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GOAL SETTING, EDUCATION AND SUSTAINABILITY: LIVING SMART IN THE CITY OF FREMANTLE. Sheehy,L. & Dingle,P. ABSTRACT

By providing community based environmental education programs, regional governments can play an important role

in enabling communities and individuals to contribute to sustainability. To be effective these programs must create

positive lifestyle and behavioural changes. A new approach to community based environmental education that

includes goal setting as a behaviour change technique, is presented here. Goal setting is a concept that is now widely

accepted in society and has been proven in many fields as a successful strategy for increasing motivation and

sustaining effort. It is proposed that the use of goal setting in environmental education programs will increase the

adoption of sustainable behaviours through increased motivation, commitment and direction.

The City of Fremantle used this new approach to develop an innovative community based environmental education

program, called ‘Living Smart – for a sustainable community’. Evaluation of the program demonstrated that the Living

Smart program was effective not only in increasing participants environmental knowledge but also in creating positive

environmental behaviour change. The Living Smart program showcases the challenges and benefits for regional

governments in using this environmental education framework, when implementing community based environmental

education programs for sustainability.

INTRODUCTION

Local and Regional Governments have an integral role to play in the path to sustainability through urban

planning, local regulations and the provision of infrastructure and services (Leigh, 2002). Most

environmental problems and solutions have their roots in local activities, therefore the participation and

cooperation of local authorities is essential (Agyeman et al., 1996). Many governments are already taking

steps towards sustainability through their in-house projects and services. However, with human activity the

cause of many local and global environmental problems, the sustainability of an area will largely depend on

the choices and actions of its population. For example, if a government’s innovative waste management

system is to be effective it requires the support, participation and cooperation of the individuals using that

system. Because of their close links to the community, local governments are in a unique position to

engage local people in sustainability through community environmental education programs (Duxbury et

al., 1988).

Contributing to sustainability will require considerable lifestyle and behavioural changes from both

individuals and communities. Creating informed individuals who actively participate in the protection of the

environment and the wise use of natural resources involves not only raising awareness and understanding

but also creating skills and action (Gayford, 1996). The majority of environmental education programs have

focused on providing information (McKenzie-Mohr, 2000). It was assumed that by increasing a person’s

Sheehy, L. and Dingle, P. (2003) Goal setting, education and sustainability: Living smart in the city of Fremantle. In: International Sustainability Conference, 17 - 19 September, Fremantle, Western Australia.

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awareness of environmental issues and thereby improving their environmental attitudes, the appropriate

course of action in terms of personal behaviour would become obvious and would be followed (Gayford,

1996). It is now widely recognised that this linear model of knowledge, attitude and behaviour does not

occur and that a successful environmental education program must do more than simply provide people

with information and expect them to change (Dorricott and Dingle, 1999; Finger, 1994; Geller, 1981).

GOAL SETTING: A BEHAVIOUR CHANGE TECHNIQUE THAT WORKS Goal setting is a cognitive theory of motivation based on the premise that people have specific goals that

they want to achieve (Yearta et al., 1995). It makes the assumption that human behaviour is purposeful

and that goals direct and sustain an individual’s behaviour towards achieving the goal. Therefore, goals act

as an immediate regulator of behaviour (Martin and Manning, 1995). It follows that if goals regulate

behaviour then goal setting could be used as a strategy for changing behaviour. In fact the beneficial

effects of setting goals for improving performance is one of the most robust and replicable findings in

psychological research (Locke et al., 1981). A review of the goal setting literature found that in 90% of

studies, well set goals lead to greater performance than ‘do your best’ goals and no goals (Locke et al.,

1981). Goal setting has been shown to be successful in a wide range of behaviour change programs. In a

program designed to increase dietary fibre consumption, participants who set goals consumed 91% more

fibre than participants who did not set goals (Schnoll and Zimmerman, 2001). When goal setting was used

for improving the composition of students with learning disabilities, their performance increased

significantly and the time they willingly spent on their tasks increased by 170% (Graham et al., 1992). In a

review of behavioural interventions to modify dietary fat, fruit and vegetable intake those interventions that

included goal setting were found to be significantly effective at achieving outcomes and had positive results

more consistently than any other type of intervention (Ammerman et al., 2002).

