ground water quality evaluation with special reference to fluoride … · ground water quality...
TRANSCRIPT
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES Volume 5 No 1, 2014
© Copyright by the authors - Licensee IPA- Under Creative Commons license 3.0
Research article ISSN 0976 – 4402
Received on May 2014 Published on July 2014 67
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate
contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena1 and Swati saxena2
1- Principal & Professor, Chanakya Technical Campus, Jaipur (Raj.)-302022 (India)
2- Research Scholar, Gyan Vihar University, Jaipur (Raj.) India
doi: 10.6088/ijes.2014050100007
ABSTRACT
Water is an essential natural resource for sustaining life and environment but over the last few decades
the water quality is deteriorating due to it’s over exploitation. Water quality is essential parameter to
be studied when the overall focus is sustainable development keeping mankind at focal point.
Groundwater is the major source of drinking water in rural as well as in urban areas and over
94% of the drinking water demand is met by groundwater. The study was carried out to assess the
ground water quality and its suitability for drinking purpose with special reference to fluoride and nitrate
contamination in most rural habitations of Bassi tehsil of district Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. For this
purpose, 50 water samples collected from hand pumps, open wells and bore wells of villages of study
area were analysed for different physico-chemical parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity, total
alkalinity, total hardness, calcium hardness, magnesium hardness, chloride, nitrate, fluoride and total
dissolved solids.
pH value in the study area found from 6.3 to 8.7. EC ranges from 1100-16000 µmhos/cm and total
alkalinity between 70 to 990 mg/L. Total hardness ranged from 30 to 980 mg/L and calcium
hardness from 10 to 480 mg/L. Magnesium hardness varied from 20 to 500 mg/L and
chloride from 20 to 3620 mg/L. Values of nitrate concentration varied from 9 to 224 mg/L
and fluoride from 0.28 to 11.5 mg/L while value of TDS ranges from 770 to 11200 mg/L.
The study reveals that almost all parameters were exceeding the permissible limits. As per the
desirable and maximum permissible limit for fluoride and nitrate in drinking water,
determined by WHO, BIS and ICMR standards, 62% and 42% of groundwater sources are
unfit for drinking purposes respectively. Due to the higher fluoride and nitrate levels in
drinking water several cases of dental, skeletal fluorosis and methaemoglobinaemia have
appeared at alarming rate in this region. After evaluating the data of this study it is concluded
that drinking water of Bassi tehsil is not potable and there is an instant need to take
ameliorative steps in this region to prevent the population from adverse health effects.
Keywords: Groundwater quality, Fluoride, Nitrate, Bassi Tehsil and Rajasthan.
1. Introduction
“Water is life's matter and matrix, mother and medium. There is no life without water.” In now days,
the modern civilization, urbanization and expanded population with resulting industrial
operation has intensified the old problem of polluting our life, mother and medium. At
present our life, mother and medium is being polluted and even worse situation is that we
encounter with scarcity of this degraded quality of water too. It has raised certain basic
challenges in our environment and we are suffering both the problems of quality and quantity
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 68
of water. In India groundwater is the major source of drinking water and over 94% of the
drinking water demand is met by groundwater. Water quality is essential parameter to be
studied when the overall focus is sustainable development keeping mankind at focal point,
since it is directly linked with human welfare.
Major problems are being faced by the country due to the presence of excess fluoride, arsenic
and nitrate in groundwater in certain parts of country. Fluorine is the most electronegative of
all chemical elements and is therefore never found in nature in elemental form. Combined
chemically in the form of fluorides, it ranks 17th in abundance of elements in the earth’s crust
representing about 0.06–0.09% of the earth’s crust (WHO, 1994), Fluoride is one of
important life elements to human health. It is essential for normal mineralization of bones and
formation of dental enamel with presence in small quantity (Chouhan and Flora, 2010), But
Excess fluoride concentration in drinking water has deleterious effects on human health. It
causes a dreadful disease known as fluorosis. Fluoride more than permissible limit, become
toxic and causes clinical and metabolic disturbance in animals and human being such as
dental, skeletal and non-skeletal Fluorosis (Hussain et al., 2002, 2004a, 2010, 2011, 2012;
Singh et al., 2007),
The permissible limit of fluoride in drinking water is 1.5mg/L by WHO, 1.0 mg/L by ICMR
and 0.6 to 1.2 mg/L by BIS. (BIS1991; WHO 1994) The problem of fluorosis is worldwide
and almost 25 nations of the world are under its dreadful fate. In Asia, India and China, the
most populous countries are worst affected. In India problem is most pronounced in Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh
(Godfrey et al. 2006; Ayoob and Gupta 2006; Sharma et al. 2007; Khaiwal and Garg 2007;
SIHFW 2008; Hussain et al. 2012),
Rajasthan is the largest state in the country in terms of geographic spread. It has an area of
342,239 lakh Sq kms being largest state of the country having 10.41 % of the country’s area
and 5.5% of nation’s population but has low water resources i.e. 1% of the country’s
resources. The state has extreme climatic and geographical condition and it suffers both the
problems of quantity and quality of water. All the 32 districts of Rajasthan have been
declared as fluorososis prone areas. The worst are- Nagaur, Jaipur, Sikar, Jodhpur, Barmer,
Ajmer, Sirohi, Jhunjhunu, Churu, Bikaner, Ganganagar etc. (SIHFW,2008; Singh P et al
2011; Hussain et al, 2012),
Nitrate (NO3-) contamination of the groundwater, due to the intensive use of fertilizers has
also become a serious ecological problem in many rural areas of India and in many
