Understanding Understanding Adolescents and Their Adolescents and Their Young Children: Young Children: Promoting School Promoting School ReadinessReadiness

Lisa Knoche, Ph.D.Lisa Knoche, Ph.D.Jami E. Givens, M.A.Jami E. Givens, M.A.Susan M. Sheridan, Ph.D.Susan M. Sheridan, Ph.D.Amy L. Chatelain, M.A.Amy L. Chatelain, M.A.Sarah Springer, B.S.Sarah Springer, B.S.

University of Nebraska – LincolnUniversity of Nebraska – Lincoln

National Association of School Psychologists National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) Annual Convention, Anaheim, CA(NASP) Annual Convention, Anaheim, CAMarch 30, 2006March 30, 2006

OutlineOutline Introduction to the research questionIntroduction to the research question

– Adolescent parentsAdolescent parents– Risk factors for child developmentRisk factors for child development– Maternal depressionMaternal depression– Parental sense of competenceParental sense of competence

Rationale/Purpose of the studyRationale/Purpose of the study Method of data collectionMethod of data collection Analyses/ResultsAnalyses/Results Implications for PracticeImplications for Practice QuestionsQuestions

Adolescent ParentsAdolescent Parents

The adolescent birth The adolescent birth rate in the US is higher rate in the US is higher than any other than any other industrialized countryindustrialized country (Singh and Darroch, 2000).(Singh and Darroch, 2000).

Approximately 750,000 Approximately 750,000 teens become pregnant teens become pregnant each yeareach year (Borkowski, Bisconti, (Borkowski, Bisconti, Willard, Keogh, Whitman, & Weed, Willard, Keogh, Whitman, & Weed, 2002)  2002)  

Adolescent parents have Adolescent parents have unique strengths and unique strengths and they also face unique they also face unique challenges while raising challenges while raising their young children.their young children.

Risk Factors for Child Risk Factors for Child DevelopmentDevelopment Children of adolescent parents are at particular Children of adolescent parents are at particular

risk; having a teen mother is associated with risk; having a teen mother is associated with lower levels of language skills and delayed lower levels of language skills and delayed cognitive development in childrencognitive development in children (Griffin & Morrison, (Griffin & Morrison, 1997; Sameroff & Fiese, 2000; Stanton-Chapman, Chapman, Kaiser, & Hancock, 1997; Sameroff & Fiese, 2000; Stanton-Chapman, Chapman, Kaiser, & Hancock, 2004).2004).

Though this is not true of all adolescent Though this is not true of all adolescent mothers, some adolescent mothers have been mothers, some adolescent mothers have been found to initiate fewer verbal interactions and found to initiate fewer verbal interactions and are not as responsive to their children as older are not as responsive to their children as older mothersmothers (Brooks-Gunn & Palkoff, 1991). (Brooks-Gunn & Palkoff, 1991).

Interpersonal challenges of parenting, including Interpersonal challenges of parenting, including physical exhaustion, isolation, and lack of physical exhaustion, isolation, and lack of support is more common among adolescent support is more common among adolescent parentsparents (Birkeland, Thompson, & Phares, 2005). (Birkeland, Thompson, & Phares, 2005).

Risk Factors for Child Risk Factors for Child Development (cont’d)Development (cont’d)Adolescent parents often:Adolescent parents often: Have a changing and unreliable support Have a changing and unreliable support

systemsystem– Adolescent mothers are likely to raise their Adolescent mothers are likely to raise their

child without the child’s biological father or a child without the child’s biological father or a stable male role modelstable male role model (Borkowski, et al., 2002).(Borkowski, et al., 2002).

Have insufficient income, resulting in Have insufficient income, resulting in poverty.poverty.– Poverty has been found to have large effects on Poverty has been found to have large effects on

cognitive development in children. cognitive development in children. (Petterson & Albers, 2001).(Petterson & Albers, 2001).

Continue to have additional children while Continue to have additional children while still in their teens still in their teens (Borkowski et al., 2002).(Borkowski et al., 2002).

