasinogambling.Onereasonfortheongoinggrowthisthefinancialcloutoftheindustryitself.In2008,whenninestateswereconsideringgamblingmeasures,gamblingproponentsraisedmorethan$167million,comparedwithabout$106millionbygamblingopponents,accordingtoareportbytheNationalInstituteonMoneyinStatePolitics.“Predatorygamblinginterestsarenowthemostpowerfullobbyinthecountryonthestatelevelbecausegovernmentisapartnerwiththem,”saysLesBernalofStopPredatoryGambling.“Theyareliterallygoingoutandbuyingthepoliticalprocess.”
Indeed,expertsarguethatmanystateshavecreatedagovernment-gamblingcomplexthatimplicatestheminthecasinos’practices.Manystatesprovidetribalcasinoswithregionalmonopoliesinexchangeforrevenuesskimmedoffthetopofcasinoprofits—asmuchas30to40percentinsomeplaces.WestVirginiahasaproprietaryinterestintheslotmachines’software.Kansasactuallyownsthegamesandoperationsofnontribalcasinos.NewJersey,Delaware,andRhodeIslandhave
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allprovidedfinancialbailoutstofalteringcasinos.“It’saprettysleazywaytofundstategovernment,”saysPeterFranchot,thecomptrollerofMaryland.“Wehavesetourselvesupinpartnershipwithapredatoryindustry…Theprofitscomemainlyfromagroupofaddictsthatarerecruitedandnurturedbycasinosuntilthey’reoutofmoney.”
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Communitiestypicallybuildcasinosbasedonamirageoffalsepromises:thattheywillprovidejobs,fundschools,andboostthelocaleconomy.ButEarlGrinols,aneconomicsprofessoratBaylorUniversity,inTexas,andtheauthorofGamblinginAmerica:CostsandBenefits,hasestimatedthateverydollarofbenefitacasinobringstoacommunityentailsabout$3insocialcosts—whetherit’sincreasedcrime,ordecliningproductivity,ormorespendingonservicessuchasunemploymentpayments.“It’sasocialnegative,”Grinolstoldme.“Casinogamblingisbadfortheeconomy.Itshouldnotbeallowedbyanyone,anywhere,anytime.”
Indefenseofitsproductsandpractices,thegamblingindustryinsiststhatitisheavilyregulatedandthereforesafe.AstheattorneysforMountaineerCasinoarguedintheirmotiontodismisstheStevenssuit,“Gamingishighlyregulatedineachstatewhereitislegalized…Ifgamblingweredeemedunsafeortoposeunreasonableharmtocitizens…itwouldnothavebeenlegalized.”Butthis“ifit’slegal,itmustbesafe”argumentfailstoacknowledgetheinadequaciesofexistingregulations.“Regulatorsaresupposedtoprotectplayersandtheindustry,”saysI.NelsonRose,theauthorofGamblingandtheLaw.“Butit’sjustnotatthetopofthegovernment’sorindustry’sprioritiestobethinkingabouthowtoprotectplayers.”
Eachstateinwhichgamblingislegalhassetupitsowncommissiontoregulatetheindustry,butthereseemstobeasymbioticrelationshipbetweenregulatorsandtheindustry.Therearenumerousinstancesofformerregulators’beinghiredbycasinosorothergamblinginterests.Manygaming-commissionmembers—includingthosewhoapproveapplicationsforcasinolicenses—areadvisedbyconsultantsforprivatecompaniesalsooncasinopayrolls.“Ithinksocietyingeneralhasbeenledtobelievethatthisisahighlyregulatedandfairindustrybecausetheregulatorstesteverything,”RogerHorbaysays.“Buttheywouldbeshockediftheyknewevenslotmachinesdon’thavetocomplywithconsumer-protectionlaws.”
