history of social policy development

History of Social Policy History of Social Policy Development Development The British Caribbean

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Thinking PointsThinking PointsHow are we going to let go of the

“legacy of slavery and colonialism” in the Caribbean?

Given our constrained resources how are we going to provide for the “whole” person?

Where is the best place for us to spend our resources of time, money and creative thinking?

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IssuesIssuesSale of national resources (long vs.

short term)IMF relationshipInvestment in countryCase of GuyanaForming alliances – kinds of

competitionTerms for investorsRole of negotiation internationallyGains from our resourcesWhat is development?

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IssuesIssuesOther sectors – Tourism (local

people, eco)? Agriculture? Mining?Education and health to make

money?Reallocation of resources from

the government – Faith’s Pen?Self-interest vs. National interest?Self-confidence; self-esteem?Federation? Other Groupings?

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IntroductionIntroductionSocial policy in the Caribbean

could be categorized as distinctly curative in nature, seeking to address the breakdown in other traditional policy areas, specifically those related to health, education, and employment.

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IntroductionIntroductionHowever, the causal issues underlying

the approaches taken to deal with social issues are more complex than the simple failure of mainstream ministries.

For the majority of countries, historical factors related to slavery and colonialism have contributed to contemporary problems as they relate to the family and access to resources among the dominant ethnic group, despite the abolition of slavery in 1834.

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Pre 1838 – Period of Plantation Pre 1838 – Period of Plantation SlaverySlavery Spanish Control of Jamaica 1500-

1655, British Control 1655-1838.

Basic needs for health, housing, food for slaves were provided by masters.

◦Social provisions during English Period were an adaptation of Elizabethan Poor Law – Established in Jamaica in 1682 (Cumper, 1987)

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Pre 1838 – Period of Plantation Pre 1838 – Period of Plantation SlaverySlavery

◦Welfare provisions only for sick and aged; able-bodied were put to work, vagrants were put in houses of correction (Cumper, 1987)

◦Poor Law did not apply to slaves ; only to free poor, a small minority.

◦Note that it was a “crime” to be poor.

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Pre 1838 – Period of Pre 1838 – Period of Plantation SlaveryPlantation Slavery

◦Main social provisions were endowments from planter’s trusts and churches (Bryan, 1990) to assist women and children and to build schools for poor whites and free coloureds, e.g. Wolmers, (1729) Munro College, (1797).

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1838 -Post Emancipation 1838 -Post Emancipation PeriodPeriodNo provisions were made in Jamaica

after Emancipation for poor relief to ex-slave population

Many slaves could not afford land, only a few were given/bought land.

Law passed against squatting

Many doctors employed during slavery left after Emancipation

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1838 -Post Emancipation 1838 -Post Emancipation PeriodPeriod

◦Ex-slaves had to provide for themselves from very low wages. Had to compete for work with indentured servants from India, China

◦Govt. imposed tax system which ensured that the ex-slaves most in need of welfare would provide the bulk of tax revenue to fund poor relief (Bryan, 1990)

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Post Emancipation PeriodPost Emancipation Period

Sugar industry faced economic woes in 1840s and 1850s, high levels of unemployment and poverty.

Many came to Kingston for jobs, town became overrun with vagrants, hustlers (men, boys), beggars, prostitutes, unemployed people.

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1838 to 18991838 to 1899

Social unrest resulted, came to a head with 1865 Morant Bay rebellion in Jamaica. After this Parish Boards began administration of poor relief.

Growing Juvenile Population led to 1879 Royal Commission - Report spoke to the bad situation of children and women i.e. those without financial support for children, those with fallen status, the elderly and infirm.

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1838 to 18991838 to 1899

Concerns with morbidity and mortality due to disease spread and public ill-health led to early makings of public health and sanitation policy.

No concern for building human capital or uplifting/empowering ex-slaves existed.

