getting ready: promoting school readiness through a relationship
TRANSCRIPT
University of Nebraska - LincolnDigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln
Faculty Publications, Department of Psychology Psychology, Department of
1-1-2008
Getting Ready: Promoting School Readinessthrough a Relationship-Based Partnership ModelSusan M. SheridanUNL, [email protected]
Christine MarvinUNL, [email protected]
Lisa KnocheUNL, [email protected]
Carolyn P. EdwardsUniversity of Nebraska - Lincoln, [email protected]
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Sheridan, Susan M.; Marvin, Christine; Knoche, Lisa; and Edwards, Carolyn P., "Getting Ready: Promoting School Readiness througha Relationship-Based Partnership Model" (2008). Faculty Publications, Department of Psychology. Paper 566.http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/psychfacpub/566
Getting Ready: Promoting School Readiness Through
a Relationship-Based Partnership Model
Susan M. Sheridan, Ph.D.
Christine A. Marrin, Ph.D.
Usa L Knoche, Ph.D.
Carolyn Pope Edwards, £d.D.
Nebraska Center for Researcb on Cbtklren, Youth, Famtlies and Schools/University of Nebraska-Lincoln
School readines!l is determined by the Ilk aperiences of young children between birth and en.roUment in lonnal eduation Pl:I)8I'Wns. Early Inter- , vention and education programs deSigned to promotc rK:hool 'readiness oftcn focus on skills a child fails to demonstrate that are believed to be of itnponancc to soc:lal and acildemlc sw:.:ceSS. The Gettins Ready mod<:I of early childhood intervention ",cognizes the trans...::tional natur<: of yoWll! children's development and the Imponant role parentll play in preschool readiness and rK:hool.age sU<:CC:f,s. In the G,tNng Ready model, collaborative pattncnhips betwUn parentI and professionals ate encouraged to promote parent's competence and confidence In maximizing children's natural lcamlpg opportunities, and pr<:paring both parentll and ch.\.Id.n:n for long-tenn school success. Parent..clllld Interactions in everyday experiences, mutual obsel.'V3t1ons, and goaI-direded problellMlQlving, and yoWll!
/iurlyCb/ldbOOdStrtJ/CeS '\fQI'llmI:l2, NUmber 3. pp. 1049 .. 171. Copyright ~ :l(KIS Plural Publl!lhlJ18. 10(;.
1S0 IlAIILY CHlIDHQOO SERVICES, VOl .. 2, NO, 3
clilIdn:n's successful d<:vt:lopment constitute the input, processes, and outcomell of the Getffng Ready model, The emplrlcaI tationale for and
. spedne components of th~ modtel are ~scrlbed, with pra.cti~ intpllca" lions embedded throughout this paper.
K;ry Words, schooll'Clldiocos, reiJItion$Ilips, patent engagement, triadic IItlIIteglell, ooIJJabofattv.: pIIrtOershlps
AcademiC sue"" .. for rrumy chUdren is peW/cated on tbeir preparation in the early school years (Schultlng, Malone, &: Dodge, 200~; Snow, 2(06), For aampie, clilIdren who are poor readers at the end of first grade are 3150 Ukdy tn be poor readers at the end of their fourth grade year Oud, 1988), Children's abilities to name Ietlers of the a1" phabet are hlghIy correlated with their 10th grade performance On standardl~ed tests of reading compreheosion (Stevenson & New· man, 1986), The ability to execut" simple mathematical complltations are stalled if ba· Sic spatial, mOvem""t, Ilumerical, and cate" gorlcal conceptS are not established in the first years of school (Clements & SanIma, 2007), Indeed, succ"ss In the primary grades forecasts success In lalcr groldes. However,lt Is now well establi$hed thaI children's abilities in the first :I years of school are dependent on the cognitive, Ungui.~tic, and s0-
cial comP"ICnctes they bring to instruction from their experiences prior 10 school ""try (Dale, ]enklnl'l, Mills, &- Cole, 2005; Schweill" hart et aI., 2005; Wcikart, Bond, &: McNeil, 1978),
Studi(:s of chlldn:n'$ development con. si.'tently point to the importance of early opportunities and experiences as the fuCl.(bm<.'RW p=ut$Ot$ to optimal outcomes later in life. Developmenlal pathways across academic. soclal-emotional, and behavioral domaills in tho:: K-12 years are readily traCed to anteCedents duting back to the period from birth to age 5 (Shonkolf & PhIUlp" 2(00). P-dnlcu1ariy In the context of children growIng lip in diSadvantaged environmental con·
dltlOl18 (e,g., low Inc""",). I!OclaJ and educational poUey now clearly indicate that intentional, hlgh-qllality early learning experiences contributing 10 the development of academic. 5OCial, and otber school-related skills are expected in early childhood programming (Committee for Economic Oevelopm""t, 2002), Slate and federal mandates requiring heightened standards for public preschools, teacher ptq>aration, and quality progr1Imming an: Increasingly being instituted in efforts to promote economic and social ~ell.ts for all children. Furthermore, many professional org;utlzations and n:search initiatives routinely recognIZe the ~rltical importance of the euliest ute experiences of yOWlg children, and the fimdamenw nature of..,cure mlationshlPllll8 the foundation upon which optimalleamJng OCCU", (National Association for the Education of Young ChiJ. dren, 1997; Sandall, Hemmeter, Smith, &: McLan, 2005).
The Pl1l"\X'SC of this paper is to ~ribe the empidcal fOWldation for and slmClura! features of a rellltlonship-bued modtel to promote school rea~ss in young child",n and their f.unllics, The Getffng Ready model was developed and is being empirically tested I\ij part of a 1atge-.scaJe longitudinal stutly, with a primary aim of uncovering effective meth· ods fur promoting school tcadiness among low-Income clilIdrell aged birth to 5. In this paper, we deiICrlbc: the conceptual frameW()rk, empirical foundation, and pnK.'<:duI' al detail. of the Getting Ready approach, The Getting Ready model WIllI designed 10
provide an Integrated, ecolOgiC, S1rengthllbasc:d approach to school readiness for fam· ilies with ~hildrcn from birth to 5 years of
RELATIONSHIP MODEL AND SCHOOL RIlADINESS lSI
age who are partidpatlng in home- and center-ba",d early education and intervention programs. The model Is grounded in Cami.lycenten:d ptindples, ev:idence-based early intervention stt2tegles, and coIlaOOrlitive ShU<:tures. It Is constructed on the foundatiOnal belief that optimal school readlness for chlldren and their I'a:tnilles occurs through the development of positive relationshJps withIn the multiple intera<:till8 eoologi<: SYStems of the home (i.e., parent-chJid relationshlps) ""d between the home ""d other 8UPPOItlve envirorunents (I.e., parent-professional relationships). In our Con<:eptuali1.ation of school readiness, chJidren must develop certain capacities to be "ready' to participate in {onrutl schooling; however, parents and other caregivers must be ready to develop pos~ tive wott lelationshlps and partoer with ellucalionat pro{emollllls to ensure c:ons:isIent cr()lllWlettlng supporr." "ncou .. "!!,, ongoing sdmuJation, and promote positive developmental nurcomCllm childrc:.{l.
Parent.cbiJd School Readiness
School readiness traditionally has been defined In temlS of a young chlld'H competencies at the dme of school enlrance (I.e., at 5 or 6 years of age; A<:kennan 8< lIarnett, 2005; Snow, 20(6), with limited (OCUlI on famUy readiness for school. SchOOl readiness programs have often focused on preparing young prcsch,)(,I""!I" children with the .kill. believed to be necessary tOr successfu.J participation and learning in kindergarten and firsl grade. In Ught of the current legislative landscape and federal initiatives such as Good SIlIrt Grow Smart (2002), thi..tOcllS has become increa.~lngly important and relevant as earty education progranlS are held accountable to demon$trJ.te ~peclJic sklll development in chJidren they sel,Vt (Harbin, KOllS, &. Mcwn, 2005; No Child Left Behind Act, 2002).
