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The History Essay Handbook

Part I:A short guide to writing history essays

Part II:

A short guide to style and referencing

in history essays

History Program

School of Social Sciences and Humanities

Murdoch Uniersity

!"##$%

1




Part I:

A short guide to writing history essays

History Program


Murdoch Uniersity

!"##$%

2



Part I: A Short &uide to 'riting History Essays

Table of (ontents

A) Introduction

*) +esearching your essay

,) &etting started

Selecting an essay topic

Starting your research

Taking good notes

") Sources

Primary sources

Secondary sources

Internet sources

() 'riting your essay

,) Argument

Three kinds of essay question

The thesis statement

") Structure

Basic essay structure

‘Open’ and ‘closed’ essays

-) 'riting and reising

Plan your essay Revise your essay

rite like a historian

.) Assessment of essays

,) Assessment criteria

") &rade leel descri/tions

E) Plagiarism

,) 'hat is /lagiarism0") Plagiarism and /ara/hrasing

Plagiarism in action! "n actual case

-) How to aoid /lagiarism

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A) Introduction

Learning to write an engaging and persuasive essay that makes a sustained argument

is one of the chief skills that studying history will teach you. Writing good essays

involves work: inspiration and enthusiasm for a particular subject must be backed up

by diligent research careful organisation and thoughtful contemplation of the ideas atstake. !t the same time essay writing is also something of an art in which your style

and ability matures with practice and e"perience. #n a history essay you are e"pected

to present a well$constructed and clearly e"pressed argument based on evidence and

analysis usually as an answer to a specific %uestion. &istory essays are thus more

than simple narrative accounts of the past' they should seek to persuade the reader.

(he guidelines presented here hopefully will be of some assistance as you set about

that task.

(his guide is intended for all students taking &istory units though it will offer

different things to different students depending upon their background and previouse"perience. (hough there are obviously significant differences in e"pectations for )art

# )art ## &onours and )ostgraduate students in &istory the essential principles of

good historical writing are the same for everyone.

*



*) +esearching your essay

,) &etting started

Where to begin is often the single most difficult and an"iety$provoking issue for

students when they are confronted by a history essay whether it is a short )art # paper

of 2+++ words or an &onours thesis of 2++++ words. &owever some simple steps

can swiftly make the task seem less daunting.

Selecting an essay topic

1.1 (his is perhaps the most important step of all for it will affect almost every

other step you take in your research.

,irst and foremost you should seek an essay topic that is interesting to you. !

topic that genuinely engages your interest ought to be fun to read and write about and

will likely result in a better essay.-econd make sure your topic is manageable in sie. -ubjects such as /(he fall

of the 0oman mpire and /(he origins of the -econd World War are the stuff of

books by professional historians who take years to write them. ou should aim at a

more limited and sharply focused essay topic.

(hird your essay topic should 4at least in the first instance5 preferably be

phrased in the form of a clearly defined %uestion. ,or instance: /(o what e"tent was

the fall of the 0oman mpire caused by pressure from 6barbarians7 on the frontiers8

or /Why did the -econd World War break out in 1939 rather than 1938 our essays

argument thus naturally becomes the answer to this %uestion.

Starting your research

1.2 our first step should be a visit to the library to search the catalogue for

books journal articles book reviews documentary collections etc. on your topic. #n

particular do not be afraid to go on the trail of relevant primary sources. #f you are

having trouble or want to e"pand your search speak to a librarian ;it is their main

aim in life to help people use their library as effectively as possible<

1.3 valuate your sources before you start taking notes from them. "amine their

bibliographies for additional sources you might consult. ,or books the table of

contents and the inde" will help you to pinpoint relevant information while the

preface and introduction often contain %uick and easily accessible summaries of themain argument. ou may discover very %uickly that a source with a title that appeared

e"tremely relevant to your topic is in fact not useful at all.

1.* =etting an early start is vital for any university essay and particularly for

history essays which re%uire real research. ou will need enough time to locate the

necessary sources for your research to read them carefully and take detailed notes

and only then to write and revise your essay. !s the end of term approaches the

demand for various books will increase and this could leave you without access to the

most useful sources for your essay topic. >ont be caught out<

?



Taking good notes

1.? =ood note$taking is a focused and systematic process. ,rom the very start of

your research you should concentrate on answering the specific %uestion contained in

your essay topic and not become bogged down in digressions or generalities. #n

conse%uence you should be sparing in the time$consuming process of recording direct%uotations in your notes for they ought to be used sparingly in your essay. #nstead

for each source summarise the argument being made as you understand it in your own

words along with the evidence that the author presents to support it. @e selective in

what you photocopy and be sure to read and annotate your copies as soon as possible

after making them: large piles of photocopied pages tend to remain undigested and

unused.

1.A ! good essay cannot be written from scrappy and unsystematic notes. @e

diligent in organising your research 4by headings marginal notes colour codes or a

simple filing system5 and indicating the e"act source of each piece of information.

@eing able to give accurate and informative references in your essay is part ofavoiding the problem of plagiarism and depends upon your having clear and accurate

notes;with any source the very first step is thus to note its full bibliographic details

and thereafter constantly to keep track of the page numbers from which you are

gathering information.

") Sources

! history essay can only be as strong as the sources on which it is based. (here are

two main types of sources that you will draw on as you conduct the research for your

essay: primary sources and secondary sources.

Primary sources

2.1 )rimary sources are best defined as original documents or artefacts which date

from the time period of the topic on which you are writing. (hus for an essay on the

origins of the ,irst World War primary sources might include: official government

documents from the major belligerent powers' personal diaries or letters written at the

time by both political and military leaders and ordinary people' the descriptions of

events recorded in contemporary newspapers' photographs maps coins and stamps'

and even popular books or patriotic songs. While it is not always possible for

undergraduates to gain access to such sources it is often much easier than students believe. =overnment documents for instance are fre%uently available in official

published documentary collections: the Burdoch library holds the twelve volumes of

the series British Documents on the Origins of the War, 1898-1914 ;a vast range of

official papers on @ritish foreign policy. !dditionally in the internet age it is

becoming constantly easier to find documentary and visual sources on the web.

2.2 )rimary sources form the basic building blocks of all historical writing.

@ecause the discipline of history is based upon interpretation however historians do

not take the evidence provided by primary sources at face value. (hey read and assess

each source critically;with the result that different historians often arrive at very

different conclusions about the meaning of the same source. ou must be carefulabout assuming that primary sources are somehow /true because they were created

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by people of the time. )eople of any time have their own agendas prejudices and

biases;whether overt or secret conscious or unconscious;and these can shape or

distort the content and meaning of a source. !s you evaluate any piece of evidence

consider who created it and why who was the intended audience and what was the

historical conte"t in which it was created and received.

Secondary sources

2.3 -econdary sources usually form the main or sole basis for the majority of

undergraduate essays. -econdary sources are best defined as books articles and other

commentaries written later in time about a particular subject most often by

professional and amateur historians or journalists which interpret the nature and

significance of the primary sources. -econdary sources on the origins of the ,irst

World War would include the vast number of books studying the events leading up to

!ugust 191*' biographies of the major political and military figures of the time'

studies of popular opinion and attitudes towards war in the main uropean states'

more focused articles on specific %uestions published in journals such the nglish !istorical "e#ie$ or War in !istory' modern maps detailing the movement of armies

during the build$up to war' book reviews which provide overviews and criti%ues of

the main developments in the study of the subject' and so on.

2.* (here are good and bad secondary sources for essays. =ood secondary works

are firmly based upon a large range of relevant primary sources and have been

subjected to careful review before being published by reputable presses' bad ones tend

not to have been subjected to processes of scrutiny or are supported by only a weak

base of primary research. (hus you should critically evaluate the usefulness of each

source as you proceed with your research. Who was the author and who was the

publisher8 When was it published and who was the intended audience8 >oes it have

e"tensive footnotes and a relevant bibliography8 What sorts of sources has the author

used to support their argument8 What sorts of unspoken assumptions or detectable

biases might be at work8 #s the argument still relevant8 ,or e"ample you would read

an !merican book published in 1999 about relations between the Cnited -tates and

the -oviet Cnion during the -econd World War %uite differently from a book on the

same subject published in Boscow in 19?D.

2.? (e"tbooks and encyclopaedias should not serve as the main sources for your

essay research. (hey are generally too basic not well$referenced and provide only

facts without analysis. 4En$line encyclopaedias are no more acceptable as sources forresearch essays than are standard printed encyclopaedias;especially the worst

e"ample of all Wikipedia<5 -o too with works of /popular history: though often fun

to read they are not usually a good source for further research. ,inally neither should

your lecture notes serve as the foundation for your research;certainly never %uote

from them in your essays<;for any important point made in a lecture should be

tracked down and e"plored in proper detail by you in published sources.

Internet sources

2.A (he internet in general is not a reliable or acceptable source for researching

history essays. (he web is an unregulated medium and anybody anywhere can postmaterial that looks impressive and sounds authoritative. Fust because the opinions

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e"pressed on websites are /in print does not make them either true or reliable. !t

most on$line sources can provide thought$provoking or une"pected perspectives on

historical topics which must then be investigated further through reputable published

sources. !t worst however and far more common on$line sources are wildly

inaccurate heavily distorted biased or misleading and unverifiable. #nternet sources

are thus not acce/table as the basis of your research for any of your essays. !s ageneral rule do not spend time on the web at the e"pense of the readings listed in

your unit guide.

2.D Gevertheless the internet does have some potential value for history students

in providing access to certain kinds of primary sources. )reviously unobtainable

sources can now be found on the web including: maps and technical plans' visual

sources such as photographs cartoons and propaganda posters' original oral testimony

and witness statements' newspaper articles' and especially copies of original

government documents. #t is worth noting that these sources are mostly available

through the web sites of credible institutions usually universities governments

international organisations and museums which allows for greater confidence in theirreliability and accuracy. ,or e"ample the official website of the Cnited Gations is a

treasure trove of valuable primary material for students of post$19*? world history

and politics. -tudents are encouraged to investigate the possibilities provided by such

reputable sources and to put them to use in their research essays.

2. ou should take the same critical approach to any internet source that you

would with any published source: be cautious sceptical and thorough. Websites

which present a faHade of respectability and impartiality may under closer

investigation be revealed as clandestine attempts to spread political$propaganda

messages. )lease seek out guidance from your Cnit Ioordinator if you have any

concerns or %uestions about a website.