A NEW FRAMEWORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

An environmental education framework which includes goal setting, has been developed and is presented

here, see Figure One. By using this framework, the environmental education program provides participants

with both goal setting skills and action knowledge. Participants set goals to change their behaviour while

continued support and feedback is given to encourage achievement of the goals. The components of this

framework are described in detail below.

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Figure One: A framework for incorporating goal setting in environmental education programs.

Action Knowledge While an increased level of environmental knowledge will not automatically lead to behaviour change, it is

necessary that a person has some knowledge before behaviour change can occur (Dorricott and Dingle,

1999). The provision of environmental information is an essential component of any environmental

education program and consideration should be given to the type of information provided. Environmental

information that solely raises awareness of underlying environmental issues does not teach participants the

skills needed for action or provide the motivation to drive it (Sia et al., 1986). In addition, framing

environmental problems solely in terms of global or national dimensions can imply that such problems are

beyond a person’s sphere of influence (Middlestadt and Greiser, 2001). Rather it is specific environmental

information, and information about positive actions that is the most effective in promoting change (Kantola

et al., 1984; Stern et al., 1987; Van Houwelingen and Van Raaij, 1989). Any raising of awareness about an

issue must include positive messages about how to act, the benefits of the actions and that these actions

will make a difference (Kearney and De Young, 1996).

Goal Setting Skills It is unrealistic to expect environmental practitioners to perpetually intervene to maintain a single behaviour

or that there be enough environmental education programs to target all environmental problems (De

Young, 2000; Kearney and De Young, 1996; McKenzie-Mohr, 2000). By teaching goal setting as a life skill,

participants will have the ability to change their own behaviour. Participants can then continue to change

and improve those behaviours targeted in the program, even after the program is complete. They can also

transfer these skills to other environmental issues and behaviours that they may be concerned about but

were not targeted in the program (Mila and Sanmarti, 1999). Many people use goal setting in areas such as

finances and careers, and believe that setting goals can be an effective way of changing their behaviour.

However, many people do not know how to set goals effectively. The two most consistent findings

concerning goal setting are that specific goals and challenging goals lead to the best performance (Locke,

1968; Locke et al., 1981; Mento et al., 1987; Tubbs, 1986). To increase the chance of goal achievement

and behaviour change, it is important that participants are taught to set effective goals that are specific and

challenging.

Participants

Goal setting skills

Action knowledge

Set goal

Behaviour change

Achieve Goal MOTIVATION

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Setting the Goals Within any environmental education program there will be different levels of knowledge, ability and

motivation amongst participants. The adaptability and openness of the goal setting process will encourage

each participant to change to the best of their ability by setting individual goals that incorporate changes

they are both able and willing to make. The goal setting process includes three essential steps; assessing

and evaluating, setting the goal and identifying motivations.

1. Assessing and evaluating

Participants consider the information and action strategies they have received and think about how they

can apply this to their own lifestyle (i.e. what actions could they take or what existing behaviours could they

improve on). This can be done individually or in small group discussion.

2. Setting the goal

Participants set their own personal goal by writing an overall goal, with specific sub goals and deadlines.

Each participant’s goal will be different depending on what they are already doing, what they are able to do

and their home and lifestyle characteristics. It is important that each participant makes a commitment to a

goal during the program. By obtaining a commitment to change through a written goal the individual is

much more likely to remember and act on that behaviour.

3. Identifying motivations

After the goal is decided on and written down, participants should identify and write down their personal

motivations or reasons for wanting to achieve the goal. Participants should be encouraged to find as many

reasons as they can. The more reasons or motivation they have for doing something, the more effort they

will put in.

Feedback & Support The goals should be measurable so they can provide feedback. Feedback allows people to see how much

progress they have made towards their goal and how much further there is to go. Feedback can motivate

people to work harder to achieve their goal, can reassure them that they are making effective changes or

can persuade them to develop new strategies to achieve their goal (Becker, 1978; Van Houwelingen and

Van Raaij, 1989). Support can be given by establishing networks between participants, providing personal

mentors, newsletters, information lines, website forums or having ongoing contact with the facilitator.

Participants may come across difficulties in achieving their goal. Circumstances may have changed and

they may need to set a new goal or modify an existing goal. If participants have a source from which they

can gain encouragement, ask questions and get ideas, they will be less likely to abandon their goal and will

persist at it for longer.

