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TRANSCRIPT
SECOND REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION
GREENHOUSE
MANAGEMENTFOR HORTICULTURAL CROPS
S. PRASAD
U.KUMAR
AGROBIOS (INDIA)
CONTENTS^^^M,a,,,l^^,M,,^^^^M,w,,>twB^M^MWWWM^^M^MMMMMMHWWMMBW^^^
1 GREENHOUSE: AN ARTIFICIAL HOUSE FOR PLANTS 1
Introduction 1
Origin and Development of the Greenhouse Industry 1
Advantage of Greenhouse 3
Greenhouse Effect 3
How the problem intensifies 4
Carbon dioxide and greenhouse effect 4
The impact 4
Floriculture Industry and Development of Greenhouse Industry 5
Floriculture Production and Marketing Businesses 6
Floriculture Business Competition 7
Cut Flower Industry in Indian Scenario 7
2 TYPES OF GREENHOUSES 9
Greenhouses: Classification 9
Greenhouse Types Based on Shape 9
Lean-to Type Green House 9
Even Span Type Greenhouse 9
Uneven Span Type Greenhouse 10
Ridge and Furrow Type Greenhouse 10
Saw Tooth Type Greenhouse 11
Quonset Greenhouse 11
Greenhouse Type Based on Utility 12
Greenhouse for Active Heating 12
Greenhouses for Active Cooing 12
Greenhouse Type Based on Construction 12
Wooden Framed Structures 12
Pipe Framed Structures 14
Truss Framed Structures 14
Greenhouse Type Based on Covering Materials 14
Glass Greenhouses 14
Plastic Film Greenhouses14
Rigid Panel Greenhouses, 14
Glass Greenhouses15
Film Plastic Greenhouses 16Role
26
Types of Film Plastic 26Quonset-style Greenhouse 29Gutter-connected Greenhouse
20Greenhouse with Double-Layer Covering 20
Rigid-Panel Greenhouses 22
Polyvinyl Chloride22
Fiberglass-Reinforced Plastic22
Acrylic and Polycarbonate 24
3 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION: RELATED ASPECTS 25
Location25
Room for Expansion 25
Topography of the Land., 26Land-Use Prediction
26Climate
26Labor Supply 26
Accessibility of the Site27
Available Water27
Orientation27
Floor Plan for the Greenhouse28
Doors28
Utilities28
Electricity 28
Telephone 28Water
29Pond Maintenance
30Air Bus Service
30Framework for Various Types of Greenhouse 31
Types of Greenhouse Covering Materials 37Covering Materials for Greenhouse 39
Fiberglass 39
Poly Film40
Problem of Moisture with Poly film 41Heating and Cooling of Greenhouse
41
Sensing Temperatures 42Sources of Heat 42
Methods of Distributing Heat in Greenhouse 43
Conservation of Heat Energy in Greenhouses 43
Insulation of Greenhouse Roofs 43
Ventilation and Air-Movement Equipment for Greenhouses 44
The Principle of Ventilation and Air-Movement 44
Effective Greenhouse-ventilation Equipment: Plastic Ventilation Tube 44
Air in the Greenhouse 45
Carbon Dioxide Generation Equipment in Greenhouse 45
Importance of Carbon dioxide in Greenhouse 45
Greenhouse Benches 46
Materials Used for Greenhouse Benches 46
Greenhouse Benches for Cut-flowers 46
Greenhouse Benches Pot-plant 47
Arrangement of the Benches 48
Greenhouse Walks 49
Working Room 49
Conveyors 51
Cloth Houses 51
Lath Houses 51
Bulb Storage 52
General Storage 53
Boilers for the Greenhouse Heating System 53
Operation of the Boiler 53
Draft System 53
Operation of the Boiler 54
Emergency Heating Equipment for Greenhouse 54
Emergency, Standby Power 54
Figuring the Heat Requirement of the Greenhouse 55
Location of Heating Lines 55
Arrangement and Placement of Heating Lines 55
