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Growing Meat Chickens

This extensive web page covers all aspects of meat chicken farming, from the arrival of the one-dayold chicks from the hatchery at the farm to when the birds reach the market weight. The varioussections can be accessed directly by clicking on the relevant heading in the listing below:

Broiler FarmHatchery to farmSheddingRearing the chickensHarvesting the meat chickensCleanoutNumber of Batches a YearFarm BiosecurityGrowth RatesFeedMain farming and processing methods: what are the main differencesFree range and organic chicken productionComparison Table of the Main Commercial Meat Chicken Farming SystemsKeeping Flocks Healthy

VaccinationHygiene and BiosecurityCoccidiosisNecrotic EnteritisTherapeutic Use of AntibioticsMetabolic diseases

Broiler Farm

Most commercial meat chicken farms are intensive, highly mechanised operations that occupyrelatively small areas compared with other forms of farming.

Commercial broilers are run on litter (e.g. rice hulls, wood shavings) floors in large poultry sheds.THEY ARE NOT KEPT IN CAGES in all of the production systems used in the industry. The mainproduction systems are generally referred to as conventional, free-rangeand organic. For a simple

An easy way to get started...
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comparison of these systems, click here.

Hatchery to farm

Chicks are transported from the hatchery to broiler farms, usually in ventilated chick boxes inspecially designed, air-conditioned trucks. Although the remains of yolk sac taken into its abdomenat hatching contains nutrients and moisture to sustain the chick for up to 72 hours, it is importantthat chicks receive warmth, feed and water within a reasonable time of hatching.

Shedding

Meat chickens are farmed in large open poultry houses, usually refered to as sheds, houses orbarns, but sometines as units. Shed sizes vary, but a typical new shed is 150 meters long and 15meters wide and holds about 40,000 adult chickens. The larger sheds can contain up to 60,000broiler chickens. There are often three - ten sheds on the one farm. A typical new farm would houseapproximately 320,000 chickens, with eight sheds holding approximately 40,000 chickens/each.

Traditionally, broiler sheds in Australia have been naturally ventilated, with the sides of the shedopen to fresh air. The amount of air circulating through the shed is changed by raising/loweringcurtains running along the side of the shed, or by a vent opening at the top of the shed. Fansencourage air flow, and water misting systems cool birds by evaporative cooling in very hotconditions.

An i ncreasing number of chicken sheds in Austral ia have tunnel ventilat ion. Tunnel ventila tionsheds have fans at one end of the shed which draw air into the shed through cooling pads in the

walls, over the chickens and out the fan end of the house at high speed. Three or four temperaturesensors in the poultry house allow the fan, heating and cooling settings to be adjusted as often asevery three minutes.

Feed lines and pans run the length of the shed and are supplied automatically by silos from outside.Water lines run the length of the shed, with drinkers at regular intervals. Water and feed a re placedso that chickens are never more than about 2 metres from food and water.
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Broiler chicken drinking from a nipple drinker Chicks at a feed pan

Rearing the chickens

Spreading a thick layer of clean and freshlitter, such as sawdust, wood shavings or othermaterial such as rice hulls across the floor for bedding for the bird.

Preheating the shed

Checking feed and water systems.

On arrival at the broiler farm, day-old chicks are placed onto the floor of the shed, where they areinitially confined to an area of between a half to one third of the total shed area (the broodingarea) and given supplementary heating from gas heaters or heat lamps. This is called brooding andthe heaters are referred to as brooders. Extra feed pans and water dispensers are provided in thebrooding area, and the bedding may be partly covered with paper to stop dropped feed from gettinginto the bedding and spoiling.

Both male and female chicks are reared as meat chickens. While the flocks are usually of mixed sex,some operations may grow male and female chickens separately, depending on marketrequirements. For example, one company grows out only male chickens in one area, allowing itsoperations and processing plant in that area to be geared up specificall y for larger birds, whilesending female chicks to another area.

Broiler shed after arrival of day-old chicks

For the first two days of the flocks life, the shed temperature is held at 31 - 32C, the optimumtemperature for baby chick comfort, health and survival.

As t he chi ckens grow, they need l ess he at to kee p them warm, so t he t emperature of the shed i sgradually lowered by about 0.5C each day after the first two days, until it reaches 21 - 23C at 21days. The farmer aims to maintain shed temperatures within this range, although in sheds of large

birds towards the end of grow-out, the temperature may be reduced.