Some guidelines for assessing the credibility of internet sites

• #s the site clearly identified8

• #s it located at and administered by a governmental agency university or

other scholarly institution8

• #s the author of the web page or document identified8 !re there details of the

authors %ualifications and affiliations8

• #s the posting process e"plained8 &ave items on this site been peer$reviewed8

• #s there a date for when the information was created or last updated8

• #s the item more opinion than information8

• #s the item posted for potentially political commercial or other reasons which

would damage its objectivity8



() 'riting your essay

,) Argument

Three kinds of essay question

1.1 ! history essay calls for an argument especially essays where the topic is

phrased in the subject of a %uestion. !s the first step in formulating your argument

you should begin by establishing in your own mind e"actly what you are being asked

to argue about. 0ead the %uestion carefully to determine what is being asked what

sorts of assumptions and preconceptions it includes what its terms mean and what

sorts of responses you can make 4supporting rejecting revising etc.5. Bost historical

%uestions or problems are debatable meaning that there is no single or simple answer

to them. (ake the time to decide in your own mind what you genuinely think about a

subject and what you genuinely believe to be the answer to a particular %uestion or

problem. Ene way to approach this process is to consider the distinction betweendescripti#e analytical and critical essays.

1.2 (he descripti#e essay is appropriate for cases where you have been asked to

describe a particular event problem book author etc. ou might be asked /What

happened during the -talinist (error of the 193+s8 or /What is #an Jershaws view of

the changes in =erman foreign policy during 193$398 #n the first case you would

structure your essay as a summary of the events of the (error based on various

primary and secondary sources reporting on its scale events and mechanisms. #n the

second case you would consult Jershaws books and in your essay summarise the

various changes in =erman foreign policy that he outlines. (he descriptive essay can

be useful therefore but it is limited. #n both of these e"amples while the summarieswould provide accurate descriptions they would not really advance our historical

understanding of why the -talinist (error was so significant or of what Jershaws

books have contributed to the scholarship on =erman foreign policy.

1.3 (he analytical essay is perhaps the most common sort of essay confronted by

students. &ere you take on %uestions that re%uire individual judgement and analysis in

order to give an ade%uate answer. ou might be asked /&ow central was -talins role

in the (error of the 193+s8 or /What are the most important features of Jershaws

interpretation of &itlers foreign policy in the late 193+s8 #n the first case you would

need to make a reasoned judgement regarding the responsibility of a single individual

4-talin5 for a massively comple" and geographically widespread process of murderand repression. &ow do you define /terror and /responsibility8 What other factors

might have been responsible for these horrific events8 What sort of evidence is

necessary to prove -talins responsibility8 ,or the second case you might begin by

considering how to select certain interpretations as more important than others. What

criteria can you develop to discriminate between them8 En which points does

Jershaw himself lay the most stress8 Which elements of his interpretation are

accepted by other historians and which are rejected8 Where do you think Jershaws

interpretation is strongest and where is it weakest8 -uch analytical approaches

produce essays that make arguments about how to assess historical events and

interpretations' they re%uire you to analyse the relevant material to make judgements

and to defend them.

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1.* (he critical essay is less common and more challenging but is perhaps the

most interesting sort of essay. #t asks you to critically evaluate a book school of

interpretation or approach to a problem from a historiographical point of view. ou

might be asked /!re the 6intentionalist7 school of historians right to blame -talin

alone for the 193+s (error8 or />o you find Jershaws interpretation of &itlers

command over =erman foreign policy convincing8 (hese %uestions re%uire you tomaster the relevant historical literature;the /intentionalist vs. /structuralist debate

in -oviet history or the development of Jershaws portrayal of &itler as ,Khrer;and

then to develop your own criteria of evaluation. (he critical essay necessarily e"tends

beyond the frame of reference of the subject or book you are considering and places it

within the larger historiography of the topic. ! critical reading seeks out omissions

and contradictions assesses the strengths and weaknesses in the use of evidence or

argument and makes an evaluation of the historical debate or the individual authors

approach. While students sometimes see this as an e"ercise only in identifying things

that they can condemn a true critical reading is really about e#aluating an argument

and can often result in an entirely positive assessment.

The thesis statement

1.? our /thesis statement is the central idea or argument that your essay is

setting out to prove. #t is the answer to the %uestion that you have set for yourself in

the essay. !s such it is the focus for the entire essay and all the relevant evidence that

you have assembled during your research will be directed to supporting it. ! poor

thesis statement is one whose argument is obvious to the reader and does not stand in

need of proof or alternatively one which cannot be proved. ! good thesis statement is

one whose argument is interesting and even aggressive sustainable by proof and

clearly and concisely focused. Ionsider the following e"amples:

%he &irst World War $as a conflict bet$een uropean po$ers. (his statement

contains a weak self$evident generality without an argument to be proven.

%he &irst World War $as the result of #arious international po$er struggles in

urope. (his statement is slightly better but still too broad and without an interesting

or particularly meaningful argument.

'ontrary to popular belief, the &irst World War $as primarily caused by the imperial

ri#alries of the great po$ers as they clashed in their struggle to establish or protect

their po$er outside of urope. (his statement contains a distinct argument takes astrong position stands in need of proof and clearly lays out where its focus will be.

1.A ,ormulating your thesis statement is thus a critical part of the writing process.

Cnfortunately it also often seems rather intimidating. -tudent writers too fre%uently

are stuck in the mindset that they have nothing important insightful or original to say

about a topic. @ut this is not so. #f you have studied a subject closely read about it

across a range of sources and spent time genuinely thinking about it it is almost

impossible not to end up with a worthwhile set of opinions and conclusions. !s you

research your topic you should jot down your thoughts ideas and responses to the

material you read' such active thinking about the material will steadily clarify your

own opinion on the %uestion being asked.

1+



1.D ou can arrive at real insights from surprisingly modest beginnings. ,or

e"ample /-talin was a psycho is not much of a historical argument' it is merely an

e"pression of an immature and lay attitude. !nd yet real research and reflection on

-talins personal cruelty and murderous policies can produce an e"cellent essay that

makes a nuanced argument about whether he was indeed driven by a psychopathic

personality disorder as some historians have argued was the case or in fact wasmotivated by a totalitarian ideology that placed the needs of state and party above the

rights or happiness of individuals as other historians have asserted. #n doing so you

will have converted a first impression into a genuine piece of scholarship.

") Structure

Basic essay structure

2.1 Gewspaper articles and even television reports it seems always abide by the

famous /three rules of journalism: 415 tell them what youre going to tell them' 425

tell them' 435 tell them what you told them< While this is overstated the traditional

essay structure nevertheless also runs along the same general lines. #t is classically

divided into three parts: the introduction the main body and the conclusion.

2.2 #n your introduction do not simply repeat or rephrase the %uestion' give your

answer to it< (his means that it should include a clear and direct thesis statement . ou

should lay out how you intend to address the subject and what your main lines of

argument will be. ou should also establish the chronological or thematic parameters

of your essay and provide definitions of all critical terms or concepts. (he best

introductions in fact are often the last part of the essay to be written when the essay

is essentially complete. (he reason is that it is only then when your argument has been fully developed and clearly laid out that you can present a precise and accurate

introductory description of it. ven so you should begin with a working draft of your

introduction which you can then revise in the light of your eventual conclusions.

2.3 (he main body of your essay should be a systematic working through of the

evidence you have compiled in support of your argument usually arranged around

three or four main points. 4ou might also need to take time to address evidence or

arguments which appear to dispro#e your argument.5 &ow you organise the main

body of your essay ultimately will depend on the type of argument you are making

and the nature of the evidence you are presenting. @ut in all cases strive for a clear

grouping of the different strands of your argument even if it must be as blunt aswriting: /first /second /third and so on. Cse paragraphs intelligently to

help structure your essay.

2.* #n writing your conclusion it is usual to summarise 4not simply repeat<5 the

key points and evidence that have been presented and to restate the essays argument.

@ut an essays conclusion should also go beyond merely re$stating the points already

made;rather it should deal with genuine conclusions. Gow that you have proved

your case what does it tell you8 What wider ideas insights or implications does your

argument suggest8 What lessons might we draw from the brilliant job of research and

analysis that you have performed8 @e honest: if some of your original ideas were not

supported by the evidence point this out' make clear where the evidence was tooinconclusive to allow for absolute or firm conclusions' and so on.

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‘Open’ and ‘closed’ essay structures

2.? !s you consider how to structure your essay it may be useful to think about

the differences between two %uite different approaches to structuring history essays

which can be called the closed argument and the open argument .

2.A !n essay with a closed argument moves from the general to the specific as it

steadily narrows the subject down to a specific answer. #n structure it begins with an

introduction that lays out in general terms the problem being investigated' the main

body of the essay then works through a chain of evidence dealing with the chief issues

at stake' and finally only in the conclusion is a specific answer to the essays

%uestion arrived at. (he closed argument is thus workmanlike dependable and sticks

closely to the point.

2.D !n essay with an open argument by contrast moves from the specific to the

general as it begins with a direct answer to the essays %uestion and steadily e"pands

its discussion of the subject. #n structure it begins with a sharply$defined thesisstatement that answers the e"act %uestion asked' the main body of the essay then

systematically proceeds from point to point presenting evidence to support its

specific thesis' the conclusion finally goes beyond merely restating the thesis and

instead considers the wider implications of the argument being made. (he open

argument is thus more ambitious discursive and difficult to pull off.

-) 'riting and reising

Plan your essay

3.1 (he first thing to do is to prepare an outline of your essay. ou may find when

you first sit down to do this that you are not yet e"actly sure of what it is that you

want to argue;in this case you are not ready to start writing< ou should instead

continue a bit longer with your research and perhaps e#en more importantly with

your reflection on the topic. Cnfortunately too many students begin writing without

any clear sense of what they actually want to say. (he results are predictable. (heir

introduction is weak and vague providing the reader with no clear thesis statement

and instead wasting time simply rephrasing the %uestion. (he main body of their essay

wanders aimlessly repeating itself and not marshalling evidence in a systematic

fashion to frame a coherent argument. (heir conclusion when they finally come to the

end is boringly repetitive and often the first and only place where the reader isconfronted with an answer to the %uestion being addressed. >ont fall into this trap<

3.2 !n outline is simply a road map that ensures your essay has a clear thesis

statement is coherently organised and contains all the evidence necessary to prove

your argument. our outline can be simple or e"tremely detailed but it should still be

framed around the three essential components of all essays: the introduction the main

body and the conclusion. >raft a simple introduction 41 paragraph5 that states your

position as clearly and concisely 4even bluntly<5 as possible. (hen set down as bullet

points what your key assertions will be in support of your position and note the main

pieces of evidence you plan to use to support each one. ,inally for the conclusion

consider 4in preliminary terms at least5 some of the possible implications and widerconsiderations that your essays argument addresses.