Steam Traps 55Control of Heating-Line 57
Special Heat Requirements for Greenhouse 57
Providing Steam for Treatment of Soil and Equipment 57
Lower down Temperatures in the Greenhouse 58
Design of the Fan and Pad Cooling System 58
Cool Storage 59
Other Essential Equipments for Greenhouse 59
Equipment for the Control of Light 59
Kinds of Screening Materials 60
Photoperiod for Flowering 60
Shading for the Control of Photoperiod 60
Electric Light Equipment 60
Fluorescent Light 61
Electric Lights for Photoperiod Control 61
Intermittent Light 61
Problems with Fluorescent Lights 61
Equipment for Moisture Control in Greenhouse 61
How to Reduce Moisture in the Greenhouse 62
Irrigation Equipment 62
Water-Distribution Systems for Pot plants in Greenhouse 63
Capillary Irrigation System 64
Water-Distribution Systems for Cut-Flower Crops 64
Equipment for Regulation of Irrigation 64
Equipment for Handling Fertiliser 65
Application of Fertiliser in Liquid Forms 65
Proportions for Uniform Supply of Fertilisers 65
Selection of Fertiliser Proportioner 66
Pest and Pathogen Control Equipment 66
Hydraulic Spraying 66
Stationary and Portable Sprayer 66
Dusting 67
For Fumigators 67
Equipment for Application of Other Agro-chemicals 67
Equipment for Preparation of Soil for Planting 67
Soil Shredders 68
Materials-Handling Equipment 69
Trolley-type Conveyors 69
Repair and Construction Equipment 69
4 GREENHOUSE HEATING 70
Important Units 70
Heat Requirement vs Heat Loss 71
Ways of Insulation 71
Heat Loss by Air Infiltration 71Heat Loss through Radiations 71
Sources of Heat 72Steam systems 73
Care is to be taken 74
Localized Heating System 74Unit Heaters 75
Types of Unit Heaters 75
Convection Heaters 76
Purity of Fuels 76
Radiant Heaters 77
Infrared radiant heaters 77
Fuel Savings 77
Solar Heating 78
Solar Radiation: The Key to Climate 78
Principles and Components of Solar Heating 80
Collector 80
Backup Heater 82
Heat Transfer/Distribution 82Steam and Hot Water 83
Placement of Heating Pipes 83
Effectiveness of Pipe System 83
Type of Pipes to be Used 84
Arrangements of Pipe Coils 84Warm Air Sources 86
Horizontal Airflow System 86
Specifications for the HAF system 87
Greenhouse Climate Sensing and Control 87Environmental Computer Control Systems 89
Emergency Heaters and Generators 89Fuel
89Heat Conservation 90Greenhouse Design 90Double Covering 91Thermal Screens 91Roles of Thermal Screen 91
Radiant Heat 91Wall Insulation
92Sealing Air Leaks
92Windbreaks
92
High-Efficiency Heaters 92Heater Maintenance 92Thermostat Maintenance
92Low Temperature Crops 93
5 GREENHOUSE COOLING 94
Manual Controlling 94Thermostats
94Fan-and-pad Evaporative Cooling System 95
Fog Evaporative Cooling System 95Greenhouse Summer Cooling Systems 96
Fan-and-Pad System 96Rate of Air Exchange 96Placement of Pad and Fans 97Size and Number of Exhaust Fans 97Cross-fluted Cellulose Pad Specifications 97Other Pad Materials 98Placement of Fans 99The Air Stream 99
Fog Cooling 100Control Systems for Fog Cooling 100
Greenhouse Winter Cooling System 101
Description of Fan-Tube Ventilation 202
Cooling and Heating Systems Integration 101
6 ROOT MEDIA 103
Soil and Farm Manure: General Aspects 103Soil Texture 103Soil Structure 104Soil Porosity and Permeability 104