The mechanisms through which thtsc speelJic school readiness sk.iJls Can be supported, however, has been the subjc~i of
debate fot Jrulny years (Vernon-Feagans & Blair, 2006). 'J'he sllJIlICStion In marty school !endlne8s programs is that the child alone Is responsible (or !tis or her school success. In thIs situation, early childhood educators provide the fOundational experiences for children, and children In tum an: expected to develop the neceMaty skill. ro demon· strate success upon school entry. From Ihls perspective, when a child is det:mcd lacking necessary competendes pdor to school entrance, it may fOllow that he or she $hould be the focus of systematic curricular attention or even "intel'Vt:ntion.' Approaches to early chJidhood intervention histortcally have been child centered, wherein teachers and other service providers worked directly and somedmes excl\lslvely with chJidren (Mahoney & Q'Sulliv-m, 1990) and only indirect· Iy or tangentJally with parenL~. SchOOl re"J.diness skiDs emerged pdmarily as a n,nction of instructional experiences delivered outside the home. The critical role of instruction to promote a chJid's competence and $U<'
cessful school entry rested on school-based experiences with m.Inlmal emphasis on the role of family in chJid leaming.
In recent decades, however, theoretical and empirical advan~c:s, as well 3S pn)fc:~
slonal <Urcctivcs, have called the unidimen$ionaJ (chJidoQnly) approaches into question, SpecllicaUy, ecologic theory (Bronfcnhrenn~r, 1979) po~its that the proximal and distal context (i.e., ecology) within which chJi· dren live and develop, lneludlng events and r..<:tOIS IlI'l'C(;ti.ns their carc:s1vc:J'5 .n<.l cnvlronmentalsuppons, have a signlfil.:ant Influ~nce on their overall functioning. This compl~x ecology includes children's day.to4ay expedences, interactions, and lelationships with family, friends, pa!eOts, .nd other care· givers. I!cologlc theory considers child de· velopment within the cont<:Xt of intcraetin8 systems including the child, peers, adults, leamintl environments, community agen· ciCII, poliCies, and a 11m! of m\~tUevel agents that influenc<: and are influenced by one another(Bronfenbrenner, i977).
A growing empiriC'dl tr...., .uppom a multldlmensional, family.inclusive approach
lSl EARLY CtlILDtlOOO $ElIVICES, VOL 2, NO, 3
.!Or promot.\ng child and family re-.u:line88 (or I!(hool. Fim, greater Intervention effect~ on chlklrcn and JiunIlIes have b<:c:n (ound wben public early intervention progr-~ms (e.g., Eat· ly Head Slart) make intentional efforts to work directly with parents than when pro. grammatlc supports are delivered 10 clill· dren only (BTontl:nbrenncr. 1975; Love et aI., 2(05). Second, developmental outcomes attained by cll.iIdren with biologJcal con· Cerns have been shown to b<: more related l'(l pan:nt and family mms (e.g., education, sodal supports) than their own medical statm (Samcroff & Chandler, 1975). lbird, Dunst and colleagues (Dun~t, 1985; Dunst, Triv· ette, &CroSIJ, 1986) have reported on a nulJ). ber of studies finding that children's rates of development during intervention had Uttle relationship to the type or amount of servk· e. they received, but rather to the number and quality of parents' $OClai and family..:en· tered supports. l'lnally, prokssionaJ groups such as the National A""""iation for the Edu· cation 0( Young ChIldren (NAEVC), Council .!Ot EKceptionai Children-Division .!Or tiarly ChUdhood (DEC), and the National Gover· nor'. AssocJation (NGA) have provided a growing profe$'ilonal context for changes in the way early chUdhood servk:es are concepmali7.ed and delivered. For example, the NGA Task Foree on School Readiness (2005) promoted a set of principles recognizing that "the family plays the most important role in a young child's life," and that 'responsibility for I!(hool readineSIJ lies not with chUdren, but with the adults who care for them and the systems that support them" (p. I). Similarly, the NAEVe baM:5 its guidelines for de· velopmentally appropriate practices on val· ues that appreciate and suppOrt the close tie$ b<:tween the: child and f.llnily, and recogn.iu: that children lite beIIt understood in the context of famJly, culmre, and society. Furthermore, DEC's recommended prActices
. for servlCts to children birth to age 8 with disabilities or developmental delays outline both the: importance of families and profe" siomls sharing rc$pQn"lbillty fot chlld..,n', intervention progr.lrt1s and outcomes, and the ways famUy-centered approaches can a(\. vanc:e cltlldren's development.
Oe.tinitlons of school readiness framed within an ecolOgic orienllltion have been <lffeted by DunSt (2007) and Mashburn and Pianla (2006). Specifiqlly, Dunst describes schOOl readi.rJes,_ as the "(onnal_od InfOrmal experiences and opportunities affilrded chilo dten by diffi:rcnt people and sc::ttin.IJ:S that support and strengthen their acquisition of sk.I.Ib and competendes needed to perform well in school" (p. 4). Mashburn and Planta (2006) indi<;:ate school re-.Idlness Is l "prod. uct of the ecologies within wlilch children are embedded that support their development . , . a set of interactlons and transactions among people (children, teaChers, parents, other caregivers), settings (borne, school, and child core) and institutions (conununities, neighborhoods and governments)" (p. 152). This concepmall7.atlon indudes Strong early education program· ming, but incotpon&tc:lI a huger system of players to promote children's skill development. This broader view of school readiness emphasizes the multiple systems of Input (environmet'll$ and resources that provide enriching leart1Ing oppomutlties) and pm. cesses (interactions and mechanisms that promote children'S acquiSition of skills), and transactions among these s)'lItems, to creatt!: contexts .!Or children's developmental outcomes and skills (the produ,1S of learning opportunities and supports). The.., inputs, processes, and outcomes need to b<: consid· ered when organizing a program of cady in· tervention for a popllh'ltion of children and! or famiIJt:l; 'at risk" for poor transition to the formal education systems in their com.mun~ ties (Dunst, 2(07).
We concepmalJ.l:e getting ready for school in terms of relationships among the child, family, school, and caregiving community, and their interactions with onc an· other. l"e process of getting ready happens naturally tor many tilmilles as part of routine dally activities and leaming opportunities. For some families, however, the process reo quires extra attention and guidance due to the presence 0( child and family risk factOl'$, the composite of which increases the challeng,'5 these families flIcc (Sameroff, 2000).
RllLATIONSHII' MODEL AND SCflOOL READINIlSS 153
The focus of I!'.ltly ~ducatlol'l ;HId interven· tion progrnms can capture a broad ~tinition of sc.hool readiness by advancing chJldren' s competenCies and readlncss slellls withill two relational contexts slmuilltlloously: the parent-<:hild relatiomhtp (md the quality of Intcmctlons between parent and ~hild), and the parentprofess;onal relatlonsbip (the parent in partnenllip with their child's educators and other professional c!lre!':ivers). Below we review the empirical evidence supporting these relational elements "' they support effectlve school readiness for chil· dren and parents, followed by the spedfic details of an Integrated intervention mooel currently being delivered and tested in a large.,;c-.IIe raooomized trial.
Empirical Evidence for Parent-Child Engagement
and School Readiness
To effectively promote parcnt-child school readiness, parents must be aalve agents in support of their children'. devel· op1lK:nt. Parental engagement in young chl~ dren's learning is highly predictive of chilo dren's developing competence In cognitive, soclal-emotional, and bo:havioral domains. Genel"d.i qualltles of childrert's earliest rela· tiollshlps with parents set the stage for Ialer <.:omp~-tc:ncc in pl'eschool and school ou:ttings (Domstein 8< Taml&-I.cMonda, 1989; de Ruit· er & ""oUt uzcndoom, 1993; Raver & Kniucr, 2002; Shonkhoff & Phillips, 2000; Thomp"<In, 20()2). Qualities ot'parenllll engagement have been Iillked to a number of adaptive ehard<."telistics of children in preschool and at kinderganen entry, such "" good work habits, l'rustmtiOll tolel""Jnce, fewer behavior problc:ms, and hetter social skil.l.'l. Collectively, studies strongly support the conclusion that chlldren'~ f;'drly l'elatlonships and everyday interaCtions Impact their adjustmelll across peoons (mother, teachers and other professionals, peers), contexts (home and sc.hool), and time (prer>ehool and kindergarten) (PIanla, NlmelZ, 8, 8<:Met, 1997).