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Revise your essay

3.3 ou should allow yourself time to write and then re$rite your essay. 0eal

revision means not being afraid to take what you have written and genuinely tear it

apart to make it better. #f possible once the first draft of your paper is complete put itaside for a few days and then return to it with a fresh analytical eye. ou will %uickly

spot ways in which it needs revision.

3.* 0evision means asking yourself tough %uestions. >o you really know e(actly

what it is you are trying to argue8 4#f not clarify this in your own mind and then make

sure the essay e"presses it clearly.5 >o you repeat yourself in places8 4ou need to

rework the structure and delete some material.5 >o the particular parts of your essay

work together to make a single coherent argument8 4Ionsider how you can best

structure your argument so that it hangs together systematically and logically.5 !re

there places where you fail to prove your point sufficiently well8 4ou will need to

gather more evidence to strengthen your case.5 !re the format and style of referencingclear and consistent throughout the essay8 4Iheck the guidelines in )art ## of the

&istory ssay &andbook.5 !re there any spelling punctuation grammar and other

stylistic errors8 4ou need to proof read carefully: careless errors and sloppy

presentation will always undermine how your essay is received no matter how

brilliant the argument might be.5

rite like a historian

3.? =ood writing style is an integral part of strong history essays. !s a general

rule try to be direct clear and engaging in your writing. !ssume you are writing for

an audience that is mature intelligent and interested;e"actly like yourself. >o not

assume that your readers will know things without having to be told: if you or a

fellow student would re%uire a concept to be e"plained or term defined then do so for

your reader.

3.A >ont try to constantly hedge your bets;be decisive and take a stand. (his

means addressing the %uestion that is being asked. >ont wander off into irrelevancies

but pose the %uestion clearly and make your answer precise and persuasive.

3.D -trive for precision. (his means resisting the impulse to descend into vague

statements and sweeping generaliations. #mpossibly broad statements;such as /(hedevastation on the astern ,ront was e"treme and affected the lives of many

people;end up proving nothing in themselves. !t the same time definite assertions

still re%uire the support of specific detail as evidence: factual detail' statistics'

%uotations from individuals or documents of the time' and 4least effective5 %uotations

from historians. &ere an e"ample of how a general assertion might be backed up with

specific detail as evidence:

&itler was lay. (he most obvious e"ample can be seen in his working habits when

,Khrer. &e never emerged from his private rooms before midday took enormously

lengthy meals and generally stayed up until about 2 a.m. watching films before going

to bed. !s !lan @ullock notes &itler /hated systematic work hated to submit to anydiscipline and he habitually left as much as he could to others. 1

13



3. !void /fluff< Beaningless %ualifications and /filler statements;such as /thus

one can see that or /having shown this first point ne"t this second point will be

discussed;merely weaken your essay. !void weak phrases like 6#n my opinion or

/#t seems to me: the reader knows already that ideas and assertions e"pressed in your

essay are your own opinion so drop the weak preface and be emphatic. ,or e"ample:/#n my opinion Lenin was just as brutal a dictator as -talin is weaker than /Lenin

was just as brutal a dictator as -talin.

1*



.) Assessment of essays

#t may be useful to you to have a clearer sense of the basic criteria by which history

essays are evaluated and how the different grade levels are categorised. !s you revise

your essay you might consider the %uestions and the criteria listed below.

,) Assessment criteria

1.1 )no$ledge) (his essentially covers the research you have done. >oes the essay

demonstrate ade%uate reading8 >oes it cover the topic with no major or obvious

omissions8 >oes the essay support its argument with sufficient and appropriate evidence8

>oes it keep a clear focus on the most significant points and develop these in sufficient

detail8 #s there a good range of sources employed in the footnotesMendnotes and listed in

the bibliography8

1.2 *nalysis. (his essentially deals with your essays argument. >o you understandand answer the %uestion asked directly and fully8 &ave you grasped the key historical

issues at stake8 >o you show an understanding of the arguments and interpretations of

other historians on this topic8 &ave you evaluated the evidence critically8 >oes your

argument take objections and alternative views into account8 #n general do you present a

coherent and analytical argument8

1.3 +tructure. (his essentially deals with the way your essay is organised. #s your

argument stated clearly in the introduction8 #s there a clear and systematic sense of form

of organiation to your essay8 &ave you achieved a good balance between narrative and

analysis8 &ave you successfully supported your general points with appropriate specific

evidence8 !re the points made in a clear order and effectively linked into a smoothlyflowing essay8 >oes the essay avoid irrelevance or repetition8

1.* resentation. (his essentially covers the style of your writing and the technical

aspects of your submitted work. &ave you written in clear and correct nglish without

too many small errors of spelling punctuation or grammar8 &ave you included accurate

and correctly formatted references throughout your essay8 &ave you used %uotations

correctly8 >oes it have a proper bibliography8 #s the essay of the correct length8

") &rade leel descri/tions

2.1 !igh Distinction. "cellent work. (he essay contains a clearly defined

argument which not only answers the %uestion but addresses its deeper implications.

(here is e"tensive evidence drawn from a wide range of sources which is used in

interesting ways that demonstrate the author fully understands it. (he essay shows an

ability to %uestion the authority of sources and to weigh their relative merits and

value where necessary identifying and discussing apparent contradictions. (he essay

is elegantly written very well structured and shows original insight by the author.

/&> thus represents a piece of writing that is enjoyable to read essentially difficult to

fault and the best sort of effort that could be e(pected by a student at this le#el .

2.2 Distinction. Nery good work. (he essay contains a clearly defined argumentwhich displays an understanding of the %uestion and deploys relevant evident to

1?



answer it drawing upon a good range of sources. (he analysis is strong and sustained

though it may in places fall short by employing inade%uate evidence failing to

e"plore all the implications of the evidence cited or drawing less impressive

conclusions. (he essay is well$written though it may still contain minor structural

problems. /> thus represents a #ery strong piece of $riting that is intelligent,

informati#e and readable though it will not have %uite the polish of /&> work.

2.3 'redit . =ood work. (he essay answers the %uestion ade%uately though the

argument overlooks key points or is inade%uately focused on the specific %uestion

under discussion. (here may be a tendency to state ideas rather than to analyse them

or to have the argument rest on unsupported claims. (he essay is likely to be based

upon a modest range of sources. (hough coherently written it may contain stylistic or

structural problems. /I thus represents /creditable work: a sound piece of $riting

that sho$s the student has clearly done the $ork reuired to an acceptable standard

though there will be areas that re%uire significant growth and improvement.

2.* ass. !de%uate work. (he essay is acceptable as it provides a basic answer tothe %uestion and meets the minimum objectives of the assignment. !t a minimum it

will be written in a clear and coherent fashion be correctly referenced and be based

upon a sufficient number of sources. &owever the essay likely contains only a basic

argument and has too little analysis instead presenting factual data as an end in itself.

(here also may be real misunderstandings of the main issues and the material being

considered. (he essay may have significant stylistic or structural problems. /) thus

represents a piece of $ork that meets the minimal ob.ecti#es of the assignment, but

lea#es substantial room for impro#ement in terms of research analysis and essay

structure.

2.? &ail . #nade%uate or unacceptable work. (he essay makes no attempt to develop

a sustained argument in response to the %uestion. (here is little or no analysis and it

makes unsupported assertions backed by vague distorted or inaccurate evidence. (he

essay may be inade%uate in terms of length likely uses an insufficient number of

sources and is very poorly written. Work in this category may include: an essay

which merely gives a chronicle of events without any analysis' an essay based entirely

or substantially upon inade%uate sources including internet sources or unit lectures'

an essay that is so structurally stylistically or grammatically awkward as to be

unreadable. /G thus represents $ork that does not meet the minimum standards

e(pected of uni#ersity-le#el students.

1A



E) Plagiarism

,) 'hat is /lagiarism0

1.1 /)lagiarism involves taking and using someone elses work thoughts or

writings and representing them as your own. Csing the work of another person

without indicating by referencing 4and by %uotation marks when e"act phrases or

passages are borrowed5 that the ideas e"pressed are not your own is a form of

cheating: in effect it is literary theft. !ny use of ideas and information taken from

other authors must be acknowledged.

1.2 Ilassic e"amples of plagiarism include: copying another students work' using

an authors e"act words without putting them in %uotation marks and citing the

source' and using an authors ideas without proper acknowledgement.

(he first case copying another students work constitutes plain dishonesty for

which there can be no acceptable defence.(he second case using a passage from an author without clearly identifying

the words as a %uotation essentially involves the careless error or deliberate deception

of trying to pass off someone elses work as your own. (here is very little defence for

such actions either;as a university student you are e"pected to know how to take

accurate notes how to employ %uotation marks and how to properly reference all

%uotations. #f you use a direct %uotation the passage must always appear in %uotation

marks with the appropriate reference given.

(he third case using an authors ideas without proper acknowledgement is

more problematic. Iompiling the views of other people and passing them off as ones

own writing is not legitimate academic practice. !ll paraphrases of sources which go

into your essays must be followed by a reference to the source that is as clear and precise as those provided for direct %uotations.

") Plagiarism and Para/hrasing

2.1 )araphrasing means rephrasing another authors arguments or findings in your

own words: as such it is a common element of historical research. (he obvious

danger here is if a passage from a source is paraphrased too closely such as with only

a word changed here and there;this also constitutes plagiarism. When you

paraphrase be sure you are not just rearranging or replacing a few words. #nstead

read over carefully the passage in the original that you want to paraphrase and then

write out what you think it means using your own words. #f you feel that any phrases

or sentences from the original are so precise and to the point that you cannot think of a

better way to put the idea consider using it as a %uotation.

2.2 Iorrect paraphrasing is something which students often wonder about. &ere is

an e"ample of an original source followed by three versions of how it might be

paraphrased in an essay: the first two constitute plagiarism the third is acceptable

paraphrasing.

1D



Eriginal source. F. B. 0oberts !istory of the World 4Gew ork 19DA5 p. *?.

(he joker in the uropean pack was #taly. ,or a time hopes were entertained of her as

a force against =ermany but these disappeared under Bussolini. #n 193? #taly made a

belated attempt to participate in the scramble for !frica by invading thiopia. #t wasclearly a breach of the Iovenant of the League of Gations for one of its members to

attack another. ,rance and =reat @ritain the Bediterranean powers and the !frican

powers were bound to take the lead against #taly at the League. @ut they did so feebly

and half$heartedly because they did not want to alienate a possible ally against

=ermany. (he result was the worst possible: the League failed to check aggression

thiopia lost her independence and #taly was alienated after all.