Field Soil and its Adaptation to Containers 104Soil and Water Availability 104Water Holding Capacity 105Humus 105
Origin of Soil Humus 105Properties of a Root Medium for Greenhouse 106
Stability of Organic Matter 106Carbon : Nitrogen Ratio 106
Organic Matter 106
Organic Materials Use 107
Bulky Organic Manures/Animal Manures/ Crop Residues/Composts 107Farm Yard Manure (FYM) 107
Composted Manure 207Green Manuring 108Green manuring in situ 108Green leaf manuring 108
Concentrated Organic Manures 109Oilcakes
209Cattle, Pig, and Poultry Manures 209Meat meal
209
Blood meal 109
Fish meal 120
Horn-and-Hoof meal 110
Macro and Micronutrient Availability 110
Composts: Production 110
Compost Bin as Factory Ill
Transformation Agents 121
What to Put in Heap? IllIdeal C:N Ratio in Heap Ill
Factors for Decomposition 112
Temperature 112
Moisture 112
Ingredients to Avoid Paratoxics 112Time of Application 113
Bulk Density of Root Medium 113Moisture Retention and Aeration 113
Cation Exchange 224Cation Exchange Capacity 115
pH 225
Components of Root Media 116Field Soil 226Peat Moss and Peats 116
Sphagnum Peat 117
Hypnum 117
Reed-sedge peat 117Peat humus 117
Bark127
Sawdust118
Manure118
Crop By-Products 119
Composted Garbage 229Vermiculite 119Calcined Clay 220Sand
222Perlite
121
Polystyrene Foam 221Rock Wool
221Other Coarse-Textured Components 222
Soil-Based Media 122Formulation
122Sand
122
Field soil 123
Sphagnum Peat 123
Maintenance of Root Media 123
Soil-Less Media 124
Components of Soil-Less Media 124
Organic Matter 124
Peat Moss/ Perlite/ Vermiculite/Bark 124
Formulations 125
Peat-Moss-Based Formulations 125
Bark-Based Formulations 126
Fertiliser Amendments 126
Preparation and Handling of Media 126
Small-Batch Handling 226
Intermediate-Volume Handling 127
7 NUTRIENT SOLUTION FOR GROWTH MEDIA 128
Theory of Nutrient Solutions 128
General Requirements 128
Form in which Element is Available to the Plant ....
129
Solution Mathematics 129
Molar Concept 130
Normal Concept 130
Parts Per Million Concept 131
Chemicals Required 131
Macro Element Chemicals 131
Nitrogen 132
Potassium 132
Phosphorus 132
Magnesium 132
Calcium 132
Sulphur 133
Micro Element Chemicals 133
Other Chemicals 133
Water 133
Some Typical Nutrient Solutions 134
Preparing the Nutrient Solution 134
Major or Macro Elements 134
Stock Solution Method 134
Dry Salt Method 135
Mixed Dry Salts Method 137
Minor or Micro Elements 138
8 MINERAL NUTRITION AND FERTILIZATION FOR
GREENHOUSE CROPS 140
Mineral Nutrition: The Inorganic Support 140
General Functions of Mineral Elements 141
Nutrient Depletion in Soil and Plant Growth 141
Crop Removal 242
Leaching Losses 142
Methods of Studying Plant Nutrition Solution Cultures 142
Use of washed white-quartz sand or perlite 143
Nutrient Solutions 143
Chelating Agents 143
Hydroponics 144
Properties of Root Surface 144
Mycorrhizae: Special method for Obtaining Essential Elements 145
Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms and Functions of Essential Nutrient Elements 146
Nitrogen 147
Phosphorus 247
Calcium 148
Calmodulin 149
Magnesium 150
Potassium 150
Sulphur 150
Iron 252
Manganese 252
Copper 252
Zinc 252
Boron 253
Molybdenum 254
Silicon 254
Silicon and Mineral Toxicity 155
Metal Toxicity in Plants 155
Carbon 256
Aluminium Toxicity 256