A semInal .rudy of early child care: conducted by Ule NICHO (NICflO early 01ild Care Research Network, 2002) investlgated the experiences of 1,216 iamili"'$ OVel" the child's first 3 yt:"~rs of III\: ;HId found certain parent ellsag¢1llelll bo:haviors related to s0-
cial and cognitive outcomes fot children, This study, along with others, found that parelllal warmth, sensltlllity and nspon. sitlene. •• , and aupport for u chlkl'$ -"'1'1'" ;ng autOlJOmy were parent behaviors high. 11' predictive <If childrell's sOciO¢JJlotlonal and cognitive development. Furthermore, active and meaningful parental particlpac lion in language- and literu<y-related CIe·
livities with young cblldnn have been reported as Importallt in /l!cllltotillg optimal school readiness and success (Arnold, Lon!· gan, Whitehurst, & Epstein, 1994; Espinosa, 2002; Pan, Rowe. 8, Sinl!er, 2005; Weigel, Martin, & Bennett, :l006; Wood, 200~. Collectively, a th",e-dimcnsional model of par"ntlng, composed of responsivily (Including autonomy support), home and parent sup" port for learning, and controVdlsclpllne, has bo:en validated by Hindman olid Morrisoll (2007), with significant relationships to chilo dttn'S:l()Cial and academic learning.
1, Panmlal warmih, stJmitivity and res/JQfI$iveness, Parent'Scontlngem responsive· Il<:S$ to Children's cues and their emotional Wal1nth md availability have been positively related to the development of secure reo laUo .... ~hip" in young childten in numcr<lw; studies over the P' ... ,t 30 y(:ats (Ainsworth, 8<:11, & Stayton, 1972; Elllde &. Robinson, 2000; Gur.dnick, 2006; wtdry et aI., 2001, 2006; Mitdtcll, 1987). Watm intcl"JCtions of the motber provide the foundation for com· pllance and illtemllll7.ed controls 111 YOllng childten (Dllvidov &. Grusec, 2006; Lecuyer & HOIl~k, 2()06; M3ccoby 8< Martin, 1983). Conversely, limit-settlng and discipline may be less effective ill the ~h.'iC",;<: of pOSitive, warm relationships (DeKlyen &. Speltz, 2001; OeKlyen, Speltz, &. Greenberg, 1998; Sulton, Cowen, Crean, &. Wyman, 1999). A parent's c:mntional avaiiabUity Is associlltc:d with the dl..'gn:e 10 which very young children explore their enylronment~ (Sorec & Erode, 1981)
1,4 IltI.RLY CHILDHOOD SERVI(;Ijl;. VOL 2. NO.3
such 0$ through extended pllIy epiSOdeS and pretend play (Slade, 1987). The parent's ex· pression of positive affect and emotional aVallabilityate also associated with child"'n's Improved short·term cognitive and language sk.il.l$ (Clarke-Stewart, 1973; Tamis-LeMonda, Bomstein, & aaumwell, 2001) and long-term positive academic: perfurmance (OQwner &: Pianta. 2006; Ilstrada, ArsenJo. Hess, & Hoi· loway, 1987), as well as their abilities to re· late to other children (Schmidt. DeMulder, & Denham, 2(02) and their reading acquisi. tlon (Merlo, Bowman. & Barnett. 2Q(7).llromwich (1997) and Epps and Jackson (2000) emphasized the importance of parent.. (a) remaining emotionally aVllilable to their children; (b) reading lICcurately their dtildrcn's behavIOral ctles for aU"ntion and care (e.g., smlles, signs of discomfort or distress, ex· pression of feelings); (c) responding contino gently and appropriately 10 these rues; and (d) .howing dear, positive offect in most sodal Interactions with their children. These bthaviors continue 10 Ix: """"gnl7.ed as key Influences in young children's competence In the early years of Ufe.
2. ParentallUpport /0" child's autonomy. A second aspect of parent engagement refers to parental behavior that helps ehll. dren negotiate tasks that challenge their mastery motivation, frustration tolerance, self..:ontrol, and atU!nti()n sp-m. Parents can teach and mtRlel skills that help children ~". pion:: the environment and recognize and express thelt Own fce1ln!lS. Parenting mrough Joint planning, negotiation, use of appropri. ate commaods In IImil-setdng, and antlcl
. potory guidance help children gaIn control of melt environment In a supportive ram· er than authoritarian manner. Furthermore, support for childn:n'~ autonomy is the process by which parents f.u::ilit.te childn:n'~ Indlvld .... tIon and self-eompetenee (Clark &: Ladd, 2(00). Parents' ablltllcs to provide de· velopmentally sensitive support JOt autOnOmous problem-solving have bcen Iss()dated witll increased levels of <:ognltlve competence In young children (Conner & Cross. 2003; Mulvaney, McCartney,' Bub, &: Marshall, 2006: Wood. 1980), communlC'~tlon
with peers (Martinez, 1987) and Kif-regula· t()ty abilities <Neitzel 8< Sirigllt, 2(03). Chil· dren whO$<: mothers provide support for autonomy tend to display !DOre adaptive levels of lIO<:ia1 assertiveness and self-dlrectedneS5 in social and play interactions at preschclOl (Denham. Renwick, &: Holt, 1991) and high· er levels. of sdtO()1 readiness (e.g., ql,1llntitative and literacy sklIls; Hill. 2001) than children whOse m()thers display authorita.tiall or passive parenting patterns.
For example, parenc-chUd intcrac!i()11S trrdt are attentive but nondln:C!ive provide children rome guidance, but they aJs() alJ()W
children the freed()m I() be expressive, lnitl· ating, and selC-directed. Social and c()mmu. niotion deve1()pment are enhanced when children are self-ditected rather than con· stantly regulated by adults (Hart & ru.lcy, 1995; MacDonald & carroll, 1994; Roberts & H;u-ne8, 1992). Interactions that are monitored and resP()nses Ihat are matched to chilo dren's deve1()pmentaJ abilities and Intert.>s1S mn f()~'ter coniinued interest in a current ac· tivity, comfortable explollltion of its poten· tial dimensions, 'lind mastery motivation.
3. Parental partldpatlon In cbIld karnIng. Parental participation in children's learning, especi2lly language and literacy Jeatnit1g, represents a tliird aspect of parent c::ngagt;" n\ent. The degree to which II parent explic' itly $UP(XlltS and coordinates me namre and fn..'q\lency of language and literacy-related activities Influences or inliibits their child's preschool experic:n<:es and school readiness (Weigel, Martin, Be Bennett, 2006; Wond, 20(2). Ample evidence exist' (or the ImPOf' t:l()Ce of ]r~=ts' participation and engagement in their children's educational expert. ences in the elementary years. When parents are involved. <:hUdren show Improvements in many adaptive outcOmes, Incl\ldlng prosoci:ll bellavior (Comer & Haynes, 1991; McWaync.