Nersion !. )lagiarism) ntire phrases are taken from the source $ithout footnoting/

#taly one might say was the joker in the uropean deck. When she invaded thiopia

it was clearly a breach of the Iovenant of the League of Gations yet the efforts ofngland and ,rance to take the lead against her were feeble and half$hearted. #t

appears that those great powers had no wish to alienate a possible ally against &itlers

rearmed =ermany.

Nersion @. )lagiarism) (act $ords from the original are still not gi#en as uotes/

#taly was the joker in the uropean deck. Cnder Bussolini in 193? she made a

belated attempt to participate in the scramble for !frica by invading thiopia. !s F.B.

0oberts points out this violated the Iovenant of the League of Gations.1 @ut ,rance

and @ritain not wanting to alienate a possible ally against =ermany put up only

feeble and half$hearted opposition to the thiopian adventure. (he outcome 0obertsobserves was the worst possible: /the League failed to check aggression thiopia lost

her independence and #taly was alienated after all.2

1 F. B. 0oberts !istory of the World 4Gew ork 19DA5 p. *?.2 0bid/

Nersion I. !cceptable) Writer is incorporating elements from the source material as

part of hisher o$n argument, not merely rephrasing the original/ Direct uotes are

footnoted/

=ermanys dominance within urope during the 193+s was by no means a foregoneconclusion for the balance of power might just as easily have been tipped against

&itler if ,ascist #taly had not gravitated towards an alliance with @erlin. -uch an

alliance was not inevitable' the @ritish and ,rench governments both muted their

criticism of Bussolinis thiopian invasion in the hope of remaining friends with

#taly. (hey opposed the #talians in the League of Gations as F.B. 0oberts observes

/feebly and half$heartedly because they did not want to alienate a possible ally against

=ermany.1 #t is possible to imagine alternative circumstances where #taly ,rance

and @ritain retained a common interest in preserving stability in urope despite

ideological differences and so jointly restrained &itler from his diplomatic adventures

of the later 193+s.

1 F. B. 0oberts !istory of the World 4Gew ork 19DA5 p. *?.

1



Plagiarism in action! "n actual case

(his first passage comes from the introduction to Bark 0aeff %he Decembrists

published in 19AA:

>ecember 1* 12? was the day set for taking the oath of allegiance to thenew mperor Gicholas #. Enly a few days earlier on Govember 2D when news of the

death of !le"ander # had reached the capital an oath of allegiance had been taken to

Gicholass older brother =rand >uke Ionstantine Niceroy of )oland. @ut in

accordance with the act of renunciation he had made in 119 Ionstantine had refused

the crown. (he virtual interregnum stirred society and produced uneasiness among the

troops and the government was apprehensive of disorders and disturbances. )olice

agents reported the e"istence of secret societies and rumours of a coup to be staged by

regiments of the =uards. (he new mperor was an"ious to have the oath taken as

%uickly and %uietly as possible. (he members of the central government institutions;

Iouncil of -tate -enate Binistries;took the oath without incident early in the

morning. #n most regiments of the garrison the oath was also taken peaceably.

(his second passage comes from the introduction to =.0.N. @arratt %he Decembrist

2emoirs published in 19D*.

>ecember 1* 12? was the day on which the =uards regiments in

)etersburg were to swear solemn allegiance to Gicholas # the new mperor. Less than

three weeks before when news of the death of !le"ander # had reached the capital

from (aganrog on the sea of !ov an oath no less solemn and binding had been

taken to Gicholass elder brother the =rand >uke Ionstantine Niceroy of )oland.

Ionstantine however had declined to be emperor in accordance with two separateacts of renunciation made in 119 and secretly in 122. (he effective interregnum

caused uneasiness both in society and in the army. (he government feared undefined

disorders;with some reason since police agents reported the e"istence of various

clandestine groups and rumours of a coup to be effected by guardsmen. Gicholas was

an"ious that the oath be sworn to him promptly and %uietly. !t first it would seem that

he would have his way' senators ministers and members of the Iouncil of -tate took

the oath by 9 am. #n most regiments of the garrison the oath was also taken peaceably.

#t was not long before reviewers spotted the similarities< (his is a classic case of

paraphrasing as plagiarism: while @arratt changed added and rearranged words

nevertheless he still drew directly from 0aeffs work throughout. 0emember that it isnot enough merely to change the order of a few words or sentences or to add a few

phrases or sentences of your own;such close borrowing is still plagiarism.

-) How to aoid /lagiarism

3.1 3i#e yourself enough time to do your essay. Nery rarely do students start out

deliberately intending to commit plagiarism. #nstead they fall into the trap because

they are desperate to meet an impending deadline and become careless or make bad

choices. ou can avoid this by getting started early and giving yourself sufficient time

to research and write your essays.

19



3.2 %ake full and accurate notes. Ene of the most common e"planations from

students who have made improper use of sources is that they mi"ed up their notes and

could not tell the difference between their own thoughts and those of their sources.

ou should always take notes in a way that lets you distinguish at a glance your own

thoughts from ideas and words that you have copied from others. ,or a start put

everything that comes directly from another source in %uotation marks. !lways writedown the full bibliographical and page information for the sources of such %uotations

so that the information is handy when you compile the references for your essay.

3.3 earn ho$ to cite e#idence correctly. #n history essays it is not merely

e"pected but essential that you should draw upon the research and interpretations of

other historians as you put together your argument. What is re%uired however is that

properly acknowledge the source of this material via a reference such as a footnote or

endnote. (he best place to start is by carefully reading the sections in )art ## of the

&istory ssay &andbook on using %uotations and on how and when to use footnotes

and endnotes. #f you have any doubts about how to refer to the work of others in your

assignments please consult your (utor or Cnit Ioordinator for help.

2+




Part II:

A short guide to style and referencingin history essays

History Program


Murdoch Uniersity

!"##$%

21



Part II: A Short &uide to Style and +eferencing in History Essays

Table of (ontents

A) Introduction

*) 'riting style in history essays

,) Essay /resentation

") S/elling1 Punctuation and (a/itals

-) 2umbers and .ates

3) Sentences and Paragra/hs

4) 5anguage

6) 7uotations

#$amples of the proper use of quotations

() 8ootnotes and endnotes

,) *asic rules

") 'hat to footnote0

-) *ooks

3) 9ournal articles1

4) *ook cha/ters and documentary collections

6) Internet sites and oralaudioisual sources

.) *ibliogra/hies

,) *asic rules

") *ooks

-) 9ournal articles

3) *ook cha/ters

4) Internet sites and oralaudioisual sources

E) A//endices

,) +eference &uide Summary Sheet

") Sam/le ;mini<essay= with footnotes and commentary

-) Sam/le bibliogra/hy3) 8urther resources

22



*) 'riting style in history essays

,) Essay /resentation

1.1 #t is e"pected that all essays will normally be word processed on a computer and

printed on !* paper on one side of the page only with ample margins on all sides

and in a standard font type and sie.

1.2 !ll written work should be double$spaced e"cept for the footnotesMendnotes and

the bibliography which should be single spaced. !ll pages should be numbered

consecutively including the title page and bibliography.

1.3 our essay should have a title page containing the following information: your

name' the essays title' the unit number and name' the assignmentM%uestion number'

the date' the name of your tutor and time of your tutorial. 5ote that this title page is in

addition to the !istory rogram co#er sheet .

1.* our essay should make appropriate use of references 4footnotes or endnotes5 to

demonstrate the sources for your information and include a properly formatted

bibliography which lists all the relevant sources used.

") S/elling1 Punctuation and (a/itals

2.1 -pelling. !s a general guideline spelling should follow the *ustralian

'oncise O(ford Dictionary 4*th edn. Belbourne: E"ford Cniversity )ress 2++*5. Cse

!ustralianM@ritish forms of spelling in preference to !merican forms 4e/g/ use /$ise

not /$ie and /$our not /$or.5 @y all means use a computer spelling checker on youressay but al$ays carefully proofread your essay for spelling mistakes. 4our spell

checker would have no problem with the following sentence: /Width the attack on

)oland the wad had begun.5

2.2 )unctuation. !lways proofread your essay for punctuation errors. (he most

common errors include the misuse of apostrophes 4e/g/ be sure you know the

difference between Gais Gais and Gais5 and semi$colons 4e/g/ /(he semi$colon

is simple to use' it separates two main clauses5.

2.3 Iapitalisation. @e sparing in your use of capitals. Ether than for proper names

use capitals generally only where lower case would create ambiguity. ou should be

consistent in your use of capitaliation for the titles of works in your footnotes and

bibliography.

2.* !cronyms. (he names of government agencies associations unions and other

such organisations are often abbreviated. #n general these acronyms should be in full

capitals with no periods between the letters. ,or e"ample: CG BI! C--0.

-) 2umbers and .ates

3.1 Gumbers less than 1++ should be written out in full 4e/g/ twenty$five' fifty$si"th anniversary5. Gumbers over 1++ should be given in figures e"cept for round

2*



numbers 4e/g/ 2DA' five thousand5. Cse figures with a succession of numbers or a

series of statistics 4e/g/ /(here were 1A representatives ? union officials and 1+2

members5.

3.2 >ates are best written in the form /day month year 4e/g/ 11 Govember 191'

3+ Fanuary 2++D5. &owever whatever style you adopt for dates what is important isthat you use it consistently throughout your essay.

3.3 ,or decades write them out without an apostrophe 4e/g/ 1D+s 193+s5. ,or

centuries it is best practice to write them out in full 4e/g/ /nineteenth century5 though

the brief numerical form is acceptable 4e/g/ /19th century5. 5e#er use the shorthand

form 4e/g/ /I195.

3) Sentences and Paragra/hs

*.1 -entences. our essay should be written in proper sentences. !lways carefully

proofread your essay for common sentence errors including incomplete sentences and

run$on sentences. >o not write any of your essay in note form and ne#er use bullet$

points.

*.2 )aragraphs. (he first line of each paragraph should be indented. @ecause your

essay should always be double$spaced it is not necessary to leave a line between

paragraphs. )aragraphs should not consist of a single sentence but rather should

group together material and evidence in a logical fashion that helps the reader to

follow your argument. Well$designed paragraphs 4generally of *$A sentences5 are an

integral part of your essays structure and should be used to help the reader to follow

your argument. (ry to make the first sentence in each paragraph 4the /topic sentence5a punchy introduction to the content of that paragraph.

4) 5anguage

?.1 )ast (ense. &istory essays should be written consistently in the past tense. Cse

the present tense only for contemporary events 4that is events occurring /at the

present time5.