developing nations worldwide. The level of nitrate in groundwater has been increasing over
the past three decades (Mueller et al., 1995,1996), Producing an adequate quantity of healthy
food without polluting the environment is a formidable challenge for future agriculture in the
world. The global mean nitrogen use efficiency is estimated to be about 50%
(Mosier.,2002) .The remaining quantity of nitrogen is lost into the environment. A large
population of this nitrogen gets converted into nitrate which, being soluble in water and not
retained by soils, gets leached into water bodies. Leaching of nitrate from agricultural land
and from other sources to groundwater is a global phenomenon. The nitrate concentration in
groundwater is influenced by rainfall. Where the amounts of rainfall are low, the
concentration tends to be high because the diluting effect is reduced. A number of workers
from India and abroad have reported the presence of high concentration (3800 ppm) of nitrate
in groundwater (Malik et al., 1981; Hamilton et al., 1992) and identified their probable
sources. In India, as high 530 mg/l of nitrate has been reported in Churu district of Rajasthan
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 69
(Sunitha and Rajeswara Reddy, 2006), Consumption of drinking water with nitrate, at
concentrations greater than 45 mg/l can be detrimental to human health (Canter, 1987),
The permissible limit of nitrate in drinking water is 45mg/L by WHO, 50 mg/L by ICMR and
100 mg/L by BIS. (BIS1999; WHO 2006) Infants under one year old are particularly at risk
from excessive amounts as it cause methaemoglobinaemia, commonly called blue baby
syndrome, by blocking the oxygen-carrying capacity of haemoglobin, when approximately
70% of the total haemoglobin have been converted to methaemoglobin (WHO, 1983), Infants
are most prone to nitrate contamination because they have under developed metallic enzyme,
relatively small blood volume and greater reactivity of fetal haemoglobin. A further concern
is that nitrate can be converted by bacteria in the digestive tract into nitrosamines which are
potentially carcinogenic. However, whereas low levels of nitrate are harmful is often
contested (Sunitha and Rajeswara Reddy, 2006),
Review on the literature showed that no studies have been undertaken in the study area with
regard to physico-chemical characteristics of water yet. So the objective of this study was to
investigate the quality of drinking water (underground water) with special reference to the
concentration of fluoride and nitrate in most rural habitations of Bassi Tehsil of Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India.
2. Material and methods
2.1 Study Area
Jaipur district with geographical area of 11,151 sq. km forms East-central part of the
Rajasthan which is administered by 13 tehsils and 13 blocks. The district covers about 3.3%
of total area of the State. Jaipur, the capital city is also popularly known as Pink city and is
situated towards central part of the district. The semi-arid district receives normal annual
rainfall of 527mm (1901-71) while average annual rainfall for the last 30 years (1977-2006)
is 565mm. Over 90% of total annual rainfall is received during monsoon. (CGWB, 2007;
JDA,2012)
Bassi Tehsil of Jaipur district is almost 29 KM far away from the main city having the area of
654.69 sq.km. It is located at 26096’ N latitude and 75062’E longitude. In Bassi Tehsil there are
210 villages (famous for their leather footwear and Embroidery beading), There are no major
surface water sources in the study area however, main sources of drinking water are open
wells, hand pumps and bore wells.
2.2 Water Sampling
Ground water samples of a total of 50 villages in Bassi Tehsil of Jaipur district were collected
in pre-cleaned and rinsed polythene bottles of two litre capacity with necessary precautions.
(Brown et al. 1974) The samples were collected, during April 2012 to March 2013 from
manually operated hand pumps, open wells and bore wells.
2.3 Physico-chemical Analysis
All the samples were analyzed for the following Physico-chemical parameters; pH, Electrical
Conductivity (EC), Total Alkalinity (TA), Total Hardness (TH), Calcium hardness (Ca H),
Magnesium hardness (Mg H), Chloride, Nitrate, Fluoride and Total Dissolved Solid (TDS),
The analysis of water samples were carried out in accordance to standard analytical methods
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 70
(APHA, 2005), All the chemicals used were of AR grade and double distilled water used for
preparation of solutions. Details of the analysis methods are summarized in Table-1.
Table-1: Parameters and methods employed in the physicochemical examination of water
samples
S.No
. Parameters Unit Method Employed
1. pH - Digital pH-meter
2. Electrical Conductivity µmhos/c
m Digital Conductivity-meter
3. Total Alkalinity Mg/L Titrimetric method (With HCl)
4. Total Hardness (as CaCO3) Mg/L Titrimetric method (with
EDTA)
5. Calcium Hardness (as CaCO3) Mg/L Titrimetric method
6. Magnesium Hardness (as
CaCO3) Mg/L Titrimetric method
7. Chloride (as Cl-) Mg/L Titrimetric method (With
AgNO3)
8. Nitrate (as NO3-) Mg/L Spectrophotometric method
9. Fluoride (as F-) Mg/L Ion Selective Electrode
10. Total Dissolved Solids Mg/L Digital Conductivity-meter
3. Result and conclusion
The respective values of all water quality parameters in the groundwater samples are
illustrated in Table-2. All the results are compared with standard permissible limit
recommended by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), Indian Council of Medical Research
(ICMR) and World Health Organization (WHO), depicted in Table-3. Statistical Parameters
of groundwater samples of study area are summarized in Table-4.
3.1 pH
pH is measure of intensity of acidity or alkalinity of water. All chemical and biological
reactions are directly dependent upon the pH of water system (Rao, 2006), In our findings pH
varied between 6.3-8.7. Maximum pH was recorded at S41 in village Dhani Baba ki and
minimum pH was recorded at S20 in village Ateri, which are not within the permissible limit
prescribed by BIS, ICMR and WHO. The variation of pH in ground water samples of study
area is depicted in Figure – 1, which shows that most of the samples are alkaline in nature.