Shed temperature and humidity can be managed by altering ventilation and using stirring fans and


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water mists. Air quality is also managed by varying shed ventilation.

Depending upon ambient conditions, the brooders will be removed at some time between 4 and 14days.

As t he chi ckens grow, the area availa ble to them i s i ncreased until they have free run over the floorof the entire shed.

Generally, feed and clean water is available 24 hours a day, although some operators make feedavailable at specific 'meal times' only. This practice may stimulate better digestion, improve bonestrength and prevent birds from becoming over fat. For further information on what chickens are

fed, see Feed.

The chickens have adequate lighting to see by and to find feed and water, with dark periods eachday to allow them to rest. The lighting provided is usually dimmer than natural lighting to promotecalm.

Shed temperature, humidity and air quality are checked and adjusted regularly, either manually bythe farmer or automatically by computer controllers.

The farmer also checks his flocks regularly to monitor the flocks health and progress, remove anydead birds, and cull any sick or injured ones. Farmers also check feeders and waterers. Carefulmanagement of ventilation and waterers helps keep the l itter clean and dry, as poor litter affectsair quality and can aff ect bird health and performance.

Over the life of the broiler flock only about 4% of chickens are lost. This is through natural causesor selective culling.

Harvesting the meat chickens

In Australia, a percentage of chickens are harvested from most flocks on several occasions.Harvesting, also known as partial depopulation, thinning out, or multiple pick-up, may be done upto four times, depending on need for light or heavy birds. Thinning out sheds allows more space forthe remaining birds and reduces the natural temperatures in the shed.

The first harvest might occur as early as 30-35 days and the last at 55-60 days.

Chickens are often harvested at night as it is cooler and the birds are more settled. They aregenerally picked up by specialised contract pick-up crews under low lighting conditions so that theyare calm and easy to handle. They are usually caught by hand and placed into plastic crates or

aluminium modules designed for good ventilation and safety from bruising during transport. Thesecrates or modules are handled by specialist forklift equipment and loaded onto trucks for transportto the processing plant.

Cleanout

When all the birds have been removed from the shed (after about 60 days), it is cleaned andprepared for the next batch of day old chickens.

The next batch generally arrives in five days to two weeks, giving time to clean the shed andprepare for the next batch. The break also reduces the risk of common ailments being passedbetween batches as many pathogens die off.

Many farms undertake a full cleanout after every batch. This includes removing bedding, brushingfloors, scrubbing feed pans, cleaning out water lines, scrubbing fan blades and other equipment,and checking rodent stations. High pressure hoses clean the whole shed thoroughly. The floor basesare usually rammed earth and because low water volumes are used, there is little water runoff.
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The shed is disinfected, using low volumes of disinfectant which is sprayed throughout. Aninsecticidal treatment may be applied in areas where shed insects such as beetles are a problemand may threaten the next batch. Disinfectants and insecticidal treatments must be approved by the

Austral ian Pesticide and V eteri nary Medici nes A uthority as sa fe and f it for use i n broi ler sheds.

Company veterinarians or servicemen may test sheds after a full cleanout to confirm sheds havebeen adequately cleaned and potential disease agents removed.

On other farms, a partial clean up of the shed is done, including removing old litter and/or toppingup fresh litter and cleaning and sanitising equipment. A full cleanout is done after every second orthird batch of chickens.

Number of Batches a Year

As e ach broi ler flock spends 6-7 weeks in a shed and ther e i s a two wee k break between batches,farmers run about 5.5 batches through a shed each year.

Farm Biosecurity

Farmers take precautions to prevent entry of diseases onto broiler farms.

People can carry disease on their footwear, clothing, hands and even vehicles, so growers takesteps to minimise the risks they pose. These may include:

signage and gates at access points to the farm to discourage unauthorised entryrequirements for visitors and service providers to wear overalls and boots provided by the

farmerdisinfecting footwear in foot washing baths at the entrance of each shedminimising vehicle movements, and requiring vehicles or equipment that have visited otherfarms to be washed downscheduling movements so that where people or vehicles must go between farms on thesame day without a thorough disinfection, the youngest flocks are visited first and theoldest last.

