***Historical linguistics– The study of language change using formal

methods that compare shifts over time and across space in aspects of language, such as phonetics, syntax and semantics.

- Historical linguists help track these basic changes in language and syntax but they will also follow the

Language family–A group of languages descended from a

parent language.

Writing Systems• Earliest evidence for written language comes

from-- Mesopotamia, Egypt and China. • The oldest written language comes from 4th

millennium BCE, in ancient Sumer. The ancient written form of the Sumerian language is known as, Cuneiform.

• Complex Writing systems have been associated with the rise of the state.

Archaeologists have asserted that ancient writing systems developed out of a need to– – Keep historical records, inventories, and ledgers.– Political histories, propaganda war events, and

royal ascension– Religious ceremonies, rites of passage, myths,

legends, calendars and astronomical events.

• ***Khipu– Cords of knotted string used during the Inca empire for keeping

accounts and recording events.• Scholars are not sure how the khipu system worked but it is

believed that the Inca had a highly complex system of deciphering each knot, color/combination, and length of knotted cords. • Although the khipu system is not technically a written

language scholars believe that much of the empire’s events were recorded on khipus and only decipherable by trained record keepers. The Inca empire was the largest empire during the 14th century

*** Logograph– A symbol that conveys meaning through a form of

picture resembling that to which it refers.

• Languages that have utilized logographic symbols or logo-syllabic symbols include-- Ancient and Contemporary Chinese, Ancient Egyptian and Ancient Mayan.

Globalization and Colonialism• **Creole– A language directly descended from a pidgin but

possessing its own native speakers and involving linguistic expansion and elaboration.

• **Pidgin– A contact language that blends elements of at least two

languages and that emerges when people with different languages need to communicate.

• **Global language– A Language spoken widely throughout the world and in

diverse cultural contexts, often replacing indigenous languages.

Loan Words in North American English• Alcohol • Avocado• Banana • Bogus• Candy• Caucus• Chimpanzee• Chocolate • Gong• Hammock • Hip/hep• Hurricane• Lime • Moose• Panda• Savannah• Shampoo• Sugar • Tepee• Thug• Tobacco• Tomato• Tundra• Typhoon• Zombie

Arabic, Middle East

Nahuatl, Mexico/C.A.

Mandingo, W. Africa

Hausa, W. Africa

Arabic, Middle East

Algonquin, Virginia/Delaware

Bantu, W. Africa

Aztec Nahuatl

Malaysia, SE Asia

Arawakan, South America

Wolof, W. Africa

Taino, Caribbean

Inca Quechua

Algonquin

Nepali, South Asia

Taino, Caribbean

Hindi

Sanskrit, S. Asia

Sioux

Hindi

Arawak, S. America

Nahuatl

Saami, Lapland, Northern Europe

Mandarin Chinese

Congo, Angola W. Africa

Endangered Languages and Revitalization

• Linguistic anthropology was prompted by a need to document disappearing indigenous languages and the stages that led to that decline.

• Languages and peoples that have been encroached upon by other people can react to this encroachment in two main ways– Adopt the language of the main or conquering group.– Rebel against the language of the main group and continue

to speak their native language in subversive circles.

4 Phases of Language decline and loss

1. Language shift, or decay. A category of language decline when speakers have a limited vocabulary in their native language and more often use a new language in which they may be semi-fluent or fluent.

2. Language endangerment, exists when a language has fewer than 10,000 speakers.

3. Near-Extinction, is a situation in which only a few elderly speakers are still living.

4. Language extinction, occurs when the language has no competent speakers.

New English: The rise of transnationalism in the USA

• English being one of the most widely spoken languages on earth spread its roots through colonialism and merchant/trade routes (17th century CE).

• It is through colonialism that English proper subdivided into a variety of regional dialects. So many English dialects exist that Linguists are thinking of adding an English language family. This family would include- spanglish, japlish, textese and Tex-Mex.