The pH of water is very important indication of its quality and provides information in many
types of geochemical equilibrium or solubility calculations (Mitharwal et al., 2009),
3.2 Electrical conductivity
The electrical conductivity of water depends upon the concentration of ions and its nutrient
status. Based on electrical conductivity values the water quality can be classified as poor,
medium or good (Gulta, Sunita, & Saharan, 2009), In the present investigation maximum
conductivity 16000 µmhos/cm was observed at S20 in village Ateri and minimum 1100
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 71
µmhos/cm at S30 in village Todabhata. The maximum limit of EC in drinking water is
prescribed as 1400 µmhos/cm (WHO: 2006), Samples are exceeding the permissible limit
extremely as shown in Figure- 2.
3.3 Total alkalinity
Total Alkalinity ranges from 70 mg/L to 990 mg/L, the maximum value was recorded in
village Moondli (S5) and minimum in village Naya Bagrana (S4), Variation in total alkalinity
of ground water samples is represented in Figure- 3 which clearly depicts that these values
are more than the permissible limits of BIS, ICMR and WHO. In ground water, most of the
alkalinity is caused due to carbonates and bicarbonates.
3.4 Total hardness
Hardness is the property of water which prevents lather formation with soap and increases the
boiling point of water. Hardness of water mainly depends upon the amount of calcium or
magnesium salt or both (Singh et al., 2012), It is an important criterion for determining the
usability of water for domestic, drinking and many industrial supplies (Mitharwal et al.,
2009), In our findings the value of hardness fluctuates from 30 mg/L to 980 mg/L (Figure-4),
which are beyond the permissible limit as prescribed by BIS, ICMR and WHO. The
minimum value was found in S32 (Village- Ramrakhpura) and maximum value was found in
samples S10 and S12 (village- Hardhyanpura and Ramratanpura),
3.5 Calcium hardness
Calcium Hardness varies from 10 mg/L to 480 mg/L as illustrated in Figure-5. It may be due
to the presence of high amounts of calcium salts in ground water samples.
3.6 Magnesium hardness
Magnesium Hardness of groundwater is varying from 20 mg/L to 500 mg/L as shown in
Figure-6. High values of magnesium hardness can be attributed to the large amounts of
magnesium salts in ground water.
3.7 Chloride
Chloride contents in fresh water are largely influenced by evaporation and precipitation.
Chloride ions are generally more toxic than sulphate to most of the plants and are best
indicator of pollution (Rao, 2006), Chloride found high during the study ranged from 20
mg/l to 3620 mg/l (Figure-7), Minimum value was observed at samples S38, S39 and S40
and maximum value was observed at S20 in village Ateri. These unusual concentrations may
indicate pollution by organic waste. Chloride salts in excess of 100 mg/1 give salty taste to
water and when combined with calcium and magnesium, may increase the corrosive activity
of water (Tatawat and Singh- Chandel, 2007),
3.8 Total dissolved solid
Total dissolved solid is an important parameter for drinking water and water to be used for
other purposes beyond the prescribed limit, it imparts a peculiar taste to water and reduce its
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 72
potability (Mitharwal et al., 2009), Total dissolved solids are composed mainly of
carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, phosphates and nitrates of Calcium, Magnesium,
Sodium, Potassium, Manganese, organic matter salt and other particles (Siebert et al., 2010),
In the present finding TDS value varied from 770 to 11200 mg/L (Figure-8), which is also
not within the prescribed permissible limits. Maximum TDS recorded at S20 in village Ateri
and minimum at S30 in village Todabhata.
Table-2: Analysis of ground water quality parameters in villages of Bassi Tehsil (Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India)
S.N
O.
Sampling
Site
Cod
e
p
H
EC
Al
k.
mg
/l
T
H
mg
/l
Ca
H
mg/
l
Mg
H
mg/
l
Cl-
mg
/l
NO3
-
mg/
l
F-
mg
/l
TDS
mg/l
1. Kanota S1 7.
4
310
0
65
0
10
0
70 30 28
0
20 1.7
8
2170
2. Dyarampur
a
S2 8.
5
410
0
71
0
25
0
110 140 54
0
84 1.2 2870
3. Bassi S3 8.
5
210
0
56
0
12
0
40 80 15
0
109 1.8 1470
4. Naya
Bagrana
S4 8.
4
370
0
70 59
0
250 340 47
0
186 1.0
2
2590
5. Moondli S5 8.
4
340
0
99
0
90 30 60 29
0
10 3.8
9
2380
6. Bishanpura S6 8.
0
310
0
70
0
18
0
70 110 41
0
15 2.4 2170
7. Roopura S7 8.
4
330
0
80 77
0
370 400 60 27 11.
5
2310
8. Hardi S8 8.
2
330
0
35
0
97
0
470 500 11
0
13 4.6 2310
9. Ralawata S9 8.
2
320
0
80 76
0
360 400 60 25 11.
0
2240
10. Hardhyanp
ura
S10 8.
0
320
0
35
0
98
0
480 500 11
0
11 4.4 2240
11. Heerawala S11 8.
2
320
0
34
0
96
0
460 500 10
0
10 4.2 2240
12. Ramratanp
ura
S12 8.
4
330
0
28
0
98
0
480 500 12
0
10 4.1 2310
13. Biharipura S13 8.
2
330
0
88
0
10
0
40 60 30
0
16 4.0 2310
14. Handi S14 8.
1
274
3
78
0
15
0
60 90 21
0
75 10.