DepressionDepression Adolescent mothers have unique mental health Adolescent mothers have unique mental health

needs.needs. Young mothers are twice as likely to experience Young mothers are twice as likely to experience

depression as adult mothers depression as adult mothers (Deal & Holt, 1998).(Deal & Holt, 1998). 29% of a sample of teen mothers met criteria 29% of a sample of teen mothers met criteria

for clinical depression for clinical depression (Birkeland, Thompson, & Phares, 2005). (Birkeland, Thompson, & Phares, 2005).

– 10% to 34% of non-adolescent mothers 10% to 34% of non-adolescent mothers report clinical levels of depressive symptoms report clinical levels of depressive symptoms (Kline, Martin, & Deyo, 1998; Walker, 1997).(Kline, Martin, & Deyo, 1998; Walker, 1997).

Maternal depression is related to a host of Maternal depression is related to a host of adverse infant and child outcomes including adverse infant and child outcomes including poor cognitive development, insecure poor cognitive development, insecure attachment, and behavioral problems attachment, and behavioral problems (Murray, 1992; (Murray, 1992; Murray, Fiori-Cowley, Hooper & Cooper, 1996; Petterson & Albers, 2001).Murray, Fiori-Cowley, Hooper & Cooper, 1996; Petterson & Albers, 2001).

Child Outcomes Child Outcomes Related to Parental Related to Parental DepressionDepression

In particular, infants of depressed In particular, infants of depressed mothers are more irritable, less active, mothers are more irritable, less active, less responsive, and less physically less responsive, and less physically developed than infants of mothers who developed than infants of mothers who are not depressedare not depressed (Field, 1998).(Field, 1998).

Infants of depressed mothers engaged Infants of depressed mothers engaged in less exploratory play at 12 monthsin less exploratory play at 12 months

Maternal depression was a strong Maternal depression was a strong contributor to Bayley cognitive contributor to Bayley cognitive outcomesoutcomes (Field, Estroff, Yando, del Valle, Malphurs, & Hart, 1995).(Field, Estroff, Yando, del Valle, Malphurs, & Hart, 1995).

Inconsistent Outcomes Inconsistent Outcomes Related to Parental Related to Parental DepressionDepression Further studies have found no Further studies have found no

relationship between maternal relationship between maternal depression and a child’s cognitive depression and a child’s cognitive tasks tasks (Murray, 1992; Murray, Fiori-Cowley, Hooper, & Cooper, 1996).(Murray, 1992; Murray, Fiori-Cowley, Hooper, & Cooper, 1996).

Although the studies have been Although the studies have been somewhat inconclusive, the results somewhat inconclusive, the results indicate that maternal depression may indicate that maternal depression may effect cognitive development. effect cognitive development.

More investigation needs to be done to More investigation needs to be done to fully understand the impact of fully understand the impact of maternal depression on children. maternal depression on children.

Parental Sense of Parental Sense of CompetenceCompetence Self-efficacy is a set of beliefs Self-efficacy is a set of beliefs

concerning one’s ability to carry out concerning one’s ability to carry out and perform tasks effectively in a and perform tasks effectively in a particular setting particular setting (Raikes & Thompson, 2005). (Raikes & Thompson, 2005).

The self-efficacy beliefs of mothers The self-efficacy beliefs of mothers have been found to be related to have been found to be related to effective parenting behaviors and effective parenting behaviors and children’s developmental status children’s developmental status (Coleman & (Coleman & Karraker, 2000; Coleman, Trent, Bryan, King, Rogers, Nazir, 2002; Bondy & Karraker, 2000; Coleman, Trent, Bryan, King, Rogers, Nazir, 2002; Bondy & Mash, 1999) Mash, 1999)

Parental Sense of Parental Sense of Competence (cont’d)Competence (cont’d) High maternal self-efficacy leads to High maternal self-efficacy leads to

more responsive and less-punitive more responsive and less-punitive caretaking, attention to infant signals, caretaking, attention to infant signals, and more active and directive parenting and more active and directive parenting interactions interactions (Coleman & Karraker, 2000).(Coleman & Karraker, 2000).

Parental self-efficacy and competence Parental self-efficacy and competence was found to be significantly related to was found to be significantly related to children’s Mental Development Index children’s Mental Development Index (MDI) scores on the Bayley Scales of (MDI) scores on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development Infant Development (Coleman & Karraker, 2003).(Coleman & Karraker, 2003).