As wi ld birds ca n carry disease, keeping bir ds and their droppings away from chickens isimportant. Prevention measures include:netting the sheds so they are wild bird proofnot allowing farmers and their employees to keep birds of any type including budgies orparrots as petscleaning up spilled feed promptly to discourage visiting birdswhere practical, not having dams that would attract water birdssanitising chickens drinking water if it could be contaminated by wild birds (eg dam or riverwater).Farmers have documented pest control programs to reduce the risk of diseases beingcarried on to the farm by rodents.

Strict records are kept by the farmer of the chickens health, growth and behaviour, so that anyemerging disease problem can be identified rapidly and acted upon.

Growth Rates

A number of facto rs af fect the chickens growth rate and siz e at harvest. These include:

BreedAge at harvest

Feeding regimeGender (males grow faster)

Age of parent flock (ageing flocks produce bigger eggs and the chicks fr om la rger eggs


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grow faster)

Why do chickens grow to market weight so quickly?

Most of the improvement in growth rates over the last 50 years ago is due to improved breeds ofchicken. This genetic gain, which has been achieved through conventional selective breeding, is dueto:

investment in advanced breeding programs by the large well-resourced specialist breedingcompanies overseasthe number of generations that can be produced in a relatively short period of time.

Chickens reach sexual maturity at about 20-25 weeks of age, then take only three weeks tostart producing the next generation. Each hen can produce up to 150 progeny within a yearof its own hatching).

A f urther improvement i n growth is due to improved nutri tion. F or curre nt meat chicken bree ds, theprecise profile of nutrients such as energy, protein, essential amino acids, vitamins and mineralsthat the chicken needs at each stage of its growth has been studied precisely. For each feedingredient, the levels of these nutrients digestible by the chicken has also been established. Withthis information, feeds can be formulated to match the chickens precise nutritional requirementsthroughout its lifecyle, thereby optimising growth.

Other gains made in meat chicken growth and performance are due to better husbandry techniquesand health management.

Feed

Feed is made up of 85-90% grains, such as wheat, sorghum, barley, oats, lupins, soybean meal,canola and other oilseed meals and grain legumes. For this reason, international grain prices affe ctthe cost of production very significantl y. To read more about the significant proporti on of wheatand grain more generally that is being purchased by the Australian chicken meat industry, clickhere. You will learn that 5% of grai ns grown in Australi a are purchased by our industry.

Hormones are not added to chicken feed or administered to commercial meat chickens or breedersin Australia. Hormone supplementation is a practice that has been banned internationally for fortyyears. The ban is supported by the Australian Chicken Meat Federation (see ACMF hormone poli cy).

Meat chicken diets are formulated to strict nutritional standards. A rough guide to the specificati onsof some of the key nutrients needed by a growing meat chicken is:

Nut ri en t S peci fi cati on o f a Broi ler Di et (Grower)

Energy 13 MJ/kg

Crude Protein 20.5%

Lysine (digestible) 1.1%

Total sulphur amino acids (digestible) 0.7%

Calcium 0.9%

Phosphorous (available) 0.4%

Sodium 0.2%

Chloride 0.2%

The optimum and most economical combination of feed ingredients that meets the strict nutritionalspecifi cations at any particular time is select ed by least cost formulat ion computer programs. Thedietary formulation will therefore vary with changes in the availabilit y, price and quality of specific
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feed ingredients, the location and season and the age of any particular broiler flock. For example,diets fed to meat chickens in the south eastern states will predominantly be based on wheat,whereas sorghum provides a greater contribution to the diet of meat chickens in Queensland andlupins will normally only enter the diets in WA and SA.

Generally speaking, cereal grains provide the energy component of the diet, and soyabean meal,canola meal and meat and bone meal primarily provide the protein. In some areas, grain legumessuch as lupins are used as a component of broiler diets where they have the dual role of supplyingenergy and protein. Vegetable oils or animal fats (such as tallow) might be included in the diet toprovide additional energy.

Meat chickens have very specific requirements for particular amino acids, which are the buildingblocks of proteins. The amino acids lysine and methionine are also added to diets because they aregenerally not present in sufficient amounts in the grains and protein sources to meet the nutritionalneeds of the birds. Meat chicken diets are also f ortified with additional vitamins and minerals and,where necessary, other essential amino acids to ensure that the broilers very precise requirementsfor these nutrients are met.

A t ypical broi ler feed might l ook something like the foll owing.