Physiological and Biochemical Effects of Aluminium Toxicity 158
Beneficial Effects of Aluminium 158
Manganese Toxicity 258
Manganese Uptake and Transport 159
Iron Toxicity 259
General Occurrence and Importance of Iron Toxicity 159
Physiology of Iron Toxicity 159
Different Tolerance of Plants to Fe Toxicity 159
Other Metal Toxicities 259
Phytoxicity 160
Soil Factors 260
Absorption of Metals 160
Metal Translocation 160
Fertilisers 161
Fertiliser Application 163
Principles for Proper Selection and Application of Fertilisers 163
Nitrogen 163
Nitrogen Use Efficiency 164
Nitrophosphate 165
Phosphorus 165
Potash 266
Methods of Applying Fertilisers 167
Greenhouse Fertilization 168
Fertilization Program 269
Soil Pasteurization 169
Preplant Fertilization 169
Limestone 169
Superphosphate 170
Micronutrients 170
Nitrogen and Potassium 171
Continual Fertilization 171
Concentration Expression and Conversions 171
Specific Crop Recommendations 172
Formulating Fertilisers 172
Automated Fertiliser Application 173
Slow-Release Fertilisers 274
Plastic-Encapsulated Fertilisers 174
Slowly Soluble Fertilisers 175
Urea Formaldehyde 175
Sulphur-Coated Fertilisers 175
Chelated Micronutrients 175
Nutritional Monitoring of Greenhouse Crops 176
Visual Diagnosis 276Soil Testing 177
Foliar Analysis 178
Corrective Procedures 278
Interactions 279
Fertiliser ratio 179
9 TECHNICAL CONTROL OF THE NUTRIENT SOLUTION 180
Solution Acidity or pH 180
Theory ofpH 180
Effect of Solution pH on Plants 281
Adjustment of pH 181
Use of Ammonium Sulphate 181
Adjustment of Phosphate Level 182
Addition of Adds and Alkalies 182
Choice of Nutrient Solution 183
Checking the pH 183
Solution Volume 183
Theory of Osmotic Concentration 184
Effect of Osmotic Concentration on the Plant 184
Maintenance of the Solution Volume 185
Nutrient Ion Concentration 185
Major or Macro Nutrient Ion Concentration 185
General Physiological Factors 186
Macro Ions 186
Influence on Osmotic Concentration: Macro Ions 186
Lower Limits: Macro Ions 186
Upper Limits: Macro Ions 187
Minor or Micro Nutrient Ion Concentration 187
General Physiological Factors 188
Micro Ions 188
Lower Limits 189
Micro Ions 189
Upper Limits: Micro Ions 189
Solution Changes 190
Disease Effect 190
Extraneous Ion Effect 190
When to Change 190
10 ALTERNATIVE CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR GREENHOUSE 192
Cropping Systems 192
Alternative Cropping System 192
Nutriculture 193
Historical Background 193
NFT System 194
Cultural Procedures 194
Characteristics of Channel Covering 195
Characteristics of NFT Solution 196
In-Line Pasteurization 198
Rock Wool Culture 198
Manufacture 198
Product Description 199
Cultural Procedures 199
Ebb-And-Flow System 200
System Description and Operation 201
Solution Monitoring and Adjustment 202
Disease Control 202
Floor Ebb-and-Flow System 203
Trough Culture 203
Whole-Firm Recirculation 204
Pulse Watering 204
11 CARBON DIOXIDE FERTILIZATION 205
Carbon in Nature 205
Concept of Photosynthesis and Carbon dioxide 208
Carbon Deficiency 209
Carbon Dioxide Injection 210
Effects on Plants 210
Ventilation 211
Light Factor 211
Heat Factor 211
Relation between Light and Temperature 211
Carbon dioxide Injection Method 212
Carbon dioxide Generation 212
Incomplete Combustion 212
Care is to be taken 212