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1838 to 18991838 to 1899

○ 1881 Poor relief law modified- Governor able to make rules regarding management of the poor and distribution of poor relief, medical attention and building and supervision of poor houses, and poor relief boards

○ 1886 – Board of Supervision replaced function of the Governor. An Appeals board also established. 15

1838 to 18991838 to 1899Guyana: introduction of Poor Relief

Act in 1839 indicated responsibilities of plantation owners and state. Central Gov’t. accepted full responsibility for poor relief

Barbados: Poor Man’s Board in 1880; Settlement of the Poor Act in 1897 placing poor children in Alms houses

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1838 to 18991838 to 1899Limited state social provisions -

religious charities were involved in: Assistance to the poor Provision of basic education; Initiation of primary education

Provision of primary health care; Homes for poor children

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1838 to 18991838 to 1899Growth of Self-help initiatives based

on collective action:

Friendly Societies/Benevolent Societies and Burial Schemes – a form of social insurance: saving for funeral expenses, sickness, old-age.

T’dad and Guyana saw Friendly Societies established on basis of ethnic groupings.

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Early 20Early 20thth Century Changes Century Changes

Government improved its attitude to poor – started building public hospitals, offering relief to farmers affected by natural disasters

Small subsidies given to the Church and voluntary bodies who provided services for children (grants to children’s homes), youth, aged, persons with disabilities

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1930s Civil Disturbances1930s Civil DisturbancesEconomic, social, political

dissatisfaction◦World economy was in depression,

making worse the situation in the Caribbean

Increased Discontent with Colonial Authorities◦Riots and Demonstrations◦Recognition that the government

should address social needs of populace started to develop

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1938 to 1960s1938 to 1960sThe Moyne Commission,

appointed by the British Government in 1938 cited that the main cause of the disturbances were a demand for better living conditions, which had scarcely been addressed since emancipation one century earlier.

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1938 to 1960s1938 to 1960sThe main recommendations of

the Commission were the fixing of wages, the establishment of wage boards, implementation of unemployment insurance, factory inspections to reduce accidents, the protection of trade unions, and the establishment of a labour department.

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1938 to 1960s1938 to 1960sMany of these recommendations were

not adopted immediately, however, in contrast to the other countries in the region, and as an example of the delays in implementation seen, Barbados was the first to adopt a non-contributory pension for poor elderly persons in 1938, followed by Trinidad and Tobago in 1939, and Guyana (then British Guiana) in 1944.

Not until the late 20th Century did the majority of other countries in the region follow this lead (Seekings, 2006). 23

1938 to 1960s1938 to 1960s1938 marked by social unrest

throughout British West Indies, leading to a Royal Commission of Inquiry◦ Recommendations of Moyne

Commission report (1940) ; Preceded by Deane Commission report in 1939 in B’dos.

◦ Comprehensive social planning Improve social & economic conditions

through expansion of health, education services, improve housing & public sanitation, establish labour departments & social welfare & land settlement facilities

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1938 to 1960s1938 to 1960s1938 –Jamaica Welfare Limited

established by a fund created from a cess on banana exports. Fund was used for development in rural peasant farming communities

◦ – literacy, skills training, craft skills, nutrition education and to promote the philosophy of self-help

1940s – Community Development initiatives become entrenched across British West Indies 25

1938 to 1960s1938 to 1960s 1940 -Arising from Moyne

Commission, Govt agreed to provide greater social welfare services and to increase subsidies to voluntary groups.

CCVSS – Central Council of Voluntary Social Services established in Jamaica in 1940. Role was to coordinate activities of voluntary organisations, offer training and serve as the body through which government subsidies to the voluntary sector were channeled.

1938 to 1960s1938 to 1960s1940s – Universal Adult Suffrage won in

Jamaica, T&T, B’dos., Guyana

Locals became more involved in nation building and representational politics, there was more pressure on colonial government for creation of government welfare services by the 1950s.