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LIVING SMART, FOR A SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY

The Living Smart Program is a joint initiative by the City of Fremantle, The Meeting Place Community

Centre and Murdoch University. It is a community environmental education project that aims to increase

awareness of sustainability issues and to provide the community with the knowledge and skills to take

action to improve the sustainability of their homes and their community. The program consisted of a seven

week workshop series run at The Meeting Place Community Centre and covered a range of sustainability

topics including waste, energy, water, chemicals, gardens, health, taking action and simple living. The

Living Smart program used the framework presented in this paper to create an effective program that not

only provided information but also required the participant to actively participate in the program through

goal setting, see Figure Two.

Figure Two: Adapted framework for Living Smart Program

During the seven weeks, one workshop was devoted to learning effective goal setting skills and the

remaining workshops were used to provide action knowledge on the sustainability topics. An information

booklet was also provided which contained additional information, activities, further references and space

for goal setting. At the end of each topic participants discussed in small groups what they had learnt and

what changes they could make. Each person then set a goal to change or improve their behaviour in the

topic area. These were compiled and each topic’s goals were made into a wall chart showing the actions

committed to by all individuals within the group. This was designed to motivate participants by showing

what others were doing and what they were able to achieve together as a group. At the beginning of each

week, time was given to discuss progress towards their goals. This enabled participants to provide

examples of achieving their goal and experiencing benefits or to discuss any difficulties they were having.

Evaluation Methodology Questionnaires, feedback forms and control groups were used to quantitatively and qualitatively evaluate

the success of the program. Questionnaires were completed before and after the program and included

scales used to assess knowledge, attitudes and behaviour. These scales are outlined below in Table One.

The pre and post questionnaires were compared to determine if any knowledge, attitude or behavioural

Participant

Goal setting skills (Workshop)

Action knowledge (Workshop)

Set Goal workshop

Feedback Goal Charts Discussion

Support Facilitator Group members

Behaviour change Significant behaviour

Achieve Goal

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changes had occurred as a result of the program. Participants also completed an extensive evaluation form

on participant satisfaction and effectiveness of the program.

Number of questions

Purpose

Environmental Knowledge 10 To assess participants knowledge of environmental issues. Questions were general and covered all topics covered by the course.

General Environmental Attitudes

9 To assess participants attitudes towards the relationship between nature and humankind. Sourced from, The New Environmental Paradigm (Dunlap and Van Liere, 1978).

Specific Environmental Attitudes

11 To assess participants attitudes towards the local environment and their impact on it.

Sustainable Behaviours 33 To assess the number and frequency of sustainable behaviours by participants. The behaviours listed were covered in the course.

Table One: Details of scales used in the pre and post intervention questionnaires. Two control groups were used to compare whether changes in participants knowledge, attitudes and

behaviours were a result of the program and not other internal or external factors. One control group was

recruited from an established environmental organisation. The second group was recruited by dropping

letters in the local area. Both groups were asked to participate in a Murdoch University Environmental

Study and no mention of the Living Smart program was made. The environmental control group (envt

group) was simply asked to answer the pre and post intervention questionnaires. The community control

group (comm group) answered the pre and post questionnaires and were also sent an information booklet

that contained the same environmental information (minus the goal setting) that the Living Smart group

received.

Characteristics of the Living Smart Participants While there was considerable variation within the Living Smart group on their scale scores, overall their

scores were high particularly for sustainable behaviours, see Table Two. When comparing these scores

with the control groups there were some apparent differences. The environmental group had the highest

knowledge while the Living Smart group had the most positive behaviour. However, none of the groups

were found to be statistically different (using a one-way ANOVA) from each other on any of the scales in

the pre-intervention questionnaire. Therefore, it is statistically valid to compare these groups.

Minimum Score

Possible

Maximum Score

Possible

Average score

Minimum scored

Maximum scored

Standard Deviation

Environmental Knowledge

0 10 7.71 5 10 1.82

General Environmental Attitudes

-18 +18 9.71 3 18 5.20

Specific Environmental Attitudes

-22 +22 15.36 10 22 4.18

Sustainable Behaviours 0 99 70.86 48 85 13.16 Table Two: Living Smart participants scores on questionnaire scales

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Participants Behaviour Change In the feedback form participants were asked to evaluate the changes they had made to their lifestyle as a

result of participating in the program. In all topic areas participants believed they had improved their efforts

to be environmentally positive after participating in the program, see Figure Three. Participants also

believed the program had been effective in helping them make positive changes for all of the topics

covered, see Figure Four. Importantly 68% of participants said that the program changed the way they

think about lifestyle/ environmental issues.