Liquid Carbon dioxide or Dry ice 213
Measurement and Control of CO2 Level 213
Computer Connected Sensor Systems 213
12 LIGHT AND TEMPERATURE MANAGEMENT IN
GREENHOUSE 215
Light Intensity For Photosynthesis 215
Light Energy 215
Action and Absorption Spectra 215
Absorption Spectrum 216
Leaf Reflectance 216
Action SpectraZi/
De-excitation 218
Photosynthesis 218
Light Sources for Greenhouse Crops ••229
Maximizing Light Intensity •220
Clean Glass 220
Cleaning of Greenhouse 221
Plant Spacing221
Reducing Light Intensity by Shading 221
Supplemental Lighting 222
Light Period and Plant Growth 223
Growth Rooms 224
Light Duration for Photoperiodism 224
The Phytochrome 226
Geographical Latitude and Flowering 226
The Mechanism of Photoperiodism 227
Phytochrome 227
Flowering and Endogenous Rhythms 229
Flowering and Hour-glass Hypothesis 229
Florigen 229
Multiple-Hormone System and Flowering 230
The Future Task 230
Molecular Aspects of Flowering 230
Methods of Photoperiodic Control 231
Temperature 232
Temperature Interrelationships 233
DIF-Day to Night Temperature Relationship 233
DIF Controls Plant Height 233
Flowering Time 234
Side Effects 234
Implementation of DIF in Warm Seasons 234
Graphical Tracking 234
Computer Control 235
13 VARIOUS TYPES OF SOILLESS CULTURE: GENERAL
ASPECTS 236
Definition 236
Functions 236
Mineral Source 236
Moisture Source : 237
Nutrient Control 237
Fertiliser and Labour Requirements 237
Adaptability 238
Types of Soilless Culture 238
Water Culture 238Sand Culture 240
Gravel Culture 241
14 WATER CULTURE 246
Special Cultural Problems 246
Nutritional Aspects of the Nutrient Solution 246
Solution Acidity 246
Phosphate Level 246
Iron Level 246
Physical Aspects of the Nutrient Solution 247
Root Darkness,
247
Aeration 247
Circulation 248
Heating 248
Cooling 248
Rainfall 248
Plant Support 248
Litter Depth 249
Litter Porosity 249
Unit Construction 249
Home Use 249
Commercial Use 250
Tray Construction 250
Bedding or Litter Material 251
Unit Operation 251
Transplanting 251
Solution Level 252
Water Additions 252
Nutrient Ion Additions 252
Solution Acidity 252
15 SAND CULTURE 253
Special Cultural Problems 253
Nutritional Aspects of the Nutrient Solution 253
Physical Aspects of the Nutrient Solution 254
Type of Medium 254
Aeration 254
Drainage 255
Water Applications •••••
255
Nutrient Solution Application •255
Flushing the Medium 255
Temperature of Medium 256
Rainfall • • •256
Unit Construction 257
Home Use '• • ••••
257
Drip Culture •258
Modified Slop Culture 258
Dry Salt Method 259
Commercial Use 259
Bed Construction 259
Solution Application Equipment 260
Unit Operation •• •
260
Seeding ••261
, Transplanting .....261
Water Application — —••
261
Nutrient Application 262
Drip Culture 263
Dry Salt Culture 263
16 GRAVEL CULTURE... ..............265
Special Cultural Problems. 265
Nutritional Aspects of the Nutrient Solution 265
Solution Acidity 265
Phosphate Level..:; ..: ; .... ; ....\...^...!.x.. 265
Iron Level , 265
Physical Aspects of the Nutrient Solution 266
- Media Characteristics ; .: '.'.I......... 266
Aeration ..„..:.......;...„...„. 267
Drainage...: „.::.............: : 267
Pumping 267
Solution Volume ;. ; 268
Flushing the Media 268
Temperature of the Media .• 268
Rainfall , :..;;.::.;.....^..;........^ 268
.