1950s – move to professionalize social services

Between 1943- 1953 many teachers and social service providers were trained in Social Work to become Social Welfare Officers of the State

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1938 to 1960s1938 to 1960s1940s – Strong emphasis on Youth, state

funded youth programmes, Youth Clubs formed islandwide based on British model across region, also 4H Clubs

◦1951 – Child care and Protection Service established in Jamaica

◦1955 - Adoption services in Jamaica◦1950s – Social Welfare Department

established in B’dos and Adoption services

◦1950s – T’dad. State gave subsidies to voluntary child care programmes

1938 to 1960s1938 to 1960s• Beginning of Political Independence

movements

• 1943- Govt took over Jamaica Welfare Ltd. Eventually renamed Social Development Commission in 1965.

• Birth of National Insurance Schemes in 1950s to wean poor off poor relief and help elderly and infirm

• Sugar Industry Pension Scheme in Jamaica;

◦ 1958 - Old Age Pension and Superannuation Schemes Law

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1960s- Post Independence Period1960s- Post Independence PeriodEducation

◦Expansion of Primary, Secondary (mainly all-age) and Tertiary level Education

◦Promotion of Technical and Vocational training

Social Insurance1965 – National Insurance Act - NIS

started in 1966

Establishment of Provident Funds in smaller territories, as precursor to social insurance

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1970s1970s

Free health Care – Employment of Community Health Aides to promote Healthy Lifestyles and provide primary health care

Emphasis on preventive health, not curative

State-led social housing developments

NHT started in 1975 to make housing more affordable to working class

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1970s1970s

Social Legislation enacted – minimum wage, gender equality, working conditions, repeal of Bastardy Act

Free Education for Primary through to Secondary in Ja, B’dos (and tertiary free in B’dos and highly subsidized in Ja) and other territories

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1970s1970s

CDB launched Basic Needs Trust Fund (1970s) to address needs of poor; to extend access to basic social services

School Guidance Counselling Services introduced in Jamaica and T’dad, in B’dos in 1980s.

OPEC Oil shocks in 1973 and 1979, tripled (1973)and quadrupled price of oil (1979). Jamaica signed its first IMF agreement in 1977

Late 70s – 1980s Neo-liberalism and Late 70s – 1980s Neo-liberalism and structural adjustmentstructural adjustment

Severe Balance of Payments (BOP) – (external accounts of nation) problems by mid-late 70s.

◦Oil shocks inflated import bill

◦Reduced exports due to oil-price induced recession in Developed World, reduced demand, falling commodity prices, glut

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Bauxite Production Levy Act introduced a tax in 1974, in order to increase Jamaica's share of the income in that industry.

The government positioned the state in the leadership role within the process of economic development, with a view to attenuating and rectifying inherited economic inequalities.


Related to this was an ideology of social reform to protect the weakest sections of the population, and to promote the welfare of the poor through subsidized food, housing, education, health, and other important social services.

In international affairs, Jamaica opened up relations with many non-capitalist countries, and promoted the solidarity of the Third World in international negotiations with the advanced countries.


Reduced foreign investment in bauxite, and reduced production due to negative reaction to Bauxite Levy. (Anderson and Witter, 1994)

Formation of the Capital Development Fund (CDF) from the proceeds of the Levy to support community and infrastructural development in the bauxite belt.

Specific areas in St. Catherine, Clarendon, Manchester, St. Elizabeth and St. Ann targeted for improved social, educational, and economic amenities earned from the presence of such sustained industrial activity.

Late 70s – 1980s Neo-liberalism and Late 70s – 1980s Neo-liberalism and structural adjustmentstructural adjustmentSuccessive governments have had to

use the money for general support of the Consolidated Fund.

In 2006 some JA$2.9 billion was used for budgetary support, leaving $515 million in the kitty, with reports of $25 million allocated to the Bauxite Community Development Fund.

The bauxite funds are being allocated through the politicians rather than the community organisations and councils who should be the real beneficiaries and conveyors of this programme.


Despite initial reservations, the bauxite companies have been diligent about their fiscal responsibilities regarding the levy and taxes, and have contributed significantly to the social and economic development of their host communities and the country.


Increasing levels of public sector spending during 70s increased import bill

Govt. increased borrowing on Euromarket flush with OPEC petrodollars (Anderson and Witter, 1994; 9)


Massive lending of petrodollars by private banks in US and Europe to Third World countries took place during 1970s.