Rationale for StudyRationale for Study Limited information is known about the role of Limited information is known about the role of

depression and parental sense of competence on depression and parental sense of competence on children’s development, particularly for adolescent children’s development, particularly for adolescent parents.parents.

Even less is known about how parental Even less is known about how parental competence interacts with maternal depression to competence interacts with maternal depression to predict child outcomes, particularly for adolescent predict child outcomes, particularly for adolescent mothers. mothers.

Because depression and parental competence are Because depression and parental competence are both known to affect parenting behaviors and both known to affect parenting behaviors and contribute to child outcomes in the parenting contribute to child outcomes in the parenting population at-large, it is reasonable to examine the population at-large, it is reasonable to examine the interaction of these predictors and their combined interaction of these predictors and their combined influence on young children’s cognitive influence on young children’s cognitive development for an adolescent sample. development for an adolescent sample.

Purpose of the StudyPurpose of the Study

To assess the predictive effects of depression To assess the predictive effects of depression and parental sense of competence (including and parental sense of competence (including the interaction of these predictors) on the the interaction of these predictors) on the cognitive development for children of cognitive development for children of adolescent mothers.adolescent mothers.

Depression

Parental Sense of Competence

Child Cognitive

Development

ParticipantsParticipants

Recruited from four high schools in a Midwestern Recruited from four high schools in a Midwestern communitycommunity

50 adolescent mothers, grades nine through 50 adolescent mothers, grades nine through twelve (average age = 17.3 years; range 14 – 21 twelve (average age = 17.3 years; range 14 – 21 years)years)– 44% Caucasian, 22% African American, 16% 44% Caucasian, 22% African American, 16%

Hispanic/Latino, 6% American Indian/Alaskan Native, Hispanic/Latino, 6% American Indian/Alaskan Native, and 10% other.and 10% other.

50 infant/toddlers 50 infant/toddlers (average age = 9.6 months; range 1 - 35 months)(average age = 9.6 months; range 1 - 35 months)

Each adolescent mother participates in the Each adolescent mother participates in the Student Parent Program at her schoolStudent Parent Program at her school

Student Parent Student Parent ProgramProgram

The mission of the Student Parent Program is to The mission of the Student Parent Program is to assist adolescent parents through educational assist adolescent parents through educational and community supports. and community supports.

The goals of program include The goals of program include (1) increasing the number of adolescent parents who (1) increasing the number of adolescent parents who

graduate from high schoolgraduate from high school(2) providing preventive interventions(2) providing preventive interventions(3) increasing parenting quality(3) increasing parenting quality

The mothers attend high school while their The mothers attend high school while their children are cared for in a child development children are cared for in a child development center in the school.center in the school.

The mothers participate in a parenting class.The mothers participate in a parenting class.

Getting Ready ProjectGetting Ready Project

Students recruited for this investigation are Students recruited for this investigation are involved in The Getting Ready Project involved in The Getting Ready Project through the University of Nebraska – Lincoln through the University of Nebraska – Lincoln (UNL).(UNL).

The Getting Ready Project is a five-year The Getting Ready Project is a five-year longitudinal study.longitudinal study.

The study is investigating the effects of a The study is investigating the effects of a comprehensive strengths-based intervention comprehensive strengths-based intervention on:on:– child learning, socioemotional, and behavioral child learning, socioemotional, and behavioral

outcomes, as well as on parent engagement outcomes, as well as on parent engagement behaviors over the years of birth to five. behaviors over the years of birth to five.

ProcedureProcedure

Infant/toddlers are assessed by graduate Infant/toddlers are assessed by graduate assistants twice a year in the child assistants twice a year in the child development center in their high school.development center in their high school.

Parent interviews are conducted three times Parent interviews are conducted three times a year in each high school. a year in each high school.

Families are compensated for their time.Families are compensated for their time.