Unit Construction ;:. 268
Home Usei; ; 269
Bucket and Gravity Design ; 269
Pump and Motor Design 269
Compressed Air Design 270
Wick Devices 270
Commercial Use 271
General Designs 271
Direct-feed Unit 271
Gravity Feed Unit 272
Open System 272
Closed Systems 275
Construction Details 275
Bed Construction 276
Tile Construction 278
Drainage Trench or Flume Construction 279
Cistern Construction Concrete 280
Distribution Tanks 280
Pumps 281
Motors 282Time Clocks 282
Piping and Valves 282Media 283
Unit Operation 284
Seeding 284
Transplanting 284
Pumping 284
Solution Volume 285Nutrient Ion Additions 285
Solution Acidity 285
17 TECHNICAL CONTROL OF THE PLANT CULTURE IN
GREENHOUSE 286
Medium Environment 286
Pumping Cycle of the Nutrient Solution 286
Gravel Temperature 290
Manipulation of the Nutrient Solution to Alter Plant Growth 293
Atmospheric Environment 296
Air Temperature 296
Sunlight 297
Carbon Dioxide 298Relative Humidity 299
Wind 299Rain 300
18 PLANT TISSUE CULTURE TECHNIQUE FOR DEVELOPINGGREENHOUSE CROPS 301
Callus Tissue and Organogenesis 301
Principles of Growth 303
Why Growth Occurs? 304
Kinetics of Growth or Measurement and Pattern of Growth 305
What Happens, When Growth Occurs? 305
The Botanical Basis for Tissue Culture 305
Power of Regeneration in Plants 306
Why Plants Regenerate? 308
Plant Tissue Culture: Principles 308
Callus Culture 309
Meristem Culture 309
Organ Culture 309
Anther and Microspore Culture (Production and Uses of Haploids) 310
The Concept of Totipotency of Cells 311
Importance of Tissue Culture Technique 312
Plant Tissue Culture: Methodology 313
Media Preparation: Area/Room 313Cabinets or Shelves 313
Culture Media, Washing Powder/ Liquid Detergent, Disinfectants 314
Aseptic Transfer Chamber Area 314
Environmentally Controlled Culture Room 315
Analytical Room 315
Miscellaneous items 316
Specifications of Laboratory Equipments 316
Aseptic Technique 317
Sterilization of Plant Tissues 317
Sterilization 318
Surfactants 318
In Vitro Environment 320
Pretreatment to Explant Tissues Prior to Culture 321Isolation of Plant Material 323
Callus Tissue and Organogenesis 323
Suspension Cell Culture from Callus in vitro 323
Micropropagation through Organogenesis 325
Culture Media and Preparation 325Media Components 326Plant Growth Regulators 326Carbon Source 327
Additional Requirements 328
Murashige and Skoog (MS) Medium 328
Sterilization of Media 329
Minimum Autoclaving Time 329
Use and Storage of Coconut Water 329
Related Procedures 330
Problems and Possible Solutions Plant Tissue Culture Work 330
Initiation of Embryogenesis in Suspension Culture 331
Materials 332
Method 333
Initiation of Embryogenic Tissue 333
Establishment of Embryogenic Suspension Culture 333
Important Parameters for Consideration 336
19 CHEMICAL GROWTH REGULATION OF GREENHOUSE
CROPS 337
Plant Hormones: Status and Definitions 337
How Hormone Acts? 340
Influence of Hormones on Nucleic Acid and Protein Metabolism 341
Influence of Plant Hormone on Gene Expression 342
Secondary Messenger Hypothesis 343
Plant Hormone Sensitivity Concept 343
Auxin 344
Chemical Nature of Auxin and Biological Activity : 344
Site of Synthesis 345
Transport 345
Accumulation of Auxin 345
Conjugates of IAA 346
Mechanism of Action 346