?.2 )ersonal pronoun. Cse of the personal pronoun 4/#5 is permissible but do so

in moderation. (ry to avoid fre%uent use of phrases such as /# think that.

?.3 Iontractions. !void contractions: write do not rather than don6t . !nd please

remember the difference between its 4possessive5 and it6s 4/it is5<

?.* -lang. !void slang clichOs and meaningless generalities: these are tiresome.

4,or e"ample: /(he ,irst World War was horrible or /#n 191* urope was going to

hell in a hand$basket.5

?.? Whenever possible use the active rather than passive voice. )assive writing

tends to be weaker more wordy and less to the point than writing that is assertive

concise and direct. 4,or e"ample /(rotsky opposed the move is better than /(he

move was opposed by (rotsky.5

2?



6) 7uotations

A.1 ssays must be your own work: that is they are presentations of your own

arguments and ideas. Puotations are thus tools to reinforce your argument;and not to

save you from having to make it< !void long slabs of %uotations: a /cut and paste

collection of long %uotations connected together only in the most cursory fashion isnot acceptable as an essay. -o when should you employ %uotations8 Cse them to

illustrate assertions that you are making in your argument' to enliven your narrative

with interesting descriptions and first$hand descriptions of events' to provide the

authentic voices of people from the past. !t the same time never assume that the

%uotation makes the point by itself and without any need of your own analysis.

A.2 ,ormat. )resent %uotations in the same font sie and type as you have used for

the rest of your essay. >o not put %uotations into a different font into a smaller font

sie into boldface ty/e or into italics. Puotations in the main te"t should be enclosed

in single %uotation marks' for %uotations within other %uotations use double %uotation

marks. 4,or e"ample: /Bussolini was not the first person to proclaim that 6,ascism is

totalitarianism7 but he was the loudest.5

A.3 -hort and long %uotations. -hort %uotations of three lines or less 4appro". fifty

words5 should go in the te"t.

Long %uotations 4more than about ?+ words5 should be set up as /block

%uotations. (hese should be 4i5 indented an e"tra step from the left margin 4ii5 single$

spaced and 4iii5 without %uotation marks. 4-ee the e"amples below.5

A.* !ccuracy. !ll direct %uotations must repeat the e"act spelling and punctuation

of the original source. !ny mistakes strange spellings or odd turns of phrase in theoriginal source should be reproduced in your %uote but marked by inserting in s%uare

brackets the Latin e"pression / sic 4which means /in this manner5 at the appropriate

place. (his shows the reader that the apparent mistake derives from the original

source.

/(he (hird Q sicR World War began in 191*.1

A.? ditorial insertions. Words inserted into a %uotation to clarify a reference or

the grammar must always be enclosed in suare brackets to identify them as your

own insertion.

/@y the time of the remilitariation of the 0hineland Qin 193AR even among

those who had not voted for him before he became Ihancellor he Q&itlerR

enjoyed the support of the overwhelming mass of the =erman people.1

A.A llipsis. Whenever material has been left out from an original %uotation this

must be indicated by three periods known as an /ellipsis. (he main reason for using

ellipsis points is to select only the most important part of the %uotation. Gote that you

do not need to use ellipsis points before the start or after the end of a %uotation.

/@y the time of the remilitariation of the 0hineland he enjoyed the supportof the overwhelming mass of the =erman people.1

2A



#$amples of the proper use of quotations

>riginal source 4account by Lieutenant Fames &alloran of the battle of (rafalgar5

/! shot struck the mule of the gun at which # was stationed 4the aftermost gun on

the larboard side of the lower deck5 and killed or wounded everyone stationed there

myself and Bidshipman (ompkins e"cepted. (he shot was a very large one and split

into a number of sherds each of which took its own victim. We threw the mangled

body of Fohn Folley a marine out of the stern port his stoumach being shot away' the

other sufferers we left to be e"amined. (he gun itself was split and our second

lieutenant 0oskruge who came down at that moment with some orders advised me to

leave the gun as useless.

Short ?uotation integrated into essay te@t

(he fighting was vicious. ! shot struck the mule of Lieutenant &allorans gun and

/killed or wounded everyone there e"cept for &alloran and a midshipman. (here was

no time for sentiment. (hey /threw the mangled body of Fohn Folley a marine out of

the stern port his stoumach Q sicR being shot away before continuing with the battle.1

5ong ;block= ?uotation within essay te@t

#n a letter to his brother written just after the battle Lieutenant &alloran made clear

the ferocity of the fighting:

! shot struck the mule of the gun at which # was stationed and killed or

wounded everyone stationed there myself and Bidshipman (ompkins e"cepted.

(he shot was a very large one and split into a number of sherds Q sicR each of which took its own victim. We threw the mangled body of Qone of the

victimsR out of the stern port QandR the other sufferers we left to be e"amined.

(he gun itself was split1

(ragically &alloran was himself killed some days later when a mast was blown away

during the ensuing hurricane.

A final /oint

A5'ABS P+>>8 +EA. B>U+ '>+C

2D



") 'hat to footnote0

2.1 0eferences are al$ays re%uired for: direct %uotations' statistical data including

tables and charts' specific facts that are not commonly known. #f you are %uoting or

providing primary source material in your essay which you located in a secondarysource then you need to state both where it came from originally 4the primary source5

and where you found it 4the secondary source5.

2.2 =enerally known or accepted factual material does not re%uire a reference to

support it even if you obtained it from a particular source in print. (his includes

common understandings widely shared ideas dates names places and events in

history. (hus you do not need a reference to support statements such as that

witchcraft has been a controversial subject over the years that the @astille was

stormed on 1* Fuly 1D9 that Jarl Bar" believed in class struggle or that the

)resident of the Cnited -tates during the Iuban missile crisis was Fohn ,. Jennedy.

2.3 #nformation that cannot be e"pected to be taken on trust re%uires a reference.

,or e"ample the statement that /(he number of those who took part in the siege of the

@astille has been estimated at ++S9++ people would re%uire a reference to support

it. Iontroversial or debatable opinions must also have a reference such as the

assertion that: /#t was Jennedys triumph over Gi"on in the television debate that won

him the )residency in 19A+.

2.* 0eferences should be used to indicate where you have either paraphrased

summarised or referred to an argument advanced or an attitude adopted by one of the

historians or other sources whose works you are using. !gain you need to use your judgement here. /Jarl Bar" originated the concept of class warfare does not re%uire

a reference. &owever /Jarl Bar" argued that the ,rench 0evolution showed all the

signs of a bourgeois revolution which he considered a key stage in his view of history

driven by class warfare does re%uire a reference.

2.? 0eferences may also be used to make incidental comments or to amplify a

point in the te"t. &owever it is considered bad style to do this too often so consider

carefully whether the information in your reference is really important enough to

include at all or indeed whether it is so important that it ought to be in the main body

of the essay instead.

2.A #t is worth noting that even the most eminent historians differ in how

e"tensively they reference their work. ,or e"ample Tara -teiner in %he ights that

&ailed 4a massive ++$page survey of uropean history between 1919 and 19335

provides footnotes only for direct %uotations and for statistical data;a decision she

made to avoid overburdening the book with references. =erhard Weinberg on the

other hand in * World at *rms 4an e%ually massive 9++$page history of the -econd

World War5 gives e"tensive and detailed endnotes that identify %uotations and data

but also provide detailed discussions of the historiographical debates and the

secondary literature;a decision he made to situate his arguments within the fierce

debates that rage around so many %uestions about the war.

29



-) *ooks

@asic format

3.1 @ooks are the most common sources used by history students in their essays.

(he basic format for all references to books is essentially the same with minorvariations depending upon the number of authors the books edition and so on. (he

first reference to a book should include the following information in this form and

order:

authors first name and last name title of book 4place of publication: publisher

date of publication5 precise page or pages consulted.

(he second and all subse%uent references to the book should be a shortened version of

the above:

authors last name short form of title of book precise page or pages consulted.

@ooks by a single author

3.2 (he most fre%uent sort of books consulted by history students will have a single

author. &ere are some e"amples of first and second references for books by a single

author:

1 Tara -teiner %he ights %hat &ailed7 uropean 0nternational !istory, 1919-

19:: 4E"ford: E"ford Cniversity )ress 2++?5 p. A++.2 -teiner ights %hat &ailed pp. D9$D99.

3 !nne !pplebaum 3ulag7 * !istory 4Gew ork: !nchor @ooks 2++35 pp.

13$1*.* !pplebaum 3ulag pp. ?2$?3.

@ooks by more than one author

3.3 @ooks sometimes are written by more than one author. #n this case you should

list all the authors in the order that their names appear on the books title page. #f there

are more than two authors you may use a shortened format which gives only thename of the lead author followed by the Latin abbreviation et al . 4meaning /and

others5.

&ere are some e"amples of first and later references to books with multiple authors

including the two different ways of listing a book with three authors:

? Williamson Burray and !llan 0. Billett * War to be Won7 &ighting the

+econd World War 4Iambridge B!: &arvard Cniversity )ress 2+++5 pp.

vii$i".A Burray and Billett War to be Won p. 23D.

3+



D Foyce !ppleby Lynn &unt and Bargaret Facob %elling the %ruth *bout

!istory 4Gew ork and London: W.W. Gorton 199*5 pp. 2D1$2D2. !ppleby &unt and Facob %elling the %ruth p. 3+A.

or

D Foyce !ppleby et al . %elling the %ruth *bout !istory 4Gew ork and London:W.W. Gorton 199*5 pp. 2D1$2D2.

!ppleby et al . %elling the %ruth p. 3+A

@ooks edited by one or more editors

3.* @ooks are sometimes listed as having an editor;this is the case in collections of

original documents or books that are made up of essays by many different authors.

-imply insert /4ed.5 after the editors name or /4eds.5 if there are multiple editors

and then give the rest of the reference as normal:

9 Foachim 0emak 4ed.5 %he 5a;i <ears7 * Documentary !istory 4Gew ork:

-imon and -chuster 19A95 pp. 2* 3D.1+ 0emak 4ed.5 5a;i <ears p. 11+.

11 0obert @oyce and Foseph !. Baiolo 4eds.5 %he Origins of World War %$o7

%he Debate 'ontinues 4@asingstoke: )algrave Bacmillan 2++35 p. 1.12 @oyce and Baiolo 4eds.5 Origins of World War %$o p. 2.

@ooks in later editions as volumes in a series or translated

3.? @ooks sometimes have other information that should be included in referencessuch as the edition 4other than the first edition5 the volume number 4if it is part of a

series5 or the name of a translator. (he first reference to the book needs to contain the

full information but need not include it on subse%uent short$form references.