Environmental Efforts

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

waste gardens power water health chemicals transport action

score

before now Figure Three: Effort of participants to be environmentally positive in the topic areas before and after

participating in the program (rated on a scale of 1 to 7).

Effectiveness of program for change

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

waste gardens power water health chemicals transport action

score

Figure Four: The effectiveness of the program in helping participants make environmentally

positive changes in the topic areas (rated on a scale of 1 to 7).

The scales, in the pre and post intervention questionnaires were compared to see if there were any

changes, see Figures Five and Six. It was found that the participants in the Living Smart program

significantly increased both their environmental knowledge score and their sustainable behaviour score.

The community group, who received a booklet on sustainable living, significantly increased their

environmental knowledge score but did not significantly increase their sustainable behaviour score. These

changes were found to be statistically significant at the 0.05 level using a paired sample t-test. The

environment group, who did not receive any information, did not change on any of the scales.

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Change in Environmental Knowledge

5

6

7

8

9

10

Living Smart Envt Group Comm Group

sco

re

before now

Change in Sustainable Behaviours

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

Living Smart Envt Group Comm Group

sco

re

before now

Figure Five: Change in the level of environmental Figure Six: Change in the frequency of sustainable knowledge of the different groups behaviours by the different groups (Μindicates a significant difference) (Μindicates a significant difference)

The Goal Setting Process Overall participants were satisfied with the goal setting process and thought it was effective in helping them

change their behaviour, see Figure Seven. Participants comments indicated that the goal setting was

effective as it increased motivation, was reinforcing and made them more likely to act. For 63% of

participants it was very important that they reach their goal, for 32% it was somewhat important and not

important for 5%. Participants ability to set goals increased from 4.5 to 5.8 (on a scale of 1 to 7) after

participating in the program, see Figure Seven. Over two-thirds (68%) of participants revisited their goals

after setting them in the workshop and 55% of the participants felt that learning goal setting skills had

impacted on other areas of their life.

Evaluation of the Goal setting Process

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

effectiveness

satisfaction

ability - before

ability- after

Figure Seven: Participant evaluation of the goal setting process (scale 1 to 7)

DISCUSSION

Most environmental education programs to date have been ineffective as they do not consider how a

person will change their behaviour. It is just assumed that the desired behaviour change will occur

(McKenzie-Mohr, 2002). The framework presented in this paper actually facilitates behaviour change

through goal setting. Goal setting has been proven as a successful technique for changing behaviour in

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areas such as sport, health and finances. The results from the Living Smart program indicates that it can

also be used as an effective technique for changing behaviour in environmental education programs.

Firstly, the program was found to be effective at increasing participants environmental knowledge. In the

pre-intervention questionnaire their average score was 7.7 from a possible score of ten and this increased

significantly to an average score of 9. The community control group who received the same environmental

information as the Living Smart group (minus the goal setting) also significantly increased their knowledge

score from an average of 7.8 to 8.8. The environmental control group, who had the highest environmental

score to start of with (8.2) but did not receive any environmental information, did not increase their

knowledge. This indicates that the environmental information, which included positive messages about how

to act, the benefits of the actions and that these actions will make a difference, was effective at improving

participants environmental knowledge.

It was also found that the program was effective in increasing the number and frequency of participants

sustainable behaviours. The Living Smart group who scored 71 on the sustainable behaviour scale in the

pre-intervention questionnaire significantly increased their score to 75, out of a possible 99. This increase in

sustainable behaviours was not found in either of the control groups, despite one control group being

provided with the same environmental information as the Living Smart group. This indicates that while the

environmental information provided increased participants knowledge, it was not sufficient for creating

behaviour change. The Living Smart group who participated in the goal setting process was the only group

to change their behaviour, despite already having the highest sustainable behaviour score.

This increase in the sustainable behaviour score is further qualified by participants own evaluation of their

changed behaviour. Firstly, participants believed that they had increased their efforts to be environmentally

positive in all of the topic areas covered. Secondly, participants said that the program was effective in

helping them make positive changes in all the topic areas. In addition, two-thirds of participants said that

the program changed the way they think about lifestyle and environmental issues. Below is what some

participants cited as positive changes they had made as a result of the program.