MeasuresMeasures

Bayley Scales of Infant Development-Second Bayley Scales of Infant Development-Second EditionEdition (BSID-II; Bayley, 1993) (BSID-II; Bayley, 1993) – Outcome measure to assess cognitive, language Outcome measure to assess cognitive, language

and personal-social functioning of the infant and and personal-social functioning of the infant and toddler participants toddler participants

Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression ScaleScale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977) (CES-D; Radloff, 1977) – Measure of depressive symptomologyMeasure of depressive symptomology

Parental Sense of Competence ScaleParental Sense of Competence Scale (PSOC; (PSOC; Johnston & Mash, 1989) Johnston & Mash, 1989) – Measure of current parental efficacy and Measure of current parental efficacy and

satisfaction in maternal role satisfaction in maternal role

Table 1. Descriptives of key study variables

Mean SD Cronbach’s Alpha

Bayley MDI 91.70 10.77 n/a

Depression (CESD)

11.69 8.89 0.85

Parental

Sense of Competence (PSOC)

4.60 0.63 0.77

AnalysesAnalyses

Correlation and multiple regression were Correlation and multiple regression were conducted to predict the cognitive conducted to predict the cognitive outcomes of infants and young children.outcomes of infants and young children.

The analysis included depression, The analysis included depression, parental sense of competence, and their parental sense of competence, and their interaction as predictors of child cognitive interaction as predictors of child cognitive outcomes. outcomes.

Bivariate correlations were computed Bivariate correlations were computed among the CESD, PSOC, Bayley, maternal among the CESD, PSOC, Bayley, maternal age, and child age.age, and child age.

Bayley MDI

CESD Total

PSOC Total

Mothers Age

Child’s Age

Bayley MDI

CESD Total -0.37*

PSOC Total 0.39** -0.58**

Mother’s Age -0.13 0.28 -0.28

Child’s Age 0.02 0.05 -0.09 0.22

Table 2. Bivariate Correlations (N = 50)

*p ≤ .05; ** p ≤ .01; *** p ≤ .001

• As adolescent mothers depression increases, their As adolescent mothers depression increases, their children score lower on the Bayley. children score lower on the Bayley.

Bayley MDI

CESD Total

PSOC Total

Mothers Age

Child’s Age

Bayley MDI

CESD Total -0.37*

PSOC Total 0.39** -0.58**

Mother’s Age -0.13 0.28 -0.28

Child’s Age 0.02 0.05 -0.09 0.22

Table 2. Bivariate Correlations (N = 50)

*p ≤ .05; ** p ≤ .01; *** p ≤ .001

• Higher levels of competence in the adolescent mothers Higher levels of competence in the adolescent mothers related to higher child scores on the Bayley. related to higher child scores on the Bayley.

Bayley MDI

CESD Total

PSOC Total

Mothers Age

Child’s Age

Bayley MDI

CESD Total -0.37*

PSOC Total 0.39** -0.58**

Mother’s Age -0.13 0.28 -0.28

Child’s Age 0.02 0.05 -0.09 0.22

Table 2. Bivariate Correlations (N = 50)

*p ≤ .05; ** p ≤ .01; *** p ≤ .001

• Depression and competence are negatively related.Depression and competence are negatively related.- As depression increased, parental sense of competence - As depression increased, parental sense of competence diminished. - This provides evidence that the two predictors diminished. - This provides evidence that the two predictors might interact to relate to child outcomes.might interact to relate to child outcomes.

Bayley MDI

CESD Total

PSOC Total

Mothers Age

Child’s Age

Bayley MDI

CESD Total -0.37*

PSOC Total 0.39** -0.58**

Mother’s Age -0.13 0.28 -0.28

Child’s Age 0.02 0.05 -0.09 0.22

Table 2. Bivariate Correlations (N = 50)

*p ≤ .05; ** p ≤ .01; *** p ≤ .001

• Maternal age and child age were not statistically related Maternal age and child age were not statistically related to any of the variables.to any of the variables.

Multiple Regression Multiple Regression

The regression model, produced a The regression model, produced a significant effect, R² = .38, adjusted R² significant effect, R² = .38, adjusted R² = .34, = .34, F (3,42) = 8.72, F (3,42) = 8.72, p p <.01 <.01 – The model predicts up to 38% of the variance The model predicts up to 38% of the variance

in child cognitive outcomes.in child cognitive outcomes.