,or a books edition specify which edition it is 4/2nd edn. /3rd edn. /revised edn.

/paperback edn. etc.5 after the books title:

13 #an Jershaw %he 5a;i Dictatorship7 roblems and erspecti#es of

0nterpretation 3rd edn. 4London: dward !rnold 19935 pp. ?9 A$A9.1* Jershaw 5a;i Dictatorship p. vii.

,or a books volume title and number give the volume number and title if the volume

has its o$n title. #f a book is part of a series where all the volumes have the same title

then specify the volume number only after the publication information:

1? (heodore Teldin &rance, 1848-194=/ >ol/ 07 *mbition, o#e and olitics

4E"ford: Ilarendon )ress 19D35 p. A++.1A Teldin &rance vol. # p. 11.

1D -ir Llewellyn Woodward British &oreign olicy in the +econd World War ?

vols. 4London: &B-E 19D15 vol. ### pp. ?1$?A.1 Woodward British &oreign olicy vol. ### p. *99.

31



,or a books translator give the name of the translator after the books title:

19 berhard Jolb %he Weimar "epublic trans. ).-. ,alla 4London and Gew

ork: 0outledge 195 pp. 19*$19?.2+ Jolb Weimar "epublic p. 1D*.

,urther e"amples

3.A ,inally here are some e"amples of references for books which contain a

combination of the above items. ou will notice that despite the addition of e"tra

items of information they all still follow the same basic format.

@ook with multiple authors and edition information:

21

0.0. )almer and Foel Iolton * !istory of the 2odern World since 181= A

th

edn. 4Gew ork: Bc=raw$&ill 19*5 p. D12.22 )almer and Iolton !istory of the 2odern World p. D33.

@ook with multiple authors edition information and name of translator:

23 )hilippe @ernard and &enri >ubief %he Decline of the %hird "epublic, 1914-

19:8 paperback edn. trans. !nthony ,orster 4Iambridge: Iambridge

Cniversity )ress 195 p. 12*.2* @ernard and >ubief Decline of the %hird "epublic p. 12?.

3) 9ournal Articles

@asic format

*.1 Fournal articles are another common source used by history students in their

essays. (he first reference to an article in a journal should include the following

information in this form and order:

authors first and last name /title of article title of .ournal volume number

issue number 4date of publication5 precise page or pages consulted.

(he second and all subse%uent references to the article should be a shortened version

of the above:

authors last name /short form of title of article precise page or pages

consulted.

Fournal articles by a single author

*.2 &ere are some e"amples of first and second references for journal articles by a

single author:

32



2? >avid =. &errmann /(he paralysis of #talian strategy in the #talian$(urkish

War 1911$1912 nglish !istorical "e#ie$ vol. I#N no. *11 4!pril

1995 p. 332.2A &errmann /#talian strategy p. 3*+.

2D Boni%ue Ilague /Nision and myopia in the new politics of !ndrO (ardieu &rench !istorical +tudies vol. no. 1 4-pring 19D35 p. 1+D.

2 Ilague /Nision and myopia p. 1+9.

Fournal articles by more than one author

*.3 ,or journal articles with more than one author follow the same basic rules as

with books that have multiple authors. List all the authors in the order that their names

appear on the article. !s with books if there are more than two authors you may use a

shortened format which gives only the name of the lead author followed by the Latin

abbreviation et al . 4meaning /and others5.

29 =.=. Fones and 0.I.@. (rebilcock /0ussian industry and @ritish business

191+$193+: Eil and armaments ?ournal of uropean conomic !istory

vol. 11 41925 p. A1.3+ Fones and (rebilcock /0ussian industry and @ritish business p. A2.

!rticle in a newspaper

*.* ,or most references to basic news reports in newspapers you need only to give

the headline the name of the paper the date the section name 4if appropriate5 and the

page number. &owever where it is specifically listed and especially if it is significantto the content of your reference such as with editorial or opinion pieces you should

give the authors name and the title of the article.

3? /#nterest rates to remain on hold %he *ge ? Bay 2++? p. 13A /#nterest rates to remain on hold.

3D Jevin 0udd /Labours industrial relations formula %he *ustralian 1 !pril

2++D p. 1D.3 0udd /Labours industrial relations formula.

@ook reviews

*.? @ooks reviews generally appear as articles in scholarly journals and newspapers.

(he reference should refer primarily to the author of the review not to the author of

the book being reviewed.

1 &eather Ioleman review of -heila ,itpatrick #eryday +talinism/ Ordinary

ife in (traordinary %imes7 +o#iet "ussia in the 19:s 4Gew ork:

E"ford Cniversity )ress 19995 in 'anadian ?ournal of !istory vol. 3A

42++15 pp. 1?1$1?2.

2 Ioleman review of #eryday +talinism p. 1?1.

33



4) *ook (ha/ters and .ocumentary (ollections

#ndividual chapters in edited booksManthologies

?.1 !nthologies of essays containing a number of chapters written by different

authors are another common source for history students. ou should cite the specificchapter that you have consulted providing the authors name and the title of the

chapter plus the editors name and the title of the book.

authors first and last name /title of chapter in editors first and last name title

of book 4place of publication: publisher date of publication5 precise page

or pages consulted.

(he second and all subse%uent references to the chapter are shortened versions:

authors last name /short form of title of chapter precise page or pagesconsulted.

&ere are some e"amples of first and second references for book chapters by a single

author:

31 >avid 0eynolds /Ihurchill and >e =aulle: Bakers and writers of history in

!ntoine Iapet 4ed.5 Britain, &rance and the ntente 'ordiale since 194

4@asingstoke: )algrave Bacmillan 2++A5 p. 12+.32 0eynolds /Ihurchill and >e =aulle pp. 11D$11.

33 Iondoleea 0ice /(he making of -oviet strategy in )eter )aret 4ed.5

2akers of 2odern +trategy7 &rom 2achia#elli to the 5uclear *ge

4)rinceton: )rinceton Cniversity )ress 19A5 pp. A*$A?3.3* 0ice /-oviet strategy p. A?.

>ocuments from a documentary collection

?.2 >ocumentary collections can be e"tremely useful sources for history students as

they provide access to primary sources on a topic. #f you take a direct %uotation from

a specific document from within a documentary collection you must clearly identify

both the document itself the collection from which it comes 4including the editors andthe title5 and its place within that collection 4such as its document number5.

3? &enderson to Gewton 4telegram5 29 Fune 1931 in .L. Woodward and 0.

@utler 4eds.5 Documents on British &oreign olicy, 1919-19:9, +econd

+eries, #ol/ 007 19:1 4London: &B-E 19*D5 no. 93.3A &enderson to Gewton 29 Fune 1931.

3D />irective for Eperation White 11 !pril 1939 in F. Goakes and =. )ridham

4eds.5 5a;ism, 1919-194=7 * Documentary "eader/ >ol/ :7 &oreign

olicy, War and "acial (termination 4"eter: Cniversity of "eter )ress

195 no. ?3.3 />irective for Eperation White 11 !pril 1939.

3*



.) *ibliogra/hies

,) *asic rules

1.1 &istory essays re%uire a bibliography. ! bibliography is simply a separate page

at the end of your essay at the end of your essay;titled /@ibliography not /Works

Iited /0eferences or anything else<;that lists all of the sources you consulted

which informed the content of your essay. !ll sources that appear in your footnotes

should also be listed in the bibliography but the bibliography may also contain

additional works which do not appear in the footnotes if they were significant in your

research. &owever you should never /pad your bibliography by including additional

works that you have not consulted directly or which had no real influence on your

essay.

1.2 ,or most undergraduate history essays it will be usual to give all your sources

in a single list. &owever if you have a very large number of sources or wish tohighlight the different types of sources that you have consulted you can subdivide

your bibliography into different sections. (he first and most import division is

between primary and secondary sources: if you have made use of original documents

in your research these should al$ays be listed in a separate section. -econdary sources

may be subdivided into categories such as /@ooks /Fournal !rticles and @ook

Ihapters /#nternet -ites and so on.

1.3 Within each section of your bibliography items must be listed in alphabetical

order by each authors last name. When listing more than one item by the same

author order them by their date of publication from oldest to most recent. ,or second

and subse%uent consecutive entries by the same author you can replace the authorsname with eight underlined spaces followed by a period;like this: UUUUUUUU.

1.* ach entry in your bibliography should be single$spaced. (he first line should

begin at the left margin with all subse%uent lines being indented. ou should leave a

blank line to separate each entry in your bibliography. #n bibliographies in contrast to

footnotesMendnotes there is no need for brackets around the publication information.

>o not number the items or list them with bullet points<

3A



") *ooks

@asic format

2.1 @ooks are the most common sources used by history students in their essays.

(he basic format for listing a book in your bibliography whether by an author or aneditor 4including documentary collections5 is as follows:

authors last name authors first name. title of book . place of publication:

publisher date of publication.

@ooks by a single author or editor

2.2 Bost books will have a single author or editor. &ere are some e"amples of

entries for books by single authors and editors in alphabetical order as they would

appear in a bibliography and with two entries from one of the authors.

!pplebaum !nne. 3ulag7 * !istory. Gew ork: !nchor @ooks 2++3.

0emak Foachim ed. %he 5a;i <ears7 * Documentary !istory. Gew ork:

-imon and -chuster 19A9.

-teiner Tara. Britain and the Origins of the &irst World War . Gew ork: -t.

Bartins )ress 19DD.

UUUUUUUU. %he ights that &ailed7 uropean 0nternational !istory, 1919-19::.

E"ford: E"ford Cniversity )ress 2++?.

@ooks by more than one author or editor

2.3 When a book has more than one author or editor you should list all the authors

or editors in the same order that their names appear on the books title page. &owever

note that the first author or editors name should be given as /last name first name

while all subse%uent authors or editors should be given as /first name last name.

!ppleby Foyce Lynn &unt and Bargaret Facob. %elling the %ruth *bout

!istory. Gew ork and London: W.W. Gorton 199*.

@oyce 0obert and Foseph !. Baiolo eds. %he Origins of World War %$o7 %he

Debate 'ontinues. @asingstoke: )algrave Bacmillan 2++3.

Burray Williamson and !llan 0. Billett. * War to be Won7 &ighting the

+econd World War . Iambridge B!: &arvard Cniversity )ress 2+++.

@ooks in later editions as volumes in a series or translated

2.* @ooks should be listed in your bibliography with as complete information as

possible including the edition 4other than the first edition5 the volume number 4if it is part of a series5 or the name of the translator.