. Hampton, Fant1.l:l;zo, ("~)hc". &: Seklno, 2004; SIdnbt:I'g, Mounts, Lamborn, 8< Dombllsch, 1991), st!lf-eslCcm (Collins, Moles, '" Cross, 1982; Saltes. 1985), petsevenu1ce and mw;. tcry motivati!ln (J3strada, Arsenio. Hc:.'I!<, Be Hollnway, 1987; Tumer & Burke. 2003), and participation In learning activities (Col, 1i11~ c:t al., 1982; McWayne et aI., 2004: Saltes,
RELATIONSHIP MODEL AND SCHOOL READINESS l~S
1985), AC(O$:I th<: ,,"'mental")' and $(:condary school years, benctil$ for Child= and youth include ~ in academic achievement (ClIU"k, 1993; Comer, 1988; Epstein, 1991; Epstein & Becker, 1982; Fan II< Chen, 2001; fchnnann, Kdth, & Reim""" 1987; Sc:n~"Chal, 2006; Stevenson /I: Baker, 1987), f(.'WeJ" placemenu; in sp4ldal education (LaW &: DarllnStOn, 1978; MiedcI &; Reynolds, 1999), higher IiChool attendanc:e rates (CoUlruJ et aI" 1982), lower dropout rates (RwnbetgeJ", 1995), and fewer suspensions (Comer &; Haynes, 1991), Addltlonal evidence hJI.~ demonsti".tted the importance of parent involvement during the early childhood period (f05tCr, Lambert, Abbott-Shim, McCarty, &; Franze, 2005; Hepburn, 2004; Marcon, 1999; Miedel /I: Rt:yIIolds, 1999),
The importance of literacy·rich home cnvironment~ on children'. language and academic outcomes Is unequivocal (Ar· nold, Lonlgan, Whitehurst, /I: Epstein, 1994; Espinosa, 2002; F"lI"n II< Iglesias, 1999; Senechal II< leFevre, 2002; Weigel, Martin, II< Bennett, 20(6), Well before starting school, children leam V".tluable Informatlon ahout print and books, sounds and letters and the decontextualized language associated with stories and lel(tbooks that prepares them for later, more formal literacy instn .. :don in school (Bums, Griffin, II< Snow, 1999), As children interact with parenl$ in routine daily activides (e,g" dialing the phone, readlng the mall, writing a groccty list), they learn about critical social, linguistic, cognitive, lU"ld motor skills that will serve them weD once they start school. The degree to which pan:nts c:nsase their children in these activities (e,8" by providing the opportunity to watCh, imitate, practlce or ask questions) influences the amount of infomtatlon children take from these interactions, Furthermore, young chiklren who experience reading and writing as plc-.tSu["dble events are generally more successful later in schOOl (I'lIrdtore, Melzi, 8< Krol-Sinclair, 1999), Mothers who USC commcnt~ and open-ended- que"ti"ns during conversations and shared reading ac· tivltle~, Nther than predominlUltly verbal dlre~'lives and closed questions, usually have children who develop mo", advanced '10-
~abulal")' and language .ldlls (Hart 8< Risley, 1995; Pan, Rowe. Singer, II< Snow, 2005).
Additionally, natural learning enfJlronments provided and facilitated by parents, such as cvetyday acdvitles (i,e., mealtimes, intera~'tions with siblings, outdoor or indoor play) In the setdngJS and community 10-eations frequented by young children of • similar age, culture and geographic region (Druder 8< Dunst, 2000), have been found to be assodated with optinJal developmental changes (Dunst, Bruder, Ttlvette, Hamby, RlIab, II< Mclean, 2001), Prlmaty family relationships that are focal in natumllearnlng cnvironmcnt5 often include a p:II'Cnt (fAthel', mother, grandparent) and peer (siblings, cousins), as wdl as friends and playmates that typify most dassroom-based interven· tion. and rc,;can:h (Hanft 8< Pilkington, 2000), Furthermore, !be Informal support provided to some parents in routine home or community activities (as compared to formal parent tNlnlng programs, for exantple) <:an reponedly producc positive outcomes (sodal and otherwise) for children and families (Allen &; Petr, 1996),-
The importance of prulitive parent-child ensasernent and interactlon during the Infant, toddler and preschool years is weII-doo, umented for Itslnlluenee on child outcomes and school re-.nline5s, However, consistent with ecologic theoty, children interact in and permeate multiple systems and contexts as they derelop from InJiancy 10 preschool and beyond (Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Shonkoff " Phillips, 2000), As a result, rela· tionships between parents and other adults responsible for children's learning and development arc important for cstablJJshing expericncxs that an:: consi5tf:nt, coherent, and coordirulred as children move between home and community (school) settings,
Empirical Evidence for Parent-Professional Engagement
and School Readiness
Positire relationships and couaboratt"" partneru,lps among iJar"nts and Inv-
1,6 ~LY CHILDHOOD SERVICES, VOl ... 2, NO, 3
/esslo1Ulis an: considered primary protective factOI'll (Christcnoon &: Sheridan, 2001; Weissberg &: Greenberg,. 1998) or safety nct., (Christenson, 20(0) for young children, Partnership pr~cticC$ promote an In· creallt!d focus on and engagement with fam· Illes, greater pron.ion of services In natural learning setllng.~ for children, greater cultu,," aI setlSiti,,;ty, and a community.IJa.~cd 5Y"tem of care and educ;ation (Knitzer, Stelnberg, &: P1ei$(;h, 1993; Mendoza, KatZ, Robertson, & Rothenberg, 2(03), These are particularly Important during the p,",5"hool years (Raffd. ete & Knoff, 1999) when parent.. arc fommlating consmlCls for their role In their children's education.
Collaboration among key adults within a child's life is Important for the child's early I"..tmlng and smooth transitions across
systems (Early. Pian"" Taylor. & Cox. 2001; Eayrs & Jones, 1992; Ramey. 1999). Indeed, collahoratlve partnerships among parents and professionals correlate with positive sociakmotlonal and behavioral outcomes fur children and f~milies, and bolster lntervt1ltion efficacy and efficieney (Grolnick & Siowiaaek, 1994; Haynes, Comer. & Hamil· ton.Lee. 1989; Masten &: Coatsworth, 1998; Siu-Om & Willms. 1996), The goal of collaborative partnerships is "not merely to get famIlies involved, bUI I"dther to coml4Xt Important conUilxts for .dwngthening children's learning and development" (Christenson &: Sheridan. 2001. p, 7; emphasis added).
Famlly-eenlered lnterventions Imple· mented col1aboratlvely with llunilies to ad· VlInce children's skill develupment and s0-
cial behaviors "place major emphasiS on supportillg and strengthening rdmlly functioning" (1)UIlSt &: Deal, 1994, p, 73), In· tervenllons that fucus on promoting family strengths and buDding constructive partner· ships produce changes in the family environment. parent-ehild relationship, parenting skills, and family involvement in children's ieaming (Caspe &: lOpez, 20(6), For ""ample, research In the are. of young chl1dren'~ mentlli he.lth has found th.t the more the family participates In plannln!! servicc$, the bc:ttc:r they feel their children's needs are
being met (Koren, Paulson. KInney. Y.lehmonofl', Gordon, 8< Oc(:hilio. 1997) and the mme control they feel in intluenclng those outcomes (Curtis &: Slngh, 1996; Thompson, lobb, Elling, Hennan, JurkidwCWicz, &: Hel· Iuza, 1997), FamHy-eentered programs creale conditions by which the functiQning of all family membcl'IJ is enhanced by focusing on lam/{V-idcntlJied needs. using existing family strengths. and strengthenins 50cial supports for/amllies. Effccl>i arc most po"'erful when lnterventlons establish meanIngful connections between family members and professional support pel'!JOnncl to address chlldren's specific needs of importance I:() the fumily unit (Haynes, Comer, &
Hamilton-Lee. 1989). Contrary to expert-drlven fiunily inter
vention models. family partn=hip prograntS are c<>IJaboraUv" (str\l(,rured lU'Ound ntumaUy delennlned goals), InkinUonal (focused on spedfic behaviors and needs). deIJelopmentally "',<j}(lns;tie (appropriate to chUdren's needs across the developmental spectrum). and ,fwngtbs-based (aimed .1 building on fumlly and child competencies rather than remediating professionally.iden. tilled del\cil~), Such programs are focUllt!d on creathtg and slL~tainin!l meanlngful cross~"ystcmic (famlly-professiona~school) con· neCtionA. ami are predicated on the aclive engagement of individual professionals and family members co-identifying needs and priorities, devdoph'l! and intple,nentlng in· terventions, and· maintaining coll.bomti"" relationships in support of chlldren's dl:velopnlCnt. TIlis type of partnership·orient. ed intervention (versus an e:xpert-driven, clinical model) provides gre-dler ,"-"CeSS to services fur children because parent availability providt'S ongoing. dally opportunity for supported leill'1ling, Also, it Is believed 10 incrcallt! fumUy acceptability and utility of effective early inlerventlon programs by engaging family members hI shared ObiSCrvatlons, discUSsion, and brainstormlng with professionals that leads to practical slr.negy select Inn and Inwr:venllon des41ns,
These parent-professional partllCl'IJhips Kre oas<.'(f on a proaCtive approach where-
RELl.T\ONSIUP MODEL AND SCHOOL READINESS 157
by prof".s;onals support family inter.ctions with their child In everyday routines, ""her than "treat" 0, "setVe" their child in an Isolat~d ""nlng (e.g., ""hool, dinic) or ac'ivity. The establlshmelll or collaborntlve relationships WIth families creates conditions WIthin w hieh family membelll can become empowered and share In the responsibiUty for their child's dt:velopmc::nt and 5ChOOI n:adirlC::i~,
TIltOugh such mechanisms, family-cemered .service providc::1'5 ~'trivc to prom(Uc fAmily competence and confidence in advancing children's learning and development, the..,. by enabling family members to eventually establish their own goal. and independently meet their own needs and those of their children over time (McBdde, 1999; WiI50n & Dun5l, 20(4).