0
1920
15. Akhepura S15 8.
0
350
0
52
0
22
0
100 120 46
0
76 0.6
9
2450
16. Banskhoh S16 7.
7
190
0
40
0
36
0
120 240 10
0
48 2.6 1330
17. Peipura S17 7.
8
330
0
26
0
95
0
450 500 40
0
12 1.7 2310
18. Jhajhawad S18 7. 600 64 28 130 150 13 68 0.4 4200
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 73
2 0 0 0 20 8
19. Sankh S19 6.
5
450
0
38
0
87
0
410 460 72
0
142 1.1 3150
20. Ateri S20 6.
3
160
00
90 66
0
280 380 36
20
146 0.3
6
1120
0
21. Barala S21 7.
3
520
0
48
0
12
0
40 80 72
0
206 4.3 3640
22. Hanumanp
ura
S22 6.
9
510
0
16
0
80 30 50 88
0
224 2.1 3570
23. Peepalabai S23 7.
3
430
0
71
0
60 20 40 56
0
50 3.1 3010
24. Basedi S24 7.
2
300
0
16
0
18
0
80 100 48
0
48 1.6 2100
25. Mandurup
ura
S25 7.
7
260
0
68
0
28
0
120 160 12
0
202 0.2
8
1820
26. Ghasipura S26 8.
3
230
0
76
0
70 30 40 50 26 11.
4
1610
27. Ramsinghp
ura
S27 8.
3
220
0
80
0
70 30 40 70 26 10.
9
1540
28. Baseri S28 8.
3
160
0
54
0
70 30 40 60 9 6.4 1120
29. Gangaram
pura
S29 8.
2
220
0
81
0
80 30 50 90 29 11.
4
1540
30. Todabhata S30 7.
1
110
0
32
0
70 20 50 30 68 0.4 770
31. Jagdishpur
a
S31 8.
4
200
0
14
0
50 20 30 50 33 6.2 1400
32. Ramrakhp
ura
S32 8.
1
170
0
52
0
30 10 20 80 60 0.5 1190
33. Nangalkar
na
S33 8.
0
230
0
80
0
70 30 40 80 29 5.9 1610
34. Danau
Khurd
S34 7.
2
130
0
36
0
17
0
60 110 10
0
106 4.5 910
35. Sewapura S35 7.
4
170
0
56
0
40 20 20 30 24 0.5
4
1190
36. Ramsar S36 6.
8
170
0
47
0
90 30 60 18
0
68 0.5
8
1190
37. Dubali S37 8.
0
160
0
52
0
60 20 40 40 48 0.9
9
1120
38. Virajpura S38 7.
6
140
0
42
0
22
0
90 130 20 22 0.9
5
980
39. Kishanpur
a
S39 8.
0
150
0
44
0
16
0
70 90 20 20 1.9 1050
40. Tungi S40 8.
1
120
0
44
0
60 20 40 20 12 0.5
9
840
41. Dhani
Baba ki
S41 8.
7
330
0
73
0
15
0
60 90 35
0
12 2.1
5
2310
42. Bainada S42 8. 230 84 25 110 140 10 59 0.9 1610
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 74
Mod 5 0 0 0 0 8
43. Danau
Khurd
S43 8.
2
240
0
45
0
28
0
120 160 14
0
22 2.9 1680
44. Anantpura S44 8.
3
210
0
46
0
15
0
60 90 17
0
18 1.8 1470
45. Ratanpura S45 8.
4
150
0
48
0
90 30 60 70 24 1.5 1050
46. Kaneta S46 8.
4
170
0
56
0
70 30 40 40 14 0.7 1190
47. Nimora S47 8.
2
270
0
52
0
50 20 30 80 11 3.2 1890
48. Kesopura S48 8.
2
220
0
81
0
50 20 30 80 25 5.8 1540
49. Kawarpura S49 7.
4
194
3
11
0
21
0
90 120 34
0
86 1.1 1360
50. Madhogar
h
S50 8.
0
150
0
47
0
80 30 50 50 23 2.2 1050
Figure 1: Variation in pH with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil
Figure 2: Variation in EC with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 75
Figure 3: Variation in Total Alkalinity (mg/L) with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil
Figure 4: Variation in Total Hardness (mg/L) with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil
Figure 5: Variation in Ca Hardness (mg/L) with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 76
Figure 6: Variation in Mg Hardness (mg/L) with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil
Figure 7: Variation in Chloride (mg/L) with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil
Figure 8: Variation in TDS (mg/L) with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 77
Table 3: Standards for drinking water quality
S.