Horbaypointstoinformedchoiceasthecentraltenetofconsumerprotection,whichiswhywhenyouapplyforaloan,thebankhastotellyoutheinterestrateandhowit’scalculated.It’swhymanystatelotterieshavetodisclosetheirodds,andit’swhyeventhecontestsonthebacksofcerealboxeslistthechancesofwinninga
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prize.Yetsuchessentialdisclosureisnotrequiredofelectronicgamingmachines.“Thesemachinespresentallsortsofdeceptivetradepracticesthatwouldn’tbeallowedinanyotherindustry,noteveninothergamblinggames,”hesays.“Thestandardforgamefairnessisnonexistentonslots.”
Asithappens,theNevadaStateGamingControlBoardaddressedexactlythisquestionduringits1983hearingsonvirtual-reeltechnology.AsRichardHyte,thenaNevadacommissioner,explained,ifslotmachinesweretodiscloseaplayer’soddsofwinningapayout,thatwould“takeawaythemystery,theexcitementandentertainmentandriskofplayingthosemachines.”
NJUNE,THEWESTVIRGINIASUPREMECOURTOFAPPEALSruledonStacyStevens’ssuit,determiningthat“nodutyofcareunderWestVirginialawexistsonthepartofmanufacturersofvideolotteryterminals,orthecasinosinwhichtheterminals
arelocated,toprotectusersfromcompulsivelygambling.”Theopinion,writtenbyJusticeBrentBenjamin,declaredthatelectronicgamingmachines
existinWestVirginiafortheexpresspurposeofprovidinganeconomicboontotheStateanditspoliticalsubdivisionsintheformofincreasedpublicrevenues,tothecitizenryintheformofenhancedemploymentopportunities,andtotheracetrackindustryfortheadditionalbenefitofthedependentlocaleconomies.
WestVirginiamighthavebeenadifficultvenueinwhichtomakeStevens’scase.Thestatehasaproprietaryinterestintheslotmachines’software,andlegalizedgamblingprovidedmorethan$550millioninfiscalyear2014,accordingtotheRockefellerInstituteofGovernment.(Forthesakeofcomparison,thestate’stotaltaxrevenueswereonlyabout$5billion.)Littlewonderthatthecourt’srulingfocusedonthe“economicboon,”“increasedpublicrevenues,”and“enhancedemploymentopportunities”providedbygambling,asopposedtothestate’sresponsibilitiestoproblemgamblers.AsSharonEubanks,Noffsinger’sco-counsel
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ontheStevenssuit,notes:“Whatthistellsusisthestatesareaddictedtogamblingthemselves.Theyseemunwillingtodealwiththesocialcosts.”
LesBernalofStopPredatoryGamblingagreesthatthecloserelationshipbetweenthestateanditsgamblinginterestswascrucial:“Idon’tthinkithassomethingtodowithit;Ithinkithaseverythingtodowithit.EssentiallywhattheWestVirginiaSupremeCourthassaidisthatgamblinginterestsinWestVirginiaareimmunefromliability.”
InWestVirginia,Indiana,andotherstates,thecourtshavedeferredtothe
statelegislatures’intentionsintheirdecisions,butthelegislatorsdon’t
alwaysknowbetter—inpartbecausetheymayhavebeeninformed
principallybygamblinginterests.FormerWestVirginiaHouseMajority
LeaderRickStatonhasexpressedregretoverhisroleinexpanding
legalizedgamblinginthestate.“Ithinkwegot,nopunintended,played,”
hetoldtheCharlestonGazette.He’snotalone.StanRosenberg,the
presidentoftheMassachusettsSenate,helpedleadhisstate’sdriveto
legalizecasinosin2014despitebeingunawareofnearmisses,falsewins,
andotherEGMpractices.“Idon’tknowtheengineeringandscienceofit,”
headmits.
Noffsingerconcludesthatthis“isbasicallytheendofoureffortsinWestVirginia.”Buthebelievesthemovementtoholdcasinosliableforproblemgamblingisonlybuildingmomentum:“Oneofthethingsthathashappenedisthatthepublicislearningmoreaboutit.Therehavebeenmorepeoplewhohavelostalotofmoney,therehavebeenmorepeoplewhohavehadtofilebankruptcy,therehavebeenmorepeoplewhohaveembezzled,therehavebeenmorepeoplewhohavecommittedsuicide.What’samazingtomeisthatnotonetimehastheevidencethatweallegedinourcomplaintbeentestedinacourtoflawwithsworntestimonyandatrialandaruling.”