Getting Ready, An Integrated Relational Model to Support
School Readiness
Optimal sehool re.din"", for children and their families occurs through the devel· opmelll of positive relationships within the multiple Interacting ecological systems of the home (Le_, parent-child relationships)
and bccwt!en the home and other supportiv" environments (I.e., parent-professional relationships). Parent-child and parelll-profcssional relatIonships are firmly """,bllshed empldc.Uy as irnponalll, unique COlllexts for healthy child development. However, there currently lacks an integrnted model that drnws on the theoretical and empirical "rength. of relationshlp-hased, ecologic Interventions in support of sehool readiness. 'I"e", exists a need for an Integrnted early intervention model couched In the multitude or relationshIps that predict posItive child outcomes and school =<line... The Getting Ready model, currently being tc8t.
ed In a large-seale clinical trial, was designed to provide an integrnted, ecological approach to sehool readin""" that is rescarchbased, famlly-centered, and collaborative in nature, II inlegtates /be triadic Interoentlon (McCollum & Yates, 1994) and coJ/abora
tlIlfJ «Yin/Oint) consultation mod<Jls (Sheridan & Kr~tochwill. 1992, 2008; Sheridan et II .. 1996) In a unique, ecologically and strengths-based Intervention that promotes skills and outcomes In children and their famUIes via enhanced relationships (FIgure I). In this model, professionals provide early Intervention and education services for parents and chUdren age birth to 5 years that
I'ttOMOTES .
( F(lmily and Child School Readiness ) "-----~
Figure 1. The Getting Ready Model
1'8 IlARlY CHIU)HOOD SERVICES, VQI" 2, NO, 3
focuses (In cbtld sJltills and Qutcome, by (;'I) guiding parents to engage in warm and respol1$lVl: illteractloos, 10 support their children's autonomy, and 10 participate in children's learning; and (b) suppol'llng p3J'(:nts and teachers in collaborative intemctlons to filcilitate c:hlldren's learning and development. 1hls approach offen opportunities for protessionaL, to support and enhance the quality of parent..;hild Interactlons in dally routines and create a shared relJpon~lbility between parent and prokssionil to benefit children's developmental SuCcess. The f0-cus on parent-<;hild and parent-profesSional relationships is believed to enhance not only the child's developmental readln"S5 for school but the parent's readines~ to act as an advomte and support their child's learning across ecologic and temporAl contexts (I.e., in borne, pre.chool, elementary school, and beyond),
The preCUfSOl'S to the Getr1ng Ready model-triadic and collaborative (conjoint) cOlUllltation-are teocarch-based model. that individually focus on e!lSential parentchild and parent-teacbtt relationships, respectively. TrUuJIc IXmsultatton is an intervention validated with infmts and young children with developmental delays and disabilities (Girolametto, Verhey, &: Tannock, 1994; Mahoney &: MacDonald, 2007; McCollum, GOOier, Appl, &: Yales, 2001). However, despite the re!l<:lIrch base emanating from these early interv~ntiol1 programs for children with spedal needs, the basic principles and sttategies of triadic itItcrventlon apply to intel"ACtiOnS with all fum1llC8, Including those dlJlt occur in pl'C1lChools, child care settings, and other programs within which young children and I\un:ilIe$ interact. 11$ aim Is to strengthen parental warmth and sel1$lti1li1y, and parental competence in supporting autonomy and learning, all within the context of everyday parent<hild Interactions, The focus is on quality dyadic (patent-ehild) in«:ractions thaI re/lect It parent's ability to· recognize opportunities for en· gagement with their young cltild, maintain the chUd's Interest and attention, engage In tum-taIi.ing, foUow the child's interest,
and appropriately chal.Ienge and support the child in learoing (McCollum & Yatts, 1994). l'he professional becomes an important pl2yer ill ensuring futile dy:I.dic qualities are evident, thus establl$hlng an elkctive triad (parent.child-professlonal,) for meetings with the parent and child.
The professionals' efforts in this trI.~dic model (fable 1) are characterized by strategies that go beyond the traditional directive. of modeling and suggesting (McCoUum &:
Yates, 1994) and indirectly prompt adjustments itt the immediate environment to establisb a dyadic context tor parent.child interaction, affirm parenting competen,,,,, fOCUS parental att""Uon on children's .ctlons and responses, and prmJlM tielJeIopmental Inforrnatton to e"'plain observed or absent child behaviors, These professional practices (i.e., st"'tegl""), which prioritize positive parent<hlld interactions and a par., ent's role in enhancing their child's learning
and development, allow the parent to experience ~ levels of competence and confidence in their Jl!renting role.
CoUaborattve (lXJ'IfIoJnt) IXJnsultaNon, based on the work of Sheridan and Knltochwill (1992, 2008), describes how adults (parents, professionals, and support staft) can jOin together to address the social, developmental, or behaVlorJl needs of a young child for whom all parties bear SOme responsibility. 1hls approach provides a Cramework for Iinkil1g systems of hom" (family) and protc..stonal (hOIllC>vl$lting or pre/IChoot) agendas to promote mutua/ {lOa! setting, lIbaYitd decision-making, and joint attention to a child'S nud •.
The coUaborative nature of thl~ consultation model I!.Ocollrages parents and proI\:sslonals to shaft! obl!<:l'V'oItlons and knowledge of a child, and then mutually identify relevant goals that improve the chUd's abilIties at home and/or ~I or child care settings, and positively lntIuence the f.unlIy and/or professional IntenK'tions with the child. With the: assistance of a consultant; the parent and teacher/care provider /ielect evidence-based strAtegies that can be easily implemented aCross settings. Togeth-
IW.XflONSHlP 1II001ll. ANO SCHQOLREAOINESS 159
Table 1. Triadic Strategle. to Advance Pan:nt-Chlld Interaction.
JiSlllbl/sb II dyadic conte.¢: Arrange clement8 of the environment to inel<!aIIC the probAbility of developmentAlly matcbcd. mutually enjoyAble inte ... (;ti"n~ between paren' and child, Encourage child to engage the parent; dln!ct or move child to flce the patent,
AJ!irm parenllng comJ1e"'ru:e: Wannly ..e.:ognl~e developmentally suppordve Intem:t!ons. Col11llt£tlt on the effect of parent actlcms on child'. comp<:"""c<: and in.erest.
FOQIS IItlmll",,: ColDl1lCnt, questlon, or expMd on i$peCl$ of the ~ Inlerictlon in order to draw the paKnt'. atKntlon to a pardcular competency 01 action in seJt or the chUd,
Provide d'lJ(Jlop"umltd InjOl"mDJ/on: Label. Interpret, or ."pWn th. developm<:nwsignificance of the child'. observed emotional, cognitive, lingui.tlc, 01 motor abillt1e8 within the context of play or Interaction,
MOtU/: ..... wne panner role with child momentarily to demonstrate a strategy or elicit a desired beh.vlor in the child,
Suggest; Provide short. but specific im."trU(.'1iQn/~Qn for how [he PIU'efl[ could ildlust their interaction at the moment with the child to better adticve desired results.