No. Parameter BIS: 1999 ICMR: 1975 WHO: 2006
1. pH 6.5-8.5 7.0-8.5 6.5-8.5
2. EC (µmhos/cm) - - 1400
3. TA 600 600 120
4. TH 600 600 500
5. Cl- 1000 200 200
6. NO3- 100 50 45
7. F- 1.5 1.5 1.5
8. TDS 2000 1500 500
Table 4: Statistical parameters of the different chemical constituents of ground water of the
study area
S.No. Parameter Minimum Maximum Average Standard
Deviation
1. pH 6.3 8.7 7.89 0.56
2. EC 1100 16000 2957.72 2178.90
3. TA 70 990 492.6 238.06
4. TH 30 980 275 305.58
5. Ca H 10 480 123 148.38
6. Mg H 20 500 152 158.02
7. Cl- 20 3620 298.6 545.76
8. NO3- 9 224 54.14 56.06
9. F- 0.28 11.5 3.39 3.30
10. TDS 770 11200 2070.4 1525.23
3.9 Fluoride distribution
All the villages were categorized according to following concentration range (Table-5),
1. Category I: Fluoride concentration below 1.0 mg/l
2. Category II: Fluoride concentration between 1.0 - 1.5 mg/l
3. Category III: Fluoride concentration between 1.6 - 3.0 mg/l
4. Category IV: Fluoride concentration between 3.1 - 5.0 mg/l
5. Category V: Fluoride concentration above 5.0 mg/l
Table 5: Fluoride Categorisation of villages of Bassi Tehsil
Fluoride
Concentration
(mg/L)
Representing Samples
Category I (<1.0) S15, S18, S20, S25, S30, S32, S35, S36, S37, S38,
S40, S42, S46
Category II (1.0-1.5) S2, S4, S19, S24, S45, S49
Category III (1.6-3.0) S1, S3, S6, S16, S17, S22, S39, S41, S43, S44, S50
Category IV( 3.1- S5, S8, S10, S11, S12, S13, S21, S23, S34, S47
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 78
5.0)
Category V (>5.0) S7, S9, S14, S26, S27, S28, S29, S31, S33, S48
The abstract of fluoride distribution is shown in Table-6 . The variation of fluoride
concentration in ground water samples of study area is depicted in Figure -9. Figure –10
shows the no. of villages and their fluoride concentration range as per divided category and
Figure- 11depicts the percentage of villages with respect to above categories.
Table 6: Abstract of fluoride distribution in Bassi Tehsil
No. Of
Villages
Fluoride Concentration in mg/L
Minimum Maximum <1.0 1.0-1.5 1.6-3.0 3.1-5.0 >5.0
50 0.28 11.5 13(26%) 6(12%) 11(22%) 10(20%) 10(20%)
Figure 9: Variation in Fluoride (mg/L) with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil
Fluoride concentration in sampling sites ranges from 0.28 to 11.5 mg/L in ground water
samples, with lowest value 0.28 mg/L (S25) in village Mandurupura and highest value 11.5
mg/L (S7) in village Roopura. The study reveals that out of 50 villages of Bassi Tehsil 13
villages (26%) have fluoride concentration below 1.0 mg/L. 6 villages (12%) have fluoride
concentration above 1.0 mg/L and below or equal to 1.5 mg/L. Population of these
habitations, fluoride intake through drinking water is more than 4 mg/day in an individual.
Therefore, an incidence of dental fluorosis is possible in local residents of these habitations.
11 villages (22%) have ground water with fluoride concentration equal to 1.6 mg/L and
below or equal to 3.0 mg/L which is above the maximum permissible limit prescribed by BIS
and WHO. At this concentration, teeth lose their shiny appearance and chalky black, gray, or
white patches develop known as mottled enamel. In 10 villages (20%) fluoride concentration
in ground water is equal to 3.1mg/L and below or equal to 5.0 mg/L. The intake of fluoride
per day by population in these habitations is very high and cause dental as well as skeletal
fluorosis. In the entire study 10 villages (20%) falls in category V, in these villages fluoride
concentration is above 5.0 mg/L, which may result in all types of fluorosis among inhabitants.
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 79
Figure 10: No. Of Villages as per Fluoride Concentration Ranges
Figure 11: Percentage of Villages as per Fluoride Concentration Ranges
3.9.1 Sources of fluoride
The presence of fluoride in ground water can be attributed to geological reasons. (Ashok
Kumar Yadav et al. 2009) Fluoride exists naturally in water sources. Generally most
groundwater sources have higher fluoride concentrations than surface water. The main source
of fluoride in groundwater is basically from the rocks minerals. These minerals are
commonly associated with the country rocks through which the ground water percolates
under variable temperature conditions. Besides these minerals, alkali rocks, hydrothermal
solutions, phosphate fertilizers, burning of coal, manufacturing process of aluminium, steel
and bricks may also contribute to higher concentration of fluoride in groundwater.
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 80
The concentration of fluoride in water sources depends upon various factors like source of
water, solvent action of water on the rocks and soil of earth’s crust, porosity of the rocks or
soil through which water passes, the speed with which water flows, the temperature of the
interaction of the rock and water, the hydrogen and calcium ion concentration, amount of
annual rainfall etc. (Ashok Kumar Yadav et al. 2009; Tailor & Chandel 2010; Singh P et al.
2011; Hussian et al. 2012;)
3.9.2 Effects of fluoride on human health
Fluoride in drinking water has both positive and negative effects on human health. Low
levels of fluoride in drinking water results in incorporation of fluoride in to teeth during the
formative years of children, which makes the teeth resistant to decay and development of
dental caries.(Tailor and Chandel, 2010) But, high intake of fluoride causes both short term
and long term effects. Acute high level exposure to fluoride causes immediate abdominal
pain, excessive salivation, nausea and vomiting. Seizures muscle spasms, muscle fibrillation
and numbness of mouth may also occur.(Singh P et al. 2011) Long term effect of excess
fluoride through water, appear to create fluorosis which manifests itself as dental, skeletal
and non- skeletal fluorosis.
In dental fluorosis, excessive fluoride usually causes yellowing of teeth, white spots, and
pitting or mottling of enamel. The natural shine or lustre of the teeth disappears. In the early
stage, the teeth appear chalky white and then gradually become yellow, brown or black. The
discoloration will be horizontally aligned on the tooth surface as “lines” away from the gums.
Dental fluorosis affects both the inner and outer surface of the teeth. The disease has mostly
cosmetic implications and has no treatment.