Lending increased from $2billion in 1972 to $90 billion in 1981 (McMichael, 2004; 123) mainly to offset oil price increases


First world in recession, banks eager to lend to third world but inadequate due diligence

By 1980 US sought to stem the fall of the $US by reducing money supply, led to credit squeeze and higher interest rates on loans (McMichael, 2004;130).

1980s Neo-liberalism, Debt Crisis and 1980s Neo-liberalism, Debt Crisis and structural adjustmentstructural adjustment

Start of debt crisis signalled by Mexico defaulting on its debt in 1982

US/EU banks were heavily exposed, on the brink of a collapse if Third World governments were unable to repay loans.

(McMichael, 2004).

1980s Neo-liberalism, Debt 1980s Neo-liberalism, Debt Crisis and structural Crisis and structural adjustmentadjustmentBy the end of the decade, the

government sought assistance from the IMF and the World Bank, and since then these two institutions, along with the USAID, have determined the policy framework of the government.

Jamaica sought IMF assistance in 1977 to deal with BOP crisis.

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1980s Neo-liberalism, Debt 1980s Neo-liberalism, Debt Crisis and structural Crisis and structural adjustmentadjustmentIMF intervened to prevent

collapse of international banking system and ensure debt repayment by Third World states.

Jamaica signed eight agreements with IMF between 1977 and 1999, several were failed.

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ConclusionConclusionThe main groups of concern that

form the basis for the institutionalization of social policy in the Caribbean today relate to:

Children and the YouthWomenThe ElderlyThe FamilyPersons Living with HIV/AIDSPersons with DisabilitiesThe UnemployedThe Income Poor

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ConclusionConclusionThe main groups of concern that

form the basis for the institutionalization of social policy in the Caribbean today relate to:

Children and the YouthWomenThe ElderlyThe FamilyPersons Living with HIV/AIDSPersons with DisabilitiesThe UnemployedThe Income Poor

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ConclusionConclusionIn reviewing the current approaches to

addressing social problems in the Caribbean, governments have for the most part adopted policies based on the individual at risk, rather than the underlying cause.

This is evidenced by the terms utilized in the naming of ministerial departments, and individual ministries, where such terms as Youth, Gender, Persons with Disabilities, and the Elderly are recurring.

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ConclusionConclusionWhile some may consider this an issue

of semantics, it speaks directly to the nature of the interventions pursued, which for the most part attempt to separate multiple facets of the individual into several different departments or ministries.

This is a chronic problem in the Caribbean, especially when channels of communication between departments and ministries are difficult to traverse.

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ConclusionConclusionIn seeking to assist vulnerable groups at

risk, a number of policies and programmes have been implemented across the Caribbean.

The methodologies utilized in these policies and programmes seek to address sustainable improvements in personal well-being, suffer from a fragmentation of services, where individuals that are members of more than one of the above groups are subjected to bureaucratic delays in having to seek services across departments and ministries. 50

ConclusionConclusionIn addressing social needs, a number of

policy measures have been implemented.

The main measures utilized in the Caribbean can be categorized into four broad areas: Developmental; Supportive; Remedial; and Preventative. These areas are defined as follows:

Developmental: speaks to the issue of capacity building, such as that seen in both vocational and generic training schemes. 51

ConclusionConclusionSupportive: deals with the provision

of ‘welfare’ in its Katzian sense (Katz, 1983), where persons at risk are supported, but their capacity to cope with the underlying cause of their situation is not addressed.

Remedial: addresses the restoration of individuals to former states, such as seen in the aftermath of disasters, or other traumas such as physical or sexual abuse.

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ConclusionConclusionPreventative: provides support to

those at risk to reduce the likelihood of suffering; in essence providing protection and increasing resilience.

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Conclusion: For the FutureConclusion: For the FutureThinking Point: Students to

consider the implications for social provision of the recently announced tax package and the NDX in Jamaica.

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history of social policy development

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