I have reduced water and energy consumption and manage waste better. Heightened awareness of chemicals in my

world, more diligent about products. ∼

Using freos many eco, organic products and services. Not using the garden tap at all for last five weeks. ∼

Cycle and train to work five days a week. Energy saving Globes on high use lights. Use of greywater on garden. ∼

Rethinking my lifestyle. Buying more organic produce. Decreasing my cleaning products and buying safer products. Become more physically active. Telling more people about recycling and lifestyle changes.

The framework does not just tell people to set a goal nor does it set the goal for them. Instead it uses a

participative goal setting process to increase the likelihood of goal achievement and behaviour change.

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Unless participants are setting the goal willingly and the goal is of their own choosing, the goal will not be

effective (Latham and Locke, 1991). The goal setting process had three steps; assessing and evaluating,

setting the goal and identifying motivations. Participants were highly satisfied with the goal setting process

and thought that it was effective at helping them change their behaviour, refer to Figure Sixteen. Participants felt that it was either important or very important for them to reach their goals and most

participants revisited their goals after the workshop. This process was effective because it encouraged

active participation, created relevance for participants and required participants to make a commitment to

change.

Active participant involvement in environmental education programs is positively related to improving

environmental behaviour (Zelezny, 1999). Many environmental education programs whether in the written

or oral form have only a one-way flow of information, from the organiser to the participant (Ester and

Winett, 1982). This does not allow the participant to actively participate in the program (Myers and

Macnaghten, 1998). This new framework provided opportunities for participants to discuss the information

they have received and share their experiences and knowledge amongst the group. This draws participants

into the program and communication becomes a dynamic flow amongst the participants and facilitator.

Feedback from the Living Smart program found that participants highly valued being able to share their

experiences and knowledge with other participants.

The fact that we were all encouraged to participate made it far more enjoyable and informative

∼ In the time given to talk to others in the group I learnt some effective ways to improve that I hadn’t thought of.

∼ The most positive thing about the program was group dynamics, positive people and exchange of ideas

In many environmental education programs, participants are often bombarded with large volumes of

information in a short space of time, and then sent away with the expectation that they will change. This is

despite the fact that once at home participants will be confronted by other priorities, time constraints and

possibly a lack of support by family members. Behaviours in the home that impact on the environment are

often unconscious habits. These include, washing clothes, heating the house and using appliances. Habits

can be difficult to break and will often require a conscious decision to change and continued effort. This

framework and the goal setting process allows reflection, discussion and strategy development within the

program. This way when participants leave the program they have already considered how the information

and actions they have learnt can be incorporated into their lifestyle. They know exactly what actions to take

when they get home and they have committed to these actions in their goal.

The program motivated me to take action. I was aware of things I could do but didn’t do anything. Action is the key

and every little bit helps. The goal setting gave me the direction/ means to take action, thus the action became attainable.

∼ I love to see things written down so I can be reminded of my goal, which is too easily forgotten with my many daily

chores and responsibilities.

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During the program thirteen topics were covered and participants set a goal for each of the topics. Often

these goals were long term and required continued effort. Some were short term and more easily

accomplished. Importantly though, all participants improved their goal setting skills after participating in the

program and the majority believed that goal setting was an important tool for making positive environmental

changes. Participants now have the skills to achieve the goals they set in the program, to set new goals

and to continue improving their environmental behaviour even though the program is finished. Over half of

the participants felt that learning goal setting skills had impacted on other areas of their life. Thus, the goal

setting is not only important for changing their environmental behaviour but they have also learnt a valuable

skill which they can use to make desired changes in all aspects of their life (Locke and Latham, 1990).

CONCLUSION The framework presented here and used in the Living Smart Program demonstrates how easily goal setting

can be used to design a successful environmental education program. It simply requires additional

information on goal setting and time for going through the goal setting process. Goal setting has already

been proven as a successful technique for changing behaviour but had not been used within community

environmental education programs. The framework presented here used a goal setting process that

included three easy steps; assessing and evaluating, setting the goals and identifying motivations. When

the framework and goal setting process was used in the Living Smart program it enabled participants to

actively participate, to develop a goal which was specific to their life and make a commitment to change.

The Living Smart program not only achieved the objective of increasing knowledge and awareness but also

achieved the much harder objective of changing people’s behaviour. The Living Smart program is an

excellent example of how a local government can use the framework presented here to develop a

community environmental education program that enables communities and individuals to contribute to

sustainability. For local governments who are serious about achieving sustainability, it is imperative that

they develop links with the community so that communities, individuals and governments can make

progress together.

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