Composition of a Typical Broiler Feed %

Wheat 45.0

Sorghum 25.0

Soyabean Meal 12.0

Canola Meal 8.0

Meat & Bone Meal 7.0

Tallow 2.0

Lysine 0.3

Methionine 0.2

Vita mins & Trace Minerals 0.5

TOTAL 100

As t he chi cks grow, the composition and f orm of the feed is changed to match t heir changing


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nutritional needs and increasing mouth size. The starter feed, which is in small crumbles just bigenough for baby chicks to eat, is replaced with grower feed as soon as they are large enough to eatfully formed pellets. After about 25 days, the chickens move on to a finisher feed, and then oftento a withdrawal feed just before harvest.

Almost all broile r f eed used in Austral ia these days is steam pelle ted (in cr umble f orm, in the caseof baby chick feeds). Ingredients are ground, mixed together, steam conditioned and compressedinto beak sized, well-formed pellets. The high temperatures applied in pelleting kill many bacteriathat may be in the feed ingredients, essentially sterilising the feed. Some companies include wholegrain mixed with pellets.

Feed is delivered in bulk to growing farms by modern trucks incorporating pressurised blower units,ranging in capacity from 20 to 35 tonnes. The feed is stored in silos on site and dispensedmechanically to chickens in the sheds.

A f low di agram of the processes involved i n the manufacture of chicken f eed in a t ypical, l argeAustral ian feed mill is below.


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Main farming and processing methods: what are the main differences

The description offered above represents what we generally call the conventional farming method.Chickens are raised in large enclosed barns with litter (wood shavings, rice hull etc) on the floor.The older style farms have some "soft"side wall s (called curtains) which allow a degree of controlover air movement and temperature within the shed. Modern sheds are generally of the tunnelventilated type, with solid walls, large fans placed at one end of the shed and air inlets at the otherend which draw the air across large pads that can be soaked with water to generate evaporativecooling of the air. Floors are either concrete or compressed clay soil to al low thorough cleaningbetween batches of chickens (all chickens are removed from a shed and the shed is cleaned anddisinfe cted before the next batch of one day old chicks is delivere d). The break of several daysbetween the fully grown birds being picked up and the new batch of day olds being placed is an


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important aspect in our effort to maintain the chickens free of disease and contamination.

Conventional ly produced chicken represents about 90% of the total production in Australi a. Free-range chicken makes up the remainder, with certified organic being a free-range system with someadditional features.

Free range and organic chicken production

Free range chicken meat accounts for 10 to 15% of chicken produced, with less than 1% of thetotal production also being organic.

Free range meat chickens are produced using similar management, housing and feeding practicesas conventional meat chickens. The major differences are that free range chickens are allowedaccess to an outside run for part of each day (at least post the brooding period) and often havelower target stocking densities. Depending on the accreditation program adhered to, use ofantibiotics to treat sick birds may preclude the meat from these birds being sold as free range.

The main certifier of free range chicken meat in Australia is Free Range Egg and Poultry AustraliaLtd (FREPA). The standards that free range meat chickens must comply with to be certified byFREPA can be viewed at www.frepa.com.au. There is also an "outdoor systems" RSPCA

Accredited Farming Sche me Standard d etails are available on the RSPCA website.

Certified organic meat chickens have two additional requirements:

Feed must be predominantly from certified organic ingredients.Birds cannot be treated with routine vaccination. There are exceptions, such as wheretreatment is required by law or disease cannot be controlled with organic managementpractices.

Certified organic chicken meat bears a certif ication logo from an approved organisation. Pleaseseek more detailed information from the relevant accreditation body.

Note that at present chicken meat can be described asorganic without being ce rtifiedby anorganic association. Therefore it is important to look for a relevant certification and to seekdetailed information on the actual requirements mandated by the relevant standard from theorganisation administrating the standard.