Andthat,accordingtoseveralexperts,iswhatitwillprobablytake—acourttrial,whichwouldopenaccesstoprivateindustrydocuments.“Theindustryknowsif
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anycourtgetstothepointofdiscovery,they’reinrealtrouble,”saysKindt,fromtheUniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaign.“Theyknowwhatthey’vegotintheirmarketingplansandtheirdocuments.Theycannotaffordtohavethatmadepublic,becauseitwouldconfirmwhateverybodyknows:thatone-totwo-thirdsoftheirincomecomesfromtheroughly10to20percentoftheircustomerswhoarepathologicalandproblemgamblers.”Kindtcontinued,“TheStevenscaseisgettinggoodpublicityandnationalrecognition.Themorelawyersreadaboutit,themoretheyaregoingtostartsmellingbloodinthewater.Itjusttakesforacasetobebroughtupintherightjurisdiction.”
NHISLASTCHRISTMAS,shortlybeforehelosthisjob,ScottStevensdidnotbuyhiswifeorthreedaughtersanypresents,andhecouldn’tbringhimselftoopenthepresentstheyhadboughthim.Hedidn’tfeelthathe
deservedthem,andhegaveinonlyafterhisdaughtersbeggedhim.Aphotographofhimlaterthatweek,whenhewasdeep-seafishinginCaboSanLucas,aplacethatusuallybroughthimhappiness,revealstheheavinessinhisexpression—hiseyesdefeated,hissmilegone.
Inthemonthsafterhewasfired,StevenstriedtakingtheantidepressantPaxilandsawatherapist,buthedidnotadmittoStacythathewasstillgamblingalmosteveryday.Asspringturnedintosummer,heknewthatchargesfromtheIRSwereforthcomingfollowingitsinvestigationintohisembezzlementandthatevenafterservingtimeinprison,hewouldlikelystillbeonthehookforthehundredsofthousandsofdollarsheowedinbacktaxesandpenalties.Hisformeremployerseemedclosetopressingcharges,havingputthepoliceonnotice.Hewouldneverbeabletoworkinthefinancialsectoragain.Oncetheaffairhitthepapers,hisfamilywouldbedraggedthroughthegantletofsmall-towngossipandcensure.Hecouldseenowaytosparethemotherthantosacrificehimself.
Bymid-afternoononAugust13,2012,Stacyhadstartedtoworry.Whyhadn’tStevensrespondedtohertexts?Thatwasn’tlikehim.Shetextedhimthattheywouldeatdinnerearlytoaccommodatethegirls’eveningactivities.“Whyaren’t
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youansweringme?”shetexted.Butshegotnoresponseuntilaboutanhourlater,whenhesenthislasttexttoher:“Iloveyou.”
Distressed,Stacyresponded,“Honey,Iloveyou.Pleasecomehome.”Shetelephonedhistherapisttoaskwhethershehadseenhim,buttonoavail.
Shortlyafterthat,Stacy’sphonerang.ItwasTimBender,theClevelandtaxattorneyhelpingStevenswithhisIRStroubles.Stevenshadjustcalledhim.Benderhadtriedtotalkhimoutofkillinghimself,butStevenshadhungup.Bendersaidhewouldcall911.
AllStacycoulddowaspray:“Please,God.Please,please,please.Letthingsbeokay.”
Thensheheardsirens.Lotsofthem.
PoliceofficersfromtheneighboringtownofWintersvillearrivedatthesoccerfieldswithinsixminutesofStevens’sown911call.TheyfoundStevenssittingontherailroadtiebyhisJeep.Twosheriff’sdeputiesandanOhiohighwaypatrolmanalsopulledintothecomplex.
TheyspoketoStevensacrossthegravelparkinglot.
“Standup.Showusyourhands.”
ButStevenswasnotgoingtobackdown.Thiswashisfamily’sonlychance,hisfinalgamble.
Heraisedthemuzzleoftheshotguntohischest,reachedforthetrigger,andsqueezed.