,,""""': _ on McCollum 8< Y"", (1994).
er they plan for intaactions with the child to achieve mutUllily determined gools. Sug· gestlons, modeling, and feedback following observed parent and/or teacher application of Str.tc:sie~ are practices UlIed by the con· sultant 10 I\lcilltale sliccessful implementation or adjustmentli In the 'plan across set· tings. Ongoing data collection of the child's response to the intervention plan is atl integr.a1 fcatW'C that enti-urc::S hi!'\: or ht.'!t suc
cessful adapmtiOtl, 'lbe shared responsibil· Ity for change, supponed implementation of evidence-hWlcd intervention strategies, ,md focused, data·bll$ed decision.making are hallmarks of this model (Sheridan &: KratochwUl, 20(8). These practices are ]Yd8Cd on validated behavioral consultation models designed for sehool-age children that !rtnJcture the process of identifying needi<, a.'!SClllling I!:nvironmental inpulII, develop. ing and implementing research·ba.'ied st.-dIe· gies, and evaluating child outComes through a series of stn,ct<ll:ed'pl'Oblem-solving interviews (Bergan & Krarochwill, 1990; Sheri· dan, KratoehwUl, &: l.lergan, 1996: Sheridan
&: Kratochwill, 2008; Table 2). The process has been replicated by preschool teachers and Other education profCll!lionals (e,g" Cal'
Iy childhood special edu;:alors, school psychologi$~'1) in their direct work with families and younl! children (Brown, 2004; Sheridan, Clatke, Knoche, &: Edwards. 20(6),
St)(.'Cific sttaU!1Jles of the Getting Ready model used by the early childhood profession. III "'" in Table 3. Thcoc: strategle$ are """'" in • fluid IlI'Id dynamic way 10 promote: positive child $kiU development lndim:dy tllI.i:>ugh the I!r!ItllbJishmenl of parent-chlld and parelll:1'fO' fessional relationships. Use of the stratq!ies Ii! intended to (a) build a parent'S competence .nd conlidenc:e in c~1ablishinl! warm II.f1d sensitive intcract.lolls with their child, promOtinS their child's emerging auton(lnly, and partie. ip-dting a~'tively in their child's k:arnlng; (b) promote parent.professional partnerships; and ultlmuteiy (c) promote the child's healthy soc;iaJ.ernotlonai, cosnltive, and bdlaYlnnl1 development. The strategies that ciw'acterize the Gelttng RefU<!y model are described in the foUowing sections,
Table 2. Behavioral and Relatlonal Goals of Collaborative (Conjoint) Consultation by Stase
Needs (I'robIrm) Idmlijlcalio"
BehAvioral Goals:
• ldaltlfy 1ti'CJi81lU of the clilld, family, teacher, systelDll
• BehAviotally do!:tim: the coru:c:m or problem Ill! II is reptetlented aetoss home and lIChool settings
• l!l<pIote ""vfr(lnmenW condilions thaI may be Uthlbltins de.in:d behaviors or mollvall"ll problem behaviors
• Determine a sbated Boal Cor consultation • EstabUsh a pro.::c:dure tbr the colleetlon of budlne dala across setting.
Rclatiol1libip Coal.:
• Identify st",ngths (I/' the chlld, family, and school
• IilIlablish joint responsibility In Soal...,ttloS and decl.$lon-nWdns • Estsbli.th/lmp"""" working ",latlQllshlps between p.rents and teacher, and between the
cOnsultanl and consultees
• Validate shared gam of $Upporting the chUd • Increase comnturuClltion lind knowledge ""l1""'lI011 the child, goals, concerns, and culture of
family and school
Needs (Problem) AI'/alysl.t
Bebavioral Coal$:
• Rt:vlcw balIclioe data
• Ilxaminc: and dilicuss trends across settings/condillons
• Collabonlrlvely design lotervenllon plao sensltl"" to oettins ""Dabl"" • Jiruou..., parent and teacher understanding of Intervention plan Implementallon throllgh
demonstrate, role-play, practice, and feedback
• Rcafllrm data <:olk:<:lion procedures
Rc1aIiQnshlp Coa/$:
• Ulle lodUllY. ilII'tgIiqc to stri:nsilicn parlOCl'lIbips between ho"", and sehool
• l!ncOurllll" and validate sharing of parents' and reachers' perspectives of the priority behavior • Famer an environmenllhat facilitatc:5 'giVC1lOd-t:lke" ronlinunJcation acl'O.ll5 settings • Promote collaborative: declslon"""'-'dng and sh"",d resPQnslblllty (Qr plan development
PItm Implo_mltON BehAvioral Coa/$:
• MOnitor implementation of Intervmtion plao acroos settlnp • Provide feedback, retralnl.!l& as nece_1I/UY • DI",_ need for adjustments In plao
• Continue cIa!a CQUe~'tion PlQcedures
Relationship Coa/$:
• HIIhIIgbt consi>t<:n~'Y in plan IStIlItegy implementation across IICttlnas • Note efforts of paren" and teachers with .Iob other II kirLfor.::e inVQlvemcnt ADd eoU~boratJvc t;R'ortli at ~~n,g concerns
• Facilitate communicaliOll around Implement.tion efforu
(conNnuea)
'fable 2. (t'Otltlnrmd)
Plan Evaluation
Behavioral 00015: • Review data; adjust or continue implementation
• Decide It shared goal has been .chi"""d
• Evaluate the ell\:cttvc:ne •• of !he: intervention across all IICttlngs
• DiIJcttss ilttltcgk:ii fot maintaining pins
• Schedule additional meetlngs if nece&lllJy • &tablisb means for can:givcn and teach ... to contlnw: to partner In the future
Relationship Goals: • Continue \'1,1 promote open communicotlon and collaborative decislon.making IICI'OS8 Ihe home
and school settings
• Reinforce johU etfOlt$ In addt'esIIlng needs • Discuss Catesivc:n' and teacheh' pen:eption8 of the plan lind proc ... • Reinforce CIItClIiVCl'ii' and t,,"chel'ii' strengths and compelen.:les for addl'Cll$lns future need.. fur
the child
• &tabU$h means for CJlJ'Cglw:rs and tx:achcrs \'1,1 continue 10 paIU1er In the future
Source: ~ I)n Sh«:ridan &: Kratochwill (2008).
Table 3. Getting Ready Model intervention Saategies ~
Establlsb partmt..:blld and pa".ntpro/lI:ss/(",aI ro/atlorublP
• Establish a conteXt fot parenl-<:htld interactlon
• Llsten, respond 10 pllleRt priorities, CQIlCCm8, chaUmges
Share obllll'tJaltQlIS/imOwkrI,g~ of child over /Ime • Share/_k infOl'Il1ation .bout child's PCOSl'Cll$ • Affirm pm::nts' insights and competent observations
Idenlif.jl mutually lIJPWd "pan dwoIlopmenli.ll e;rpe.;!.at/Qtls Jor child
• Focus patents' attenllon On child otrengths and developmental needs • Share dc:vclopmcntotly appropriate information
$b;Jrv 1_ and brainstorm "",tbods for """'Ing child meet ~lIon. • MUtually IdcntllY n .. waJ iearnl.tls OppOrtunitieo in the home • Identify cum:nt and potential porent bcha.wrt that .m ."pport targeted learning
• Make SUIII .. lIo08 whe.n nece~fOIU)'
0ImJrve parmt-cblld I"hlrar:#rms Rnd provld • .feedback
• Ob$Crve parent and child in mCllJ1inSful ''OI1te.xt • Identify cuncnt strengths retAIe<! to d~ve!upm~nl .• 1 ""peet.tlons
• PrOvide:: dcv~IQpmo::ntal Information • ModcVslllllc.t on-theoflpot When necessary to _upport parcnt Int ... ctJons with th.lr child
/IIQnilOr 11><1 child' •• 10111 .ve/Qpm.nl und d.,.rml"" dlrot;tl()n8 for cant/nood growth
• Ilngasc patent in noting ~hlld'. progre .. and measlll'inl! I'~"" towar<l$ indivlduall:ted deve!upm.n,.i ""pe<:t:dtJoll5
III 01><:_ .... de::d adju,tmcot, 10 lnt<:m:tIons lind/or learning opportunities
• CYcle to neW' developmental ~xpectation5 and 1f:'",Im.ing op)XIJ'tunilies as needed
161
I I 1 I
i
162 EARLY CHlLt>NOOI) SIlRVICI'.'5, VOL. 2, NO. ~
Establish Puent-Chlld and Parent-Professional Relationship
Relationships lay the foundation for this model. From the earlJest exchanges Infants, toddlers or presc:hool-age children have with their caregivers, to the relationships parents and early childhood ptofe8slonals have with one another over time, Intentional efforts to e5labllsh meaningful connections are essential.