Comparison Table of the Main Commercial Meat Chicken Farming Systems

If chicken meat is soldas:

Conventional Free Range or

Outdoor Systems Certified Organic

Kept in cages No No No

Housed in large barns Yes Yes Yes

Access to outdoor f orageareas

during daytime

NoYes. Require d once

chicks are adequately

feathered

Yes. Required oncechicks are adequately

feathered
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Stocking Density Maximum(inside the barns)

28-40kg/m2 dependingon the standard of theventilation provided in

barns

16-34kg/m2 dependingon the standard of theventilation provided in

barns

25kg/m2

Age of birds a t ha rvest 35 55 days 35 55 days 65 80 days

Given growth hormones No No No

May be given antibiotics forprophylactic and/ortherapeutic purposes

Yes

Depends onaccreditation program

(under somestandards, if antibiotics

are required, meatmay no longer be sold

as free range)

No (if antibiotics arerequired, can no longer

be sold as organic)

Feed consists mainly ofgrains

Yes Yes Yes

Feed may containsupplements such asvitamins and amino acids

Yes Yes Yes

Feed has to come fromorganic production (nochemical fertilizers,pesticides and herbicidesused)

No No Yes

Use of GM products in feed

Yes, to a l imited extent(soy meal is not

available in sufficientquantities from localsources and importedsoy meal may contain

GM grain)

Yes, to a l imite d extent(soy meal is not

available in sufficientquantities from localsources and importedsoy meal may contain

GM grain)

No

Model Code of Practice forthe Welfare of Animalsapplies

Yes Yes Yes

Controls in place to ensureadherence to thesestandards

Most chickens aregrown under contractto processors and thefarms are supervised

by the processors

Monitored byorganisations that

accredit farms such asFREPA and RSPCA

comment under

Accredit ation providedby organization

approved by theAustral ian Quaranti neInspection Service


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farming manager andvet

Conventional alsoapplies here

independently audited

Note: Chicken marketed as "chemical free" comes from birds raised in a conventional manner. Thedifference is in the processing plant where no chlorine is used, In most processing plants in

Austral ia, chi cken carcase s are placed in a water and i ce mixture t o wash the carcasses and to coolthem to below 5 degrees Celsi us. This water is generally sanatize d by the addition of chlorine atlevels of 3-5 ppm to control microbial contamination such as Salmonella and Campylobacter thatoccur naturally on meat.

_________________________ ______________

Corn fedand grain fed chicken is produced as the name indicates by feeding chickens asubstantial diet of corn resp. grain. All chickens are fed grains as a major part of their diet. In

Austral ia, t he grai n is mainly whea t a nd sorghum. The grai ns used will depend on the localavaila bilit y so that in the US, for example, corn is the staple ingredie nt rather than wheat. Corn-fedchicken tends to have a slightly yellow appearance.

The chemical-freelabel refers to a difference in the processing, not the farming. As explained inthe footnote to the table above, it indicates that no chlorinated water has been used in theprocessing plant, with water being sanitized by exposure to UV light rather than addition ofchlorine, and carcasses being cooled by exposure to a cold air stream rather than an iced waterbath.

Finally, the claims "no added hormones" and "no cages" APPLY TO ALL CHICKEN MEATSOLD IN AUSTRALIA regardless of t he farming system. The claim "produced in

Austra lia" is app licable to almost all chicken meat sold in Austr alia. Small quantities ofcooked chicken meat is being imported from New Zealand and retorted (e.g. canned) productscontaining chicken may also be imported.

Keeping Flocks Healthy

Increasingly, the emphasis in flock health program is on prevention rather than treatment.

Vaccinat ion, f arm hygiene and bio security are the most i mportant strate gies to keep f locks hea lthy.For poultry diseases caused by viruses, they are the only useful strategies.

For some diseases these approaches are insufficient, unavailable or uneconomical (see Coccidiosisand Necrotic Enteritislater) and other methods of control are necessary at this point i n time.

In unusual circumstances where a bacterial disease has flared and all other management strategieshave failed, the veterinarian will treat the birds with animal-friendly antibiotics (see TherapeuticUse of Antibiotics).

Vaccination

Breeder fl ocks will be vaccinated against a range of diseases during their lifetime. The actualdiseases vaccinated against, vaccines used and program and timing of vaccinations will vary foreach company.

Great Grandparents, the most valuable birds, are usually vaccinated for infectious bronchitis,Mareks disease, infectious laryngotracheitis, infectious bursal disease, chicken anaemia virus,inclusion body hepatitis, Newcastle disease and fowl pox and may also be vaccinated against egg

drop syndrome Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Mycoplasma synoviae and coccidiosis.