3D



&ere are some e"amples of how these would be listed:

Jershaw #an. %he 5a;i Dictatorship7 roblems and erspecti#es of

0nterpretation. 3rd edn. London: dward !rnold 1993.

Jolb berhard. %he Weimar "epublic. trans. by ).-. ,alla. London and Gew

ork: 0outledge 19.

Woodward -ir Llewellyn. British &oreign olicy in the +econd World War .

Nol. ###. London: &B-E 19D1.

Teldin (heodore. &rance, 1848-194=/ >ol/ 07 *mbition, o#e and olitics.

E"ford: Ilarendon )ress 19D3.

UUUUUUUU. &rance, 1848-194=/ >ol/ 007 0ntellect, %aste and *n(iety. E"ford:

Ilarendon )ress 19D?.

,urther e"amples

2.? ,inally here are some e"amples of entries for books which contain a

combination of the above items. ou will notice that despite the addition of e"tra

items of information they all still follow the same basic format

@ernard )hilippe and &enri >ubief. %he Decline of the %hird "epublic, 1914-

19:8. paperback edn. trans. !nthony ,orster. Iambridge: Iambridge

Cniversity )ress 19.

)almer 0.0. and Foel Iolton. * !istory of the 2odern World since 181=. Ath

edn. Gew ork: Bc=raw$&ill 19*.

>ocumentary collections

2.A >ocumentary collections can be e"tremely useful sources for history students as

they provide access to primary sources on a topic. While you may have given specific

references in your footnotes to documents from within the edited collection in your

bibliography you usually would only give the details of the book itself.

Goakes F. and =. )ridham eds. 5a;ism, 1919-194=7 * Documentary "eader/

>ol/ :7 &oreign olicy, War and "acial (termination 4"eter: Cniversity

of "eter )ress 195.

Woodward .L. and 0. @utler eds. Documents on British &oreign olicy,

1919-19:9, +econd +eries, #ol/ 007 19:1. London: &B-E 19*D.

3



-) 9ournal Articles

@asic format

3.1 Fournal articles are another common source used by history students in their

essays. (he basic format for listing a journal article in your bibliography is as follows:

authors last name authors first name. /title of article. title of .ournal . volume

number issue number 4date of publication5.

Fournal articles by a single author

3.2 &ere are some e"amples for journal articles by a single author:

Ilague Boni%ue. /Nision and myopia in the new politics of !ndrO (ardieu.

&rench !istorical +tudies. vol. no. 1 4-pring 19D35.

&errmann >avid =. /(he paralysis of #talian strategy in the #talian$(urkish War

1911$1912. nglish !istorical "e#ie$. vol. I#N no. *11 4!pril 1995.

Fournal articles by more than one author

3.3 ,or journal articles with more than one author list all the authors in the order

that their names appear on the article. (he first authors name should be given as /last

name first name but all other authors should be given as /first name last name.

Fones =.=. and 0.I.@. (rebilcock. /0ussian industry and @ritish business191+$193+: Eil and armaments. ?ournal of uropean conomic !istory.

vol. 11 41925.

Gewspapers

3.* #ndividual items from daily papers are not usually listed separately in the

bibliography. #nstead give the name of the paper its place of publication and the run

of dates for which it was consulted.

%he %imes 4London5 >ecember 1931$Fanuary 1932.%he West *ustralian 4)erth5 1999$2++3.

@ook reviews

*.* @ooks reviews generally appear as articles in scholarly journals and newspapers.

(hey should be referenced in your bibliography by the author of the review not the

author of the book being reviewed.

Ioleman &eather. 0eview of -heila ,itpatrick #eryday +talinism/ Ordinary

ife in (traordinary %imes7 +o#iet "ussia in the 19:s 4Gew ork:

E"ford Cniversity )ress 19995. #n 'anadian ?ournal of !istory vol. 3A42++15.

39



3) *ook (ha/ters

#ndividual chapters in edited booksManthologies

*.1 !nthologies of essays containing a number of chapters written by differentauthors are another common source for history students. ou should give references

for the specific chapter that you have consulted providing the authors name and the

title of the chapter as well as the editors name and the title of the book.

authors last name authors first name. /title of chapter. In editors first and last

name. title of book . place of publication: publisher date of publication.

&ere are some e"amples of first and second references for book chapters by a single

author:

0eynolds >avid. /Ihurchill and >e =aulle: Bakers and writers of history. #n

!ntoine Iapet ed. Britain, &rance and the ntente 'ordiale since 194.

@asingstoke: )algrave Bacmillan 2++A.

0ice Iondoleea. /(he making of -oviet strategy. #n )eter )aret ed. 2akers of

2odern +trategy7 &rom 2achia#elli to the 5uclear *ge. )rinceton:

)rinceton Cniversity )ress 19A.

4) Internet Sites and >ralAudioisual Sources

?.1 #nternet sites are becoming an increasingly popular source for studentsconducting research on historical topics. While such sites should be used $ith e(treme

caution there are some areas 4such as access to primary sources5 where they can be

very useful. ou should in all cases provide a reference for the e"act web address and

the date on which you accessed it. Gote that for some on$line databases and reference

sites there is often a note on /how to cite this entry at the end of the article.

&ere are some e"amples of how to cite acceptable web sources:

Bar" Jarl and ,riedrich ngels. /Banifesto of the Iommunist )arty. !rchived

at the Bar"ists #nternet !rchive. Qhttp:MMwww.mar"ists.orgMarchiveMmar"MworksM1*Mcommunist$manifestoMinde".htmR. !ccessed on 3+

Fanuary 2++D.

/(he (reaty of Nersailles 2 Fune 1919. !rchived at (he !valon )roject at

ale Law -chool. Qhttp:MMwww.yale.eduMlawwebMavalonMimtMmenu.htmR.

!ccessed on 3+ Fanuary 2++D.

?.2 Eral interviews should be referenced by the name of the subject of the interview

followed by the name of the interviewer and the date the interview took place as well

as the physical location of the interview recording.

*+



9>U+2A5 A+TI(5E

2 Boni%ue Ilague /Nision and myopia in the new politics of !ndrO (ardieu

&rench !istorical +tudies vol. no. 1 4-pring 19D35 p. 1+D.

* Ilague Boni%ue. /Nision and myopia in the new politics of !ndrO (ardieu.

&rench !istorical +tudies. vol. no. 1 4-pring 19D35.

9>U+2A5 A+TI(5E 'ITH MU5TIP5E AUTH>+S

2 =.=. Fones and 0.I.@. (rebilcock /0ussian industry and @ritish business 191+$

193+: Eil and armaments ?ournal of uropean conomic !istory vol. 11

41925 p. A1.

* Fones =.=. and 0.I.@. (rebilcock. /0ussian industry and @ritish business

191+$193+: Eil and armaments. ?ournal of uropean conomic !istory.

vol. 11 41925.

(HAPTE+ 'ITHI2 A *>>C

2 >avid 0eynolds /Ihurchill and >e =aulle: Bakers and writers of history in

!ntoine Iapet 4ed.5 Britain, &rance and the ntente 'ordiale since 194

4@asingstoke: )algrave Bacmillan 2++A5 p. 12+.

* 0eynolds >avid. /Ihurchill and >e =aulle: Bakers and writers of history. #n

!ntoine Iapet ed. Britain, &rance and the ntente 'ordiale since 194.

@asingstoke: )algrave Bacmillan 2++A.

.>(UME2TA+B (>55E(TI>2

2 />irective for Eperation White 11 !pril 1939 in F. Goakes and =. )ridham

4eds.5 5a;ism, 1919-194=7 * Documentary "eader/ >ol/ :7 &oreign olicy, War

and "acial (termination 4"eter: Cniversity of "eter )ress 195 no. ?3.

* Goakes F. and =. )ridham eds. 5a;ism, 1919-194=7 * Documentary "eader/

>ol/ :7 &oreign olicy, War and "acial (termination 4"eter: Cniversity

of "eter )ress 195.

*>>C +EDIE'

2 &eather Ioleman review of -heila ,itpatrick #eryday +talinism/ Ordinary

ife in (traordinary %imes7 +o#iet "ussia in the 19:s 4Gew ork: E"ford

Cniversity )ress 19995 in 'anadian ?ournal of !istory vol. 3A 42++15 pp.

1?1$1?2.

* Ioleman &eather. 0eview of -heila ,itpatrick #eryday +talinism/ Ordinary

ife in (traordinary %imes7 +o#iet "ussia in the 19:s. Gew ork:

E"ford Cniversity )ress 1999. #n 'anadian ?ournal of !istory vol. 3A

42++15.

2E'SPAPE+ A+TI(5E

2 /#nterest rates to remain on hold %he *ge ? Bay 2++? p. 1

* %he *ge ,ebruary$!ugust 2++?.

*3



ITEM I2 U2IT +EA.E+

2 !rther ,errill %he &all of the "oman mpire7 %he 2ilitary (planation

4London: (hames and &udson 195 p. 21 reprinted in !0+ 18@7 %urning

oints in !istory, 0nternal and (ternal Anit "eader 4)erth: Burdoch

Cniversity 2++A5.

* ,errill !rther. %he &all of the "oman mpire7 %he 2ilitary (planation.

London: (hames and &udson 19. 0eprinted in !0+ 18@7 %urning oints

in !istory, 0nternal and (ternal Anit "eader . )erth: Burdoch Cniversity

2++A.

U2PU*5ISHE. THESIS

2 =regory W. @rotherson /Fohn &orne (ooke 41D3A$1125: revolutionary V

libeller 4)h> dissertation Burdoch Cniversity 19995 p. 1++.

* @rotherson =regory W. /Fohn &orne (ooke 41D3A$1125: revolutionary V

libeller. )h> dissertation. Burdoch Cniversity 419995.

I2TE+2ET A+TI(5E

2 Jenneth Backsey /@litkrieg in #. I. @. >ear and B. 0. >. ,oot 4eds.5 %he

O(ford 'ompanion to World War 00 4E"ford Cniversity )ress 2++15 archived

at O(ford "eference Online Qhttp:MMwww.o"fordreference.comMviewsMG(0.

html8subviewBainVentryt129.e2+DR accessed 31 Fanuary 2++D.

* Backsey Jenneth. /@litkrieg. #n #. I. @. >ear and B. 0. >. ,oot eds. %he

O(ford 'ompanion to World War 00 . E"ford Cniversity )ress 2++1.

!rchived at O(ford "eference Online. Qhttp:MMwww.o"fordreference.comM

viewsMG(0.html8subviewBainVentryt129.e2+DR. !ccessed 31

Fanuary 2++D.