Professionals can encourage inl<:ndonal and positive Interactions between a parent and child durin8 home visits, conferences, Or
Infottnal meetlng.~ at schooVchlid care. This can be accompli<lhed by positioning the Pill' ent and child in dose, and if possibloe, facetl>face proximity with one another; pO~lt!onina the.tllSelves iarther away from the child and parent; enCO ..... "Iling the parent to dem-0.-.4te a recent parent-dllld activity or exchange; promplin.\l the chUd to show or tell the parent a recent developmental accomplishment completed In the cla$$tO()m; or encoul"dging the chUd to ask the parent for help or to aoswer his or her question. HIghI!ghlin.\l a chUd's strengths In fmnt of a pill' ent or encounlglng a chUd to seek a parent's Input or answers to questions can foster parenl$' 1evels of competence and confidence.
Positive, collaborative relJitionships l» tween the parent and professional are exhlblted In several waJlll in the GetNng Rea4Y model. l..i$tenina actively and sincerely to a parent's challenges and concerns show:; a pr0fe8slonal's Interest and dedication to their work with the parent and child. Use of open..ended questions by the professional allows parent.. an opportunity to describe their own ob$:rvalions and viewS and promot". mutual information sharing. TIle profeSSional can promote a partnership orientadon by IISking pareDlslO share !itrategle~ th~'Y have found etr~tlve to udd~ss a concern; requesting the: """,nlS' opinions about the merit of a n~w idea or focll'l for the child's development: or $Olicitlng parents' ideas for dealing with new challenges and p'dlrlng them with appropriate developmental information. These behaviors establish the pl'(>l'e$o slona1'. de.lre to partner w/tb the parent as
opposed 10 exercising an expert tole (Sht:ridan &: KratochwUl, 2008; Sheridan, Warnes, Cowan, Schemm, 8: Clarke, 2(04).
Share Observatioos/Knowledp of Child 0Vet' Time
Parents and professionals eaeh ean have unique, relevant experiences with children, and hold perspective.. bru;ed on rhe1r own Interactions, observations, and intl!tpremlions. Focused Intervention in the: GetNng Ready model bcne.ftts from parents and pr0-
fessionals exchanging information about what they observe:, experience, and othel' wise nOtice about a child's progre"", including his or her behavio.-.d or affective approach or response to llituations.
In internctlQns with parents, profeNloo.1. can comment on an infant's Of pl't:Scltooler's behavioral cues (e.g., smiles, signs of dl.comfort or distress, apression of feel· logs) to guide Ihe parent's attention and atfum the poSitive effect of a parent'S contingent response and posltlve atrect with their child. The professional can ask relevant questions 10 focus the parent'S attention on a child's strengths and ne~ds, seek parental perspectives on day-to-day child Interests and activities, and clarify developmentally relt:V'4nt observations. ProfeSsional observations can be shared with parents with ~feren.::e 10 their child's developmental mile
. IItOnes ..... d emerging abWties as well ... the parenl'S desired cxpectado!1.8 (or the child. As parents demonotrn.tc knowledge of their child's strengths and abilities, professionals have the opportunity to aftinn .nd acknowledge the p'=ntal perspective, tbereby contributing to parental compelence and confidence.
Identify Mutually Agreed Upon Developmental Expectations for Child
By nature of 'heir re.'pectlve relationships with children, parents and professloll-
RELATION~H1P MODEL AND SCHOOL READINESS 163
a1s offer unique nnillge points about appropriate e:xpcctatiOI1ll and aspirntiOI1ll for devclopment, includlng culnLt'a! hellef's and values. Open dlscusslons of beliefs and desites about a child's developmental progression, including its course and liming, 1c:m:llJ to the estJlblishmem of an agreed upon sct of desired developmental targets toward which the child <:an pr<IgrC$II, .. ~ well as Sl1"dteglc$ tor how the parent, and If the chUd is en· roiled in a group program, tho: t<:acher can encour:lgc iIt)d support these behaviors.
Professionals can assl:>! " lY=nt in identifying appropriate developmental targets by focusing the parent's attention on their child's current Interests, challenges, emerging abilities, and strengths In everyday rolltines such as cating, dn::5sing. bathing) amI playing. Discussions of parental observations during daily activities (e.g., shared book "".!dIng, TV IOVO viewing, car t ... ~v
el, shopping, walks to the park, and visit. with relatives) and their developmental relevance, along with the professional'. (JWJI
observations of the chUd, focuses the paren .. profesSlonaI meetin8$ and sets the stage Ii)r future parent-Chlld InterolCtlons and playbased leaml1Ig opportunitks.
$bare Ideas and brainstorm methods for belping child meet e;r:JJectatWru. One strength of a collaborative approach lies In the opportunity It provides tor parents and a:-.u:hcl"5 to share ideas fur routine experiences and planned activities that can suppoft chUdren'$ continual progression to.... "rd he-"Ithy development. In the Getting Ready mood, parents and professionals together determine mt:1ihS by whJch opportunilies can be provided that match chUdren's interest and allow ehUdren to explore COSnitive and social tasks in everyday situations,
'thereby positively alfecting development and adjustment across the various home learning contexts and acro.~s home-so::hool contexts when enrolled In center/school progratO$, Specilically, parentS and proCe$o $10na1s can dlscu$II the contexts that best elicit and support a chUd's growth and share responsibility fur monitoring changes In the child', leaminll and development. Patent ..
and professionals can work together tn scaffold the chUd's learning by lir8t Identifying routine OPPOftunitk:s fur the chUd to participate in meaningful tasli:$ and household ro .... tines ("guided participation"; ROSQIf, 1990) in way.; tailon:d to the :>lyle and priorities of each family'S situation and cultural context, and the goals IdentUied for the chUd. The parent's o:onstructioo of his or her role as guide, support and mentor for their child Is Important 10 promote their sernIC of efficacy, and can be facilitated by the professional.
In Ihe Getting Ready roodel, parents are assisted in identifying, and affirmed fnr n:cognl:cinS, everyday learning opportunitles for their children that advance cognition, langul1se, literacy, and other eiU'ly learning .kills, 3.~ well 3.< children's social..,motlonal capacltles.1ly seelng their home as a learning cnvin')nmcht1 parrnt!io incrc::ase their ea.~ in providing time, matenab, and .pace fur CJ<
ploratory play and problc:m-solving, cultural exploration, vocabulary growth, and print intet"~ction. Professionals might suggest developmentally appropriate play-based activities Of mutine dally ""vent,; and model adult bebaYiot'$ (I,e" commenting, elaborating, modeling, questioning) that (an maintain a child's Interest and support his or her learning. Finally, the parent's role In supponlng their chikl's learning Is advanced through discussions with profe!lsionals about the wi, lie of various developmentally appropriate educational activities, such 115 drawing. coloring, constnlctlon, and pretend play, and how these learning a~'tiv:lties can be routinely and comtOrtllhly provided and supported In home settin8$ and nonlnstructlonal Interactiol1$ with sibUn8$, parents, and other tilmUy members.
Observe l'Brent.-ChiId Interact10nlJ and ProvIde Feedback
A goal of c()lIaboration hetween parents and professioollis is enhancing parents' competence and confidence In their abilities to interact with their child in a supportive manner that enhan~e5 children's le;a.m ..
164 f.ARI.Y CHILDHOOD SERVICES, VOL. 2, NO.3
Ing. Parents' effective use of strategies that promo\<! the attaittment of new d,'Velop. mental achlevements for thc:ir child may be augmented In the Gett1l1g Ready model thtough the dyruunIc procell$ of observation of paren,-child inreractiOll$, mated rclIecdOllS, profesSional guidance:, and ongoing reIInement of strategy use.