Excessive fluoride intake may also result in slow, progressive crippling scourge known as
skeletal fluorosis. It causes pain and damage to bones and joints. Skeletal fluorosis affects the
bones/skeleton of the body. Skeletal fluorosis can affect both young and old alike. One can
have aches and pain in the joints. The joints which are normally affected by skeletal fluorosis
are neck, hip, shoulder and knee, fluoride mainly gets deposited in these joints and makes it
difficult to walk and movements are painful. Rigidity or stiffness of joints also sets in. (Beg,
2009) At advanced stage vertebrae may fuse together and a victim may be crippled.
(Meenakshi and Maheshwari, 2006),
Apart from bones and teeth an excess intake of fluoride can damage or impart ill effects on
other soft tissues, organs and systems also, categorised as non-skeletal fluorosis. A review by
earlier workers reveals that almost all systems of body including muscle, liver, kidney, blood,
cardiovascular and even reproductive, are affected. The symptoms include gastro-intestinal
complaints, loss of appetite, pain in stomach, constipation followed by intermittent diarrhoea.
Muscular weakness and neurological manifestations leading to excessive thirst tendency to
urinate more frequently are common among the afflicted individuals. Cardiac problems may
arise due to cholesterol production. Repeated abortions or still birth, male infertility due to
sperm abnormalities are also some of the complications. (Tailor and Chandel, 2010; Singh P
et al, 2011)
3.10 Nitrate Distribution
All the villages were categorized according to following concentration range (Table-7),
1. Category I: Nitrate concentration below 45 mg/l
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 81
2. Category II: Nitrate concentration between 45-50 mg/l
3. Category III: Nitrate concentration between 51-100 mg/l
4. Category IV: Nitrate concentration between 101-150 mg/l
5. Category V: Nitrate concentration above 150 mg/l
Table 7: Nitrate Categorisation of villages of Bassi Tehsil
Nitrate
Concentration
(mg/L)
Representing Samples
Category I (<45)
S1, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9, S10, S11, S12, S13, S17, S26,
S27, S28, S29, S31, S33, S35, S38, S39, S40, S41,
S43, S44, S45, S46, S47, S48, S50
Category II (45-50) S16, S18, S23, S24, S37
Category III (51-100) S2, S14, S15, S30, S32, S36, S42, S49
Category IV( 101-
150) S3, S19, S20, S34
Category V (>150) S4, S21, S22, S25
The abstract of nitrate distribution is shown in Table-8.The variation of nitrate concentration
in ground water samples of study area is depicted in Figure -12. Figure –13 shows the no. of
villages and their nitrate concentration range as per divided category and Figure-14 depicts
the percentage of villages with respect to above categories.
Table 8: Abstract of nitrate distribution in Bassi Tehsil
No. Of
Villages
Nitrate Concentration in mg/L
Minimum Maximum <45 46-50 51-100 101-
150 >150
50 9 224 29(58%) 5(10%) 8(16%) 4(8%) 4(8%)
Figure 12: Variation in Nitrate (mg/L) with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil
Nitrate concentration in sampling sites ranges from 9 to 224 mg/L in ground water samples,
with lowest value 9 mg/L (S28) in village Baseri and highest value 224 mg/L (S22) in village
Hanumanpura. The study reveals that out of 50 villages of Bassi Tehsil 29 villages (58%)
have nitrate concentration below 45 mg/L. 5 villages (10%) have nitrate concentration above
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 82
45 mg/L and below or equal to 50 mg/L which is above the maximum permissible limit
prescribed by WHO.
8 villages (16%) have ground water with nitrate concentration equal to 51 mg/L and
below or equal to 100 mg/L .In 4 villages (8%) nitrate concentration in ground water is equal
to 101mg/L and below or equal to 150 mg/L. In the entire study 4 villages (8%) falls in
category V, in these villages nitrate concentration is above 150 mg/L.
Figure 13: No. Of Villages as per Nitrate Concentration Ranges
Figure 14: Percentage of Villages as per Nitrate Concentration Ranges
3.10.1 Nitrate and human health
Nitrate (NO3-) contamination of the groundwater is mainly due to the intensive use of
fertilizers. Leaching of nitrate to groundwater is due to excessive application of N- fertilizer,
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 83
the absence of proper soil and water management practices, septic tanks, improper disposal of
domestic wastes.
Nitrate content in groundwater serves as a basis for detecting pollution. High nitrate levels
found in drinking water have been proven to be the cause for numerous health conditions
across the world such as gastrointestinal cancers, methaemoglobinaemia, alzheimer’s disease,
vascular dementia, multiple sclerosis in human beings. Nitrate contamination leads to
Eutrophication of water bodies (Sunitha et al.,2012),
Ingested nitrites and nitrates also have a potential role in developing cancers of the digestive
tract through their contribution to the formation of nitrosamines. In addition, some scientific
evidences suggest that ingested nitrites and nitrates might result in mutagenicity,
teratogenicity and birth defects, contribute to the risks of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and
bladder and ovarian concerts, play a role in the etiology of insulin dependent diabetes
mellitus and in the development of thyroid hypertrophy, or cause spontaneous abortions and
respiratory tract infections. Indirect health hazards can occur as a consequence of algal toxins
causing nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, pneumonia, gastroenteritis, hepatoenteritis, muscular
cramps and several poisoning syndromes. Other indirect health hazards can also come from
the potential relationship between inorganic nitrogen pollution and human infectious diseases
(malaria, cholera Camargo and Alonso, 2006), Nitrate contamination is a long-term problem
and remedial action is necessary.(Susiladevi et al, 2010)
4. Conclusion
The analysis of ground water samples collected from different villages of Bassi Tehsil in
District Jaipur revealed that, in samples almost all water quality parameters (pH, electrical
conductivity, total alkalinity, total hardness, calcium hardness, magnesium hardness, chloride,
TDS, nitrate and fluoride) are beyond the permissible limit as per BIS, ICMR and WHO
standards. In comparison to all other parameters there is an acute problem of extremely high
levels of Fluoride, Nitrate, Total Dissolved Solids and Chloride.