Grandparent and Parent breeder flockswill be vaccinated against a similar range of diseases,
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and some may be vaccinated for fowl cholera and Salmonella as well. Breeder flocks are vaccinated,not only to protect their own health and productivity, but in many cases to provide protection fortheir progeny chicks through the antibodies passed on in the yolk sac. This is particularly importantin the case of infectious bursal disease, for which protection of broiler flocks is largely dependenton maternal antibodies.

Blood tests are used to monitor the effectiveness of vaccination. Some companies have their ownlaboratories, while others use university, government or private diagnostic laboratories.

Chicks are generally vaccinated for infectious bronchitis and Mareks disease. As Newcastle diseasevaccination is compulsory for all commercial poultry flocks, broiler chicks are vaccinated at the

hatchery or in the field through drinking water at 7 -14 days of age.

Hygiene and Biosecurity

Farm hygiene and biosecurity practices are implemented at both breeder and broiler farms toreduce the risk of disease moving on to farms from outside sources such as wild birds or otherfarms, moving between sheds on the same farm, being carried over between batches in a shed, orbeing passed from parents via the egg.

These are discussed in more detail at Farm Biosecurity and Hygiene under Breeder Farms and atCleanout and Farm Biosecurity under Broiler Farm. Farmers adhere to the procedures documentedin the National Biosecurity Manual for Contract Meat Chicken Farming, which is available from the

ACMF website.

Good hygiene in the hatchery helps to reduce the chances of infections being picked up by chickswhile they are in the hatchery.

Measures are also taken at the feed mill to reduce the risk of any disease agents and otherpathogens, particularly Salmonella, from getting into chicken feed from feed ingredients or fromcontamination of the finished feed.

Coccidiosis

Coccidiosis is a significant and common disease of all poultry all over the world. It is caused by aparasite which infects the gut of the chicken causing diarrhoea and significant production lossesand mortalities.It is treated by the use of coccidiostats. As coccidiosis is extremely common in all poultry raised onthe ground, coccidiostats are routinely included in chicken feed.

Necrotic Enteritis

Necrotic enteritis is caused by the overgrowth of a bacteria called Clostridium perfringens in the gutand, when triggered, a high proportion of the flock can die. This condition is controlled by acombination of dietary management and the prophylactic and targeted use of one of four possibleantibiotics, delivered in the feed.

For more information on the use of such products seeAntibi otics under Consumer Issues.

Therapeutic Use of Antibiotics

Antibi otic use i s i mportant in chi cken meat production to ensure t he overal l health and wel l being ofchickens. Only antibiotics approved by Australias regulatory authorities and administered inaccordance with strict regulatory guidelines are used. The Australian Chicken Meat Federation

recommends the use of antibiotics in farm animals in two important ways:

therapeutic agents (used to treat the symptoms of a bacterial infection)
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prophylactic (preventative) agents (used to prevent disease occurring in healthy animals).

Antibi otics are usually delivere d via drinking wat er, not in f eed. Onl y a veterinari an ca n authori seand supervise these treatments.

The antibiotic policy of the A ustralian Chicken Meat Federation states that:

Antibio tics must not be used to promote growth in chi ckensAntibio tics are only to be used for therapeuti c or preventati ve tre atments against seriousdiseases such as necrotic enteritis.

Antibio tics that are considered important for human use are not t o be used i n preventat ive

treatments of chickens.Antibio tics must be used under veterinar y supervision and accor ding to good veteri narypractice.

At all times withholding periods set by regulat ory authori ties must be observed.The industry supports the Australian Governments National Residue Survey, which conductsregular independent checks of residues of antibiotics in chicken meat and consistentlyshows that Australian chicken meat does not contain residues of antibiotics.

For more information on the use of such products seeAntibi otics under Consumer Issues.

Metabolic diseases

Some conditions are not i nfectious but can affect the health of meat chickens and result in losses.These can be caused by intoxications, such as through the consumption of small quantities of fungaltoxins brought into the feed through grains, or be metabolic in origin.

Intoxications are managed by the industry through the careful screening and sometimes treatmentof raw ingredients and through careful feed f ormulation practices.

Fortunately, the incidence of metabolic conditions, such as skeletal deformities and heart attacks,has declined to very low levels in recent years, largely due to genetic selection for reducedsusceptibility.

Furthermore, research into the environmental and nutritional factors that predispose to theseconditions has led to the development and adoption of enlightened nutritional and husbandrypractices designed to prevent the emergence of such conditions.

Copyright 2013 Australian Chicken Meat Federation Inc.
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