Nature of Wall Loosening Signals 346
Physiological Effects of Auxins.... 347
Abscission 348
GibbereUins..... 350
Mechanism of Action of GA 350
Physiological Effects 353
. Cytokinins: Juvenile Hormones 355
Mode of Action of Cytokinin 356
Physiological Effects of Applied Cytokinins 356
Practical Uses of Cytokinins 358
AbscisicAcid ;,
359
Mode of Action of ABA 359
Physiological Responses of ABA 360
Ethylene: Ripening Hormone 363
Mechanism of Ethylene Action 364
Ethylene Related Plant Growth Regulators 367
Others Ethylene Releasing Compounds 368
Practical Use of Ethylene-Releasing Compounds 368
Growth Retardants 370
Cycocel® 371
B-Nine SP® 371
A-Rest® 372
Bonzi® 372
Sumagic® 372
Off-Shoot-O® 372
Atrimmec®/Dikegulac 373
Disbudding Agents 373
20 PESTS AND SOIL ORGANISMS OF GREENHOUSE PLANTS 375
Insects and Other Pests in the Greenhouse 375
General Aspects 375
Slugs 376
General Characteristics 376
Grey Field Slugs (Deroceras reticulatum) 377
Garden Slugs (Arion hortensis) 378
Keeled Slugs (Milax budapestensis) 378
Black Slugs (Arion ater) 378
Life Cycle of Slugs 378
How to Control Slugs? 378
Insects 381
Structure and Biology of Insects 381
Development of Insect 382
Life Cycle of Insects 382
Springtails (Order Collembola) 382
Beetles (Order Coleoptera) 382
Wireworm (Agriotes lineatus) 382
Raspberry Beetle (Byturus tomentosus) 383
Vine Weevils [Otiorhyncus sulcatus] 383
Sawflies and Bees (Hymenoptera) 384
Rose Leaf-rolling Sawfly (Blennocampa pusilla) 384
Bees 384
Aphids and their Relatives (Order Hemiptera) 385
Peach-potato Aphid [Myzus persicae) 385
Life Cycle of Aphids 386
Cultural Methods for Control of Aphids 387
Glasshouse Whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) 388
Control of Glasshouse Whitefly 388
Greenhouse Mealy Bug (Planococcus citri) 388
Brown Scale (Parthenolecanium corni) 388
Leaf Hoppers (Graphocephala fennahi) 388
Common Green Capsid (Lygocoris pabulinus) 389
Cabbage White Caterpillars 389
Life Cycle 389
Control Measures 390
Carrot Root Fly 390
Life cycle 390
Control Measures 391
Cabbage Root Fly 391
Life cycle 392
Control Measures 392
Other Arthropods 392
Woodlouse (Armadillidium nasutum) 392
Symphilids [Scutigerella immaculata) 393
Millipedes 393
Centipedes 393
Thrips (Order Thysanoptera) 393
Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) 393
Pests Chart 394
Mites (Acarina) 396
Glasshouse Red Spider Mite (Tetranychus urticae and T. cinnabarinus) 397
Gall Mite of Blackcurrant (Cecidophyopsis ribis) 397
Tarsonemid Mite (Tarsonemus pallidus) 398
Other Mites 398
Nematodes 399
Potato Cyst Nematode (Globodera rostochiensis and G. pallida) 399
Stem and Bulb Eelworm (Ditylenchus dipsaci) 399
Chrysanthemum Eelworm (Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi) 400
Root Knot Eelworm [Meloidogyne spp.) 401
Migratory Plant Nematodes 401
21 PEST MANAGEMENT 408
Pesticides 408
Ideal pesticide 409
Reasons for use of Pesticides 409
Pesticides Registered, not approved for use, banned, restricted for use and under
review 409
Insecticides 413
Fungicides 413
Nematicides 414
Rodenticides 414
Molluscicides 414
Fumigants 415
Acaricides 415
Biological Control 415
Fungi 416Viruses 416
Microbial Pesticides 417
Bacteria 417
Repellents, Attractants, Synergists, Synthetic Inhibitors 418Chemosterilants 418