As only 38% of ground water samples have fluoride content with in the permissible limit (>
1.5 mg/L, WHO) and remaining 62% of villages are having very high fluoride concentrations.
The favourable factor which contributes to rise of fluoride in ground water is presence of
fluoride rich rock salt system. The nitrate ion concentration of 42% of total
samples was more than 45 mg/L. Some samples contain this concentration up to 224 mg/L.
The prime sources of nitrate enrichment are leaching from the sewage effluents being utilized
extensively for irrigation, leakage from sewerage systems, septic tanks and natural drains
carrying municipal wastes, and application of fertilizers.
The results of current study indicate that the drinking water, used by the people residing in
villages of Bassi Tehsil, is not potable. So, the proper environment management plan must be
adopted to control drinking water pollution immediately. Based on these results and analysis
of water samples, it is also recommended to use water only after boiling and filtering or by
Reverse Osmosis treatment for drinking purpose by the individuals to prevent adverse health
effects.
5. Acknowledgements
Authors are equally very thankful to Mr. H.S. Devenda Suptt. Chemist and Ms. Sunita Yadav
Jr. Chemist Public Health Engineering Engineering Department, Jaipur. Authors are also
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 84
grateful to Dr. Yashoda Kumari Verma for her valuable motivational support in this research
work.
6. References
1. APHA (2005), Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water
(21th ed.), Washington DC: American Public Health Association.
2. Brown, E., Skougstad, M. W., & Fishman, M. J. (1974), Method for collection and
analysis of water sample for dissolved minerals for dissolved minerals and gases
(Book No. 5), Washington, DC: US Department of Interior.
3. Arif, M. Hussain, I. Hussain, J. Sharma, S. And Kumar, S. 2012. Potential Fluoride
Contamination in the Drinking Water of Nagaur Tehsil of Nagaur District, Rajasthan,
India, Bulletin of Environmental Contamination & Toxicology (BECT)" (DOI
10.1007/s00128-012-0572-4 Online Published on 14 March, 2012),
4. Arif, M. Hussain, I. Hussain, J. Kumar, S. 2012. Fluoride Distribution in Ground
Water and Survey of Dental Fluorosis in Villages of Didwana Tehsil of Nagaur
District of Central Rajasthan, India. India Water Week2012- Water, Energy and Food
Security.
5. Ayoob, S., & Gupta, A. K. (2006), Fluoride in drinking water: A review on the status
and stress effects. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 36,
433–487. doi:10.1080/10643380600678112.
6. Beg, M.K.,(2009), Geospatial Analysis of Fluoride Contamination in Ground Water
of Tamnar Area, Raigarh District, Chhattisgarh State. Thesis submitted in ITC and
IIRS.
7. Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS) (1991), Indian standard specification for drinking
water (pp. 2–4), Delhi: BIS, IS 10500.
8. Bureau of Indian Standards, (1999), Indian Standards Drinking Water Specifiation:
New Delhi. IS: 10500
9. Canter, L.W., (1987), Nitrates in groundwater from agricultural practices-causes,
prevention and clean up. July 1987, Report to United Nations Development Program,
University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma.
10. Camargo, J.A. and A. Alonso, (2006), Ecological and toxicological effects of
inorganic nitrogen pollution in aquatic ecosystems: A global assessment. Env. Int.,32:
831-849.
11. Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India,
(2007), Ground Water Scenario, Jaipur District, Rajasthan, CGWB, Jaipur.
12. Chouhan, S. & Flora, S. J. S. (2010), Arsenic and Fluoride: Two Major Groundwater
Pollutants, Indian J Experimental Biology, 48:666-678.
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 85
13. Godfrey, S., Wate, S., Kumar, P., Swami, A., Rayalu, S., & Rooney, R. (2006),
Health-based risk targets for fluorosis in tribal children of rural Madhya Pradesh. In
India 32ndWEDC international conference. Colombo, Sri Lanka, 2006.
14. Gulta D. P., Sunita & Saharan J. P. 2009. Physico chemical analysis of ground water
of selected area of kaithal city (Haryana) India. Researcher, 1(2), pp 1-5.
15. Hussain, I., Hussain, J., Sharma, K. C., & Ojha, K. G. (2002), Fluoride in drinking
water and health hazardous: Some observations on fluoride distribution Rajasthan. In
Environmental Scenario of 21st Century (pp. 355–374), New Delhi: APH.
16. Hussain, J., Sharma, K. C., & Hussain, I. (2004a), Fluoride in drinking water and its
ill affect on Human Health: A review. Journal of Tissue Research, 4(2), pp 263–273.
17. Hussain J, Hussain J. And Sharma K.C. (2010), Fluoride and Health hazards:
Community Perception in a fluorotic area of Central Rajasthan(India) An arid
environment, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 162, pp1-14
18. Hussain I, Arif M, Hussain J. (2011), Fluoride Contamination in Drinking water in
Rural Habitations of Central Rajasthan, India, Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment (DOI: 10.1007/s10661-011-2329-7) Online Published on 20 September,
2011),
19. Hamilton A.P. and Shedlock J.R. (1992), Are fertilizers and pesticides in the
groundwater. A case study of the Delmarve Peninsula, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia,
VSGS circular, 1080, pp1-16
20. Jaipur Development Authority, (2012), Master Development Plan-2025, Jaipur
Region (Vol. 1), JDA, Jaipur.