Beyond dili<:ussing and describing qualley learning opportunities for children, professionals providc paren,s an opportuniey to practice in tile context of triadic (pM. c:nt-child-professlonal) interactions. Professionals have • number of opportunities to establish and observe: the p.rent-chlld intcraction, and can adjust the manner In which parents support \earning with their children directly and indlrecti.y, as well as offer parental validations and aflirmatlons. Triadic Inter'ctiOll$ with parents, professionals, and children (e,g" during home \Ilsits, aJ'ter-s.;hool meetingS, family events at li<:hool or child care, or parent.teacher conferences with the chlld present) should (oms the profc!$$ionai's attention on the parent as learner and the parent's attention on their child as learner while prompting tM parent's reOecdon 01'\ the effects of their own act!Oll$, Shared play activities or routine are (i,e" dressing, feeding, bathing) can be the medium tor attinning a parent's ac~unllC: reading of their child's Indirect requests or Invitation to play or engage In a shated task, Parents may ben· efit from oo-thl:'1lpot suggestions (or engaging a passive chUd, ~Ctln!l a dlstl1JCted or Impulsive child. guldillg a discouraged child throuch a challenging new activley Or n:inforelng positive behaviors demon~~"'''tcd by their chUd,
Other hehaviors that professIonals aim to relnforee or, itS needed, .uggc~" ur model for the P:Jrct'lt include nrm-Iakirtg with Children. waiting and responding with ex· aggt:r;lted pleasure/affect, or asking Olpen· ended questions to promote dialugue and extended conversations, Simple social games (I,e" peek-a-boo, I spy), and suogs or rhymes Indicative of a family's culture may be acknowledged, demonstf'"led, or suggest<!d by the professional 10 provide dIe
parent with awareness of the value and effect of th~ simple intetllctions with children thtoughOlut I.n.tiI.ncy, toodlethood, and the preschool ~ars. finaUy, these spontaneOlUS or purposefuI opportunIties to observe pan:nl<:hild Intetllctions allow the professiOlnal to guide and support a parent In following their child's lead!lntere~t.~, watching and listening to the child. communicating ill a sincere give-rutd-take manner, making comments, giving ch(liccs, and viewing the prescnt moment from the ch.ild's \IlIJ1tagc point. UkewL'Ie, setting appropriate limlls, e5UlbUshing routines, praising and reinforcing appropriate behavior, and redirecting a child's misbehavior are aspects of parenting that promole a child'. autonomy and social skill. but may require guidance from a pmksslOlnal when a parent tStruggIcs to consistently use these practices, Observations of the parent-<:hild interaction allow the pro-fesslonal to COmment and support the pa,... ent in a rekovant, meanlngl'ul COntext. Developmental InfOI'mation provided during these triadic interactions often has meaning fOr the pareJtt as they see the value: of their own ~ctions on the child's abilities, Intet"ests and emerging skills.
MOnJtor the Child's Skill Development and DetermJne Dkecdons for Continued Growth
The Intentional, focll8ed approa<:h Pl'(lo mOled in the C..,tting Ready model nece5-$itates continual monitoring and re·establlslu.llent of prioritle!l and developmental expectations for the child and f.unily in a recur1live OlliJ1ner, As children respond to the efforts of parents and profeRRlonals, atmin new skills, and demonslr.lte putcntlal for continued gtowth within or across dev.::lopnlentlll domains, new prlorilie8 will t:mcrge,
Just as parents and professlonal~ tog(.'thcr can determine means by which opportunitie8 can be provided that matCh chUdren's interesl and abilities and allow children to explore new cognitive, SOCial, and linguistic t3$ks in
RElATIONSHIP MODEL AND SCHOOL READINBSS 165
everyday situations, so 100 can profession. als and parents share n:sponsibillty for judg· ing the adequacy of those choiccs. Explicit dlscussions about a child's rcsponsc to new leaml.ng oppoltl.mities in home or school, or new parenting bel1llviors, will provide both parent and plOresslonal oppomlnities 10 re· f1e<."t on elements of th~ efforts that show evidence of efficacy or need ror modification. In addition, sensitivity to dlildrcn'~ new inter· ests and abiliti~ will also caUliC • shift in di· rections lOr continued growth. The cycJlcuJ, dynamic problem·solvlng PI'()Ccss e"<:our· ages the ongoing supp<m fur children's devciopment acl'O&"i ti...-.c and context. IF .... ta on children's progrc ... collected uver time, evl· dent through dircct oblicrvations, products, or artifucts, help guide systematic decision malting In the Getttng Jleady model. Mutual problemrolving fosters parental skill In making objective decisions related 10 their chlId, and also models a ptoC<:SI\. that parents can use In the future when making decisions and communicating with teachers about methods for supporting their chlld's development
. ""d school perlbrmano::e.
Summary
The Ceiling Ready model provides a unique context for building children's com· petencles. In thIs model, leaming oPPOrtunltle. thot arc Implemented by po""nts lind professionals in famlllQr settings frequent. cd by the child promote the child's dc:vel· opm"nt QCroli-' context~. Additionally, structured, data·balled collabol"dtlon Is critical to
the Gelling Ready model; when fY.m:nt$ and profell!lionals determine goals mutually and monitor children's growth coUcctively, pa· rental competenCies and ongoing involvement are enhancCd (8hel'ldan, Knoche, & MlIrvIn, 20(8). In tum, the childten's opportunitieS for frequent, suppolted leaming in everyday activities and interaction., are advanced, resulting In targeted leaming and optimal development of readincss skills
and behaviors. This model promotes continuity aCroS!! home and early education settings, and the use of evldence-bQSed st ... "" gies known to pnlmote children's growth in the natural context._ within which they function. fxcisions for the type and focus of services an: based on mutual und~Mand· ing of children's d(:VclopmentaJ needs and rcsJX>n.ses, and parents' !!:itrengths and per· spectives md contrihute to optimal devel· opment and school re;«lin(:1l1I for children and flunWes.
The focus On parent-child interactions as the medium fOf children's learning pri. or to school entrance allows the parent md chlId to develop. rclatlonsblp that is built on truSt and support, likely to endure across the school ye-....,.. Parents, in coilabomtlon or partnership with professlottals, are encouraged to engage with their child to t$lQbliSh what is and what is /lOt possiblc:: at a given age. p. ....... n!S become observerS of their chll· dren, thereby enhancing their expertise on their child's preferences and abilities In ev· eryday actlvltJes, Parents also become skilled in describing these observations to prole$slottals and comfortably engaging'ln brainstorming and decision making about optimal strategies to adV'AflCC the child's le-~rning or change his or her behavior at home: and/or school, Getting ready for school In tbis mod· el occurs within an ecology of relationsbJps anti teaming opportunities for children and parent~ in which both are supported and gUided IOward competence and confidence that will calT')' them sllccc:5!!fuUy throughout children' ~ formal ed1.1Cation.
l".u-ent.child and parent.professional rela· tionships pn>vidc the foundation for adV'AnC
Ing children's developmental abilities and parents' roles as child adv(Jcatc and mcntor In the Getting R~ model. With these skillS and roles established prior 10 the SlQrt of tortnal schooling, parents and children can "nter the educational system pmpared for learning and with the tools to establish relationsbJps with new adults md peers, thereby contributing to ongoing academic and personal success. As typical challcJltlC'S arise
166 ilARI.Y CIiIWHOQI) SERV";es, VOL. 2, NO.3
in a child's eady years in IIChool, plU'elll8 are prepared 10 ensage in probiem'80lving with the child a.nd other professionals and identify goals, plans, and Slntegjes that will result in possible n!$Olutlon of concertlll.
Gelling childml "ready' Cor' school is a multicomponent, relationship-baed endeavor. The Getting Reody model emphasizes in/JUt (environments and resource9 that proVide enrichb18 leamitlg opportunldes) and processes (interaction. and mechanlsms that promote children's acqui$lti(ln of skills) and transa~'tion. among thc:se systems 10 create contex," fur children's developmental outcomes and skills (the product. of learning opportunities and support.,). F .... eusing on competence and confidence in all partlcipant~, including parents, children, and teachers, fucilitate •• systemic appro-.ch to school readiness. Teachers develop Coin
petence and confidence in their interactions with children and parents, l'arents d"""lop competence and confidence in their abilities to interact with their children In growth..,nhanctng ways. Ultimately, children become competent and confident learners and $UC
cessful in social and academic endeavors in thelt formal school years and beyond.
Acknowledgment: The development of this paper was supported in part by a 8""'"t.
. awarded to Drs. SuSan Sheridan and Carolyn Pope Edwards by the Department of Health and Human Services (OHHS)National institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), Administration for Children and Families (ACI') and Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and EV'dluatlon (ASI'Il); and the Department of Ilducation (1)06)Office of Special Ilducation and Rehabilitative Servic::es. The opinions expressed herein are those of the investigatol'll and do nol reflect the funding agendes (GRANT # lR01H0043613S),
AddRS8 Corftsponderu::e to. s. M. Sheridan; 216 Mabel Lee Hall, Lincoln, NE 68;88-0235; Fhone 402-472-6941: E-mail: [email protected]
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