Pesticides and Environment 418
Weed Control 419
Sanitation 419
Plant Entry 420
Use of Insect Screens 420
Pest Surveillance 420
Biological Control of Insects 421
Pesticide selection 421Pesticide formulation 421
Application zone 421Pesticide timing 421
Environmental Adjustments 421Pest Eradication 421
Biological Control 422Methods of Pesticide Application 422
Spray Application of Pesticide 423
Dust Application of Pesticide 424Ultralow-Volume (ULV) Applicators 424Aerosol Application of Pesticide 425
Fog Application of Pesticide 426Smoke Application of Pesticide 426Volatilization of Pesticides 427Root-Media Applications 427
Pesticide Recommendations 428Pest Resistance 428
Other Aspects of Pesticide Applications 428
Length of Time 428
Pesticide Compatibility 429
Plant Toxicity 429
Shelf Life 429
Pesticide Safety 429
Storage Area 429
Labels 430
Training Program for Employees 430
Poison Information Centers 430
Pesticide Containers 430
Environmental Effects of Pesticides 430
Economic Aspects 430
Development of new serious pest problems and resistance 431
Hazards to non target species and wild life 431
Effects of Pesticides on Man 431
The Environment (Protection) Act 432
22 POST PRODUCTION HANDLING 433
Vase Life 433
Cultural Influences 433
Preservatives for Extending Vase Life 435
Prolonging the Storage Life of Flowers of Pot Plants 439
Refrigerated Storage 440
Dry Storage 441
Bud Harvesting 442
Other approachs 443
23 PESTICIDE APPLICATION: EQUIPMENT AND ITS
CALIBRATION 444
Major Components of Sprayers 444
Pump 444
Spray Tank v 444
Agitator 444
Distribution System 445
Kinds of Sprayer 447
Knapsack sprayers 447
Aerial sprayers 449Hand-held sprayers 449
Vibrajet 450
Controlled Droplet Applicator (C.D.A.) 450
Field Calibration of Sprayers 451
Manual Sprayers 451
Maintenance of Sprayers 451
Granule Applicators 452
Calibration of Granule Applicators 452
24 GREENHOUSE PLANT DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 453
What is a Plant Disease 453
A Healthy Plant 454
Plant and Pathogen Relationships 454
Steps in Disease Development 456
Proof of Pathogenicity 456
Nature and Classification of Plant Diseases 457
Classification of Plant Diseases 458
Diseases of Greenhouse Crops 459
Disease Control 463
Plant Pathogenic Viruses 464
Transmission of Plant Viruses 464
Symptoms of Virus Diseases 465
Control of Virus Diseases in Plants 466
Insect Control 467
Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (TSWV) 468
Plant Pathogenic Bacteria 468
Citrus Canker Disease 470
Plant Pathogenic Fungi 471
Powdery Mildew 473
Botrytis Blight 473
Root Rot Diseases 474
Pythium Root Rot 474
Rhizoctonia Root Rot 475
Thielaviopsis Root Rot 475
Damping-Off Disease 475
Bacterial Blight of Geranium 476
Verticillium Disease 476
Nematodes 477
Importance of Plant Parasitic Nematodes in Greenhouse Crops 477
Disease Prevention (General Aspects) 478
Plant Diseases Caused by Nematodes 480
Reniform Nematode Disease 481
Some resistant varieties/sources against reniform nematode 483
The Root Lesion Nematode Diseases 483
The Citrus Nematode Disease (Slow Decline of Citrus) 484
Other Nematodes Affecting Roots 485
Foliar Nematodes 485
Fungicide and Bactericide Recommendations 485
SUBJECT INDEX 487