21. Khaiwal, R., & Garg, V. K. (2007), Hydro-chemical survey of groundwater of Hisar
City and assessment of defluoridation methods used in India. Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment, 132(1–3), pp 33–43. doi:10.1007/s10661-006-9500.
22. M. Susiladevi, K. Pugazhendy, K. Jayachandran and C. Jayanthi. (2010), Nitrate
contamination in ground water of Cuddalore Town, Tamil Nadu, India. International
Journal of Recent Scientific Research. 4, pp 97-101.
23. Malik S., and Banerji S., Nitrate pollution of ground water as a result of agriculture
developmentin Indo-Gango Plain, India, In: proc; Int.symp.on Quality of
Groundwater the Nether lands, (1981),
24. Meenakshi and Maheshwari, R.C., (2006), Fluoride in Drinking Water and its
Removal. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 137(1), pp 456-463.
25. Mitharwal S., Yadav R.D., and Angasaria R.C. (2009), Water Quality analysis in
Pilani of Jhunjhunu District (Rajasthan)- The place of Birla’s Origin. Rasayan Journal
of Chemistry. 2(4), pp 920-923.
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 86
26. Mosier A.R., Nutr.Cycl. Agroecosyst, 63: p.101-106 (2002),
27. Mueller D.N., Hamilton P.A., Helsel D.R., Hitt K.J., Reddy B.C., (1995), Nutrients in
ground water and surface water of the united states – an analysis or data through
1992, water- resources investigations report 95-4031, United State Geological Survey,
Denver.
28. Mueller D.K. and Helser D.R. (1996), Nudrienty in the nation’s water- too much of a
good thing? U.S.Geological Survey circular 1136, United States Geological Survey,
Denver.
29. Rao, N. S. (2006) Seasonal variation of groundwater quality in a part of Guntur
District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environmental Geology. 49, pp 413-429.
30. Saxena, S., Saxena, U. (2013), Study of fluoride contamination status of ground water
in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. International Journal of
Environmental Sciences.3(6): 2251-2260.
31. Saxena, U., Saxena, S. (2013), Statistical Assesment of Ground Water Quality using
Physico-Chemical Parameters in Bassi Tehsil of Jaipur District, Rajasthan, India.
Global Journal of Science Frontier Research. 13(3)(1), pp 23-31.
32. Sharma, K. C., Arif, M., Hussain, I., & Hussain, J. (2007), Observation on fluoride
contamination in groundwater of district Bhilwara, Rajasthan and a proposal for a low
cost defluoridation technique. In The XXVIITH conference of the international
society for fluoride research (ISFR XXVII), 9–12 October, 2007. Beijing, China.
33. Singh, B., Gaur, S. And Garg, V.K. (2007): Fluoride in Drinking Water and Human
Urine in Southern Haryana, India, J. Hazard. Mater. 144,pp 147–151.
34. Singh M.K., Jha D., and Jadoun J. 2012. Assessment of Physico-chemical status of
Groundwater Samples of Dholpur District, Rajasthan, India. International Journal of
Chemistry. 4(4): 96-104.
35. Singh, P., Rani, B., Singh, U. And Maheshwari, R.(2011): Fluoride Contamination in
Ground Water of Rajasthan and its Mitigation Strategies. Journal of Pharmaceutical
and Bio-medical Sciences. 6(6), pp 1-12.
36. Siebert S. et al. (2010), Groundwater use for irrigation-a global inventory. Hydrology
and Earth System Sciences, 14, 1863-1880. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hess-14-1863-
2010.
37. State Institute of Health and Family Welfare, (2008), Report on Fluorosis, SIHFW,
Jaipur.
38. Sunitha, V. and B. Rajeswara Reddy, (2006), Nitrate contamination in groundwater of
Urvakonda, and surrounding areas, Anantapur district, Andhra Pradesh, Journal of
Applied Hydrology,14(1&2), pp 111-120.
Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 87
39. SunithaV., Reddy B. Rajeswara, Reddy M. Ramakrishna. (2012) Ground Water
Quality Evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate Pollution in
Uravakonda, Anantapur District, Andhra Pradesh– a case Study. International Journal
of Research in Chemistry and Environment. 2(1), pp 88-96.
40. Tatawat R.K., and Singh Chandel C.P. (2007), Quality of Groundwater of Jaipur City,
Rajasthan (India) and its Suitability for Domestic and Irrigation Purpose. Applied
Ecology and Environmental Research. 6(2), pp 79-88.
41. Tailor, G.S., Chandel Singh, C.P. (2010), To Assess the Quality of Ground Water in
Malpura Tehsil (Tonk, Rajasthan, India) with emphasis to Fluoride Concentration.
Nature and Science. 8(11), pp 20-26.
42. WHO, 1983. Guidelines to drinking water quality, World Health Organization,
Geneva.
43. World Health Organisation, (1994), Fluorides and Oral Health, (Technical Report
Series No. 846), World Health Organisation, Geneva.
44. WHO, 2006. WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality First addendum to third
edition, World Health Organisation, Vol. 1.
45. Yadav, A.K., Khan. P., Saxena.U. Geo-chemical observation of fluoride in ground
water of Tonk (Rajasthan),Rasayan Journal of Chemistry, 2 (4), pp 994-1000.