I2TE+2ET .>(UME2T

2 /(he (reaty of Nersailles 2 Fune 1919 archived at (he !valon )roject at ale

Law -chool Qhttp:MMwww.yale.eduMlawwebMavalonMimtMmenu.htmR accessed on

3+ Fanuary 2++D.

* /(he (reaty of Nersailles 2 Fune 1919. !rchived at (he !valon )roject at

ale Law -chool. Qhttp:MMwww.yale.eduMlawwebMavalonMimtMmenu.htmR.

!ccessed on 3+ Fanuary 2++D.

AU.I><DISUA5 S>U+(ES

2 /@lade 0unner >N> dir. 0idley -cott 4@urbank I!: Warner &ome Nideo

1935.

* /@lade 0unner. >N>. >ir. 0idley -cott. @urbank I!: Warner &ome Nideo

193.

>+A5 HIST>+IESI2TE+DIE'S

2 Iathy @ates interviewed by Fames -mith 12 Ectober 199? 4Burdoch

Cniversity Library )erth5 P@23 bo" 1.

* @ates Iathy. #nterview by Fames -mith 12 Ectober 199? 4Burdoch CniversityLibrary )erth5 P@23 bo" 1.

**



APPE2.I ": Sam/le ;mini<essay= with footnotes and commentary

(he %uestion of where to assign responsibility for the rise to power of !dolf &itler has

generated historical debate since the very moment of his appointment as Ihancellor on 3+ Fanuary 1933.

(here is for instance a long history of placing blame on @ritain and ,rance the former allied powers fortheir mishandling of relations with Weimar =ermany during the 192+s and early 193+s.1 0ichard Lamb

has argued that @ritain /refused QconcessionsR to democratic =erman governments before Fanuary 1933

when they could have been a potent factor in keeping the Gais out of power.2 En the other side of the

Ihannel according to !nthony !damthwaite ,rench leaders gave in to fear and indecision as /the

conservative unimaginative overcautious outlook of political and military chiefs blocked concessions.3

&e shows also the lack of military preparedness as military spending in ,rance fell from 1?.1 billion

francs in 193+ to 1+.* billion francs in 193? while for =ermany it rose from under one billion 0B in

193+ to A.1 billion 0B in 193?.* (he real problem was that @ritain and ,rance never seemed to be able to

work together: even as ,rance was collapsing before the =erman invasion in Bay 19*+ one @ritish

official could rather smugly note in his diary:

Q(Rhey are in a fi";%uite helpless and no stomach for the fight. # think wed be

better QoffR without them. #f we keep them in the fight weve got to give them air

protection and drain away our defences @etter said Q sicR /!ll right: if you cant

stick it out get out or give in: We go on alone. ?

et some of key aspects of the impact of !nglo$,rench relations on &itlers rise to power remain

une"plored in any depth by historians.A (hough some historians have felt the two powers to be inevitably

defined by their differences a recent study argues more persuasively that their /long separation is by no

means a permanent or inevitable state of affairs.D #n the end perhaps the fundamental problem was put

most succinctly by the former @ritish ,oreign -ecretary -ir !usten Ihamberlain when he wrote in 193?

that /Go two countries have a greater need to understand one another than ngland and ,rance' and yet no

two peoples find national understanding more difficult.

UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU

1 -ee for instance: 0ichard Lamb %he Drift to War, 19@@-19:9 4paperback edn. London: @loomsbury

19915' Fohn Iairns /! nation of shopkeepers in search of a suitable ,rance 1919$19*+ *merican

!istorical "e#ie$ vol. D9 no. 3 4Fune 19D*5' and !lan -harp /!nglo$,rench relations from Nersailles to

Locarno 1919$192?: (he %uest for security in !. -harp and =. -tone 4eds.5 *nglo-&rench "elations inthe %$entieth 'entury7 "i#alry and 'ooperation 4London and Gew ork: 0outledge 2+++5.

2 Lamb Drift to War p. 9.

3 !nthony !damthwaite 3randeur and 2isery7 &rance6s Bid for o$er in urope, 1914-194 4London:

!rnold 199?5 p. 22.

* 0bid . p. 1*?.

? >iary entry 31 Bay 19*+ in >avid >ilks 4ed.5 %he Diaries of +ir *le(ander 'adogan, 19:8-194=

4London: Iassell 19D15 p. 293 4emphasis in original5.

A (here are for instance no significant studies of the reception of &itlers book 2ein )ampf in @ritish

and ,rench political circles and how this might have affected policy$making.D -ee ).B.&. @ell &rance and Britain, 194-19947 %he ong +eparation 4London: Longman 199D5 p. D.

*A



!usten Ihamberlain Do$n the <ears 4London: Iassell 193?5 %uoted in -harp /!nglo$,rench

relations p. 13*.

*D



(ommentary

While historically accurate this sample essay is obviously heavily contrived:

you would not normally e"pect to have such a density of references 4eight footnotes in

a single paragraph5 yet it would be a rare paragraph in an essay that would not re%uire

at least one citation of a source.

Gotice that the first sentence does not have a reference. =enerally known or

accepted factual material does not re%uire a citation to support it. (hus you do not

need a source to demonstrate that &itler is a controversial historical figure or that he

came to power on 3+ Fanuary 1933.

5ote 1: (his is a /bibliographical note referring to a body of literature on a

certain topic. Gotes of this sort are used to support statements in essays such as /there

has been an increasing amount of interest in or /some historians have argued that.

(his note contains e"amples of the proper formats for three major types of source: a

book a journal article and a contribution to an edited collection. ou can see here

that when citing more than one source in a note you should separate them with semi$

colons. @ecause it is the general argument of these three works that is being

referenced here there is no need for specific page numbers.

5ote @: Puotations must al$ays have a specific reference including an e"act

page number to identify precisely where the %uote comes from. (his note shows how

to refer to a work that has already been mentioned in a previous note;by using only

the authors last name a shortened version of the title and the correct page reference.

5otes : and 4: &ere a new source is introduced first to provide a %uotation and

then to provide some statistical data. !s with %uotations statistics and e"act figures

must always have a specific reference including an e"act page number to show

precisely where this information was obtained. Gotice that while the abbreviation/ 0bid . is used in 5ote 4 as it is a consecutive reference to the same source 4the book

by !damthwaite5 a shortened$form reference could also have been employed.

5ote =: (his note is attached to a longer /block %uotation in the te"t. ou can

see that the %uotation is single$spaced indented and does not use %uotation marks

e"cept for the /%uote within the %uote at the end. (he %uotation itself comes from a

primary source the diary of -ir !le"ander Iadogan a diplomat from the time which

has since been published. (he footnote also identifies that the underlining in the

%uotation is in the original source.

5ote : Gotes can sometimes be used to provide additional information or to

develop a point that is worth mentioning but is too tangential to be included in themain body of the essay. @e sparing on this however: the vast majority of such

information is either so peripheral that it should be omitted entirely or is important

enough that it ought to go in the main body of the essay.

5ote : (his note shows how one might paraphrase an authors statement of

their argument.

5ote 8: (his note shows how to reference material that was itself cited in

another of your sources. #n this case it would be an incomplete note that merely cited

-harps article but it would be dishonest to cite only Ihamberlains book if you had

not yourself consulted this source in the original. ou should never cite as your source

any document book or article unless you have read it yourself.

*



A//endi@ -) Sam/le *ibliogra/hy

Primary Sources

/!greement concluded at Bunich -eptember 29 193 between =ermany =reat

@ritain ,rance and #taly. !rchived at the !valon )roject at ale Law -chool.Web page created 199D. Qhttp:MMwww.yale.eduMlawwebMavalonMimtMdocumentM

munich1.htmR. !ccessed on 31 Fanuary 2++D.

%he Diaries of >ictor )lemperer, 19::-194=7 0 +hall Bear Witness to the Bitter nd .

d. and trans. Bartin Ihalmers. )aperback edn. London: )hoeni" )ress 2+++.

Documents on British &oreign olicy, 1919-19:9/ +econd +eries/ >olume 0>7 19:@-

19::. ds. .L. Woodward and 0. @utler. London: &is Bajestys -tationery

Effice 19?+.

%he %imes 4London5: -eptember$Ectober 193' -eptember 1939.

Secondary Sources

@ell ).B.&. %he Origins of the +econd World War in urope. 2nd edn. London and

Gew ork: Longman 199D.

UUUUUUUU. /)eace movements. #n 0obert @oyce and Foseph !. Baiolo eds. %he

Origins of World War %$o7 %he Debate 'ontinues. @asingstoke: )algrave

Bacmillan 2++3.

@oyce 0obert and Foseph !. Baiolo eds. %he Origins of World War %$o7 %he

Debate 'ontinues. @asingstoke: )algrave Bacmillan 2++3

@urleigh Bichael and Wolfgang Wippermann. %he "acial +tate7 3ermany, 19::-

194=. Iambridge: Iambridge Cniversity )ress 1991.

Fackson )eter. /,rench intelligence and &itlers rise to power. !istorical ?ournal .

vol. *1 no. 3 4-eptember 1995.

UUUUUUUU. &rance and the 5a;i 2enace7 0ntelligence and olicy 2aking, 19::-19:9.

E"ford: E"ford Cniversity )ress 2+++.

Bagee ,rancis >. /(he @ritish government the last Weimar governments and the rise

of &itler 1929$1933. )h> thesis. Cniversity of Leeds 1992.

(aylor (elford. 2unich7 %he rice of eace. Gew ork: Nintage @ooks 19+.

*9



A//endi@ 3) 8urther +esources

'hicago 2anual of +tyle7 %he ssential 3uide for Writers, ditors and ublishers.

1?th edn. Ihicago: Cniversity of Ihicago )ress 2++3. Q+.+2D+9D3 I&# 2++3R

Barius 0ichard and Belvin . )age. * +hort 3uide to Writing *bout !istory. *th edn. Gew ork: Longman 2++2.

0ampolla Bary Lynn. * ocket 3uide to Writing in !istory. *th edn. @oston:

@edfordM-t. Bartins 2++*.

-torey William J. Writing !istory7 * 3uide for +tudents. Gew ork: E"ford

Cniversity )ress 1st edn. 1999 2nd edn. 2++*. Q9+D.2 -(E 1999M2++*R

(urabian Jate L. * 2anual for Writers of %erm apers, %heses and Dissertations. Ath

edn. Ihicago: Cniversity of Ihicago )ress 199A. Q+.+2 (C0 199A

R

Walker Fanice 0. and (odd (aylor %he 'olumbia 3uide to Online +tyle. 4Iolumbia

Cniversity )ress 2++A: www)columbia)educucu/cgos"##6basic)html