Depression

Parental Sense of Competence

Child Cognitive

Development

Model B SE B β

(Constant) 93.68 1.41

Depression (CESD)

-0.04 0.19 -0.03

Parental Sense of Competence (PSOC)

2.21 2.63 0.13

Interaction PSOC x CESD

0.61 0.17 0.53**

Note. R² = 0.38***p ≤ .05; ** p ≤ .01; *** p ≤ .001

Table 3. Multiple regression predicting child cognitive development

Multiple RegressionMultiple Regression Depression, when controlling for the effects of Depression, when controlling for the effects of

parental sense of competence and the interaction parental sense of competence and the interaction term, was not significantly predictive of child scores term, was not significantly predictive of child scores on the Bayley. on the Bayley.

Similarly, parental sense of competence, when Similarly, parental sense of competence, when controlling for the effects of depression and the controlling for the effects of depression and the interaction term, was not statistically significant. interaction term, was not statistically significant.

However, there was a significant interaction between However, there was a significant interaction between maternal depression and parental sense of maternal depression and parental sense of competence that predicted child cognitive competence that predicted child cognitive development.development.Depression

Parental Sense of Competence

Child Cognitive

Development

Figure 1. Relation between parental competence and Bayley as moderated by maternal depression

75

85

95

105

Low PSOC High PSOC

Bayley

Low CESD

High CESD

Figure 1. Relation between parental competence and Bayley as moderated by maternal depression

75

85

95

105

Low PSOC High PSOC

Bayley

Low CESD

High CESD

For children of parents with For children of parents with high levels of depressionhigh levels of depression (one standard deviation above the mean; CESD=20.37),(one standard deviation above the mean; CESD=20.37), high high levels of parental sense of competencelevels of parental sense of competence (one standard (one standard deviation above the mean; PSOC = 5.21)deviation above the mean; PSOC = 5.21) related to higher related to higher scores on child outcomes measured by the Bayley.scores on child outcomes measured by the Bayley.

Figure 1. Relation between parental competence and Bayley as moderated by maternal depression

75

85

95

105

Low PSOC High PSOC

Bayley

Low CESD

High CESD

When parents have When parents have high levels of depressionhigh levels of depression, and have , and have low levels of parental competencelow levels of parental competence (one standard deviation (one standard deviation below mean; PSOC = 3.98),below mean; PSOC = 3.98), their children have lower scores their children have lower scores on the Bayley than children of parents with average or on the Bayley than children of parents with average or low levels of depression.low levels of depression.

DiscussionDiscussion

Previous literature has shown that depression, Previous literature has shown that depression, as well as parental competence are related to as well as parental competence are related to child outcomes.child outcomes.

The relationship of these variables for The relationship of these variables for adolescent parents in particular is less adolescent parents in particular is less understood. understood.

In this study, we found that the main effects of In this study, we found that the main effects of depression and parental competence are not depression and parental competence are not predictive of Bayley scores, a somewhat predictive of Bayley scores, a somewhat surprising finding. surprising finding.

Regression analyses reveal that the interaction Regression analyses reveal that the interaction of depression and competence statistically of depression and competence statistically significantly predicts child outcomes.significantly predicts child outcomes.

What does this mean?What does this mean?

Cognitive outcomes for children of adolescent Cognitive outcomes for children of adolescent parents are best explained by taking into parents are best explained by taking into account both depression and parental account both depression and parental competence. competence.

For adolescent parents with high levels of For adolescent parents with high levels of depression, parental sense of competence is depression, parental sense of competence is important in predicting their children’s important in predicting their children’s cognitive outcomes.cognitive outcomes.

Parental competence, in some ways, is acting Parental competence, in some ways, is acting as a “buffer” for children. as a “buffer” for children.

Despite experiencing depression, adolescent Despite experiencing depression, adolescent parents who develop a high sense of parental parents who develop a high sense of parental competence – competence – perhaps a feeling of perhaps a feeling of competence in a single domain of their often competence in a single domain of their often chaotic liveschaotic lives – are able to support positive – are able to support positive development in their children. development in their children.

This is an important area for intervention in This is an important area for intervention in work with adolescent parents. work with adolescent parents.

What does this mean?What does this mean?

Implications for Implications for PracticePractice School psychologists are in a unique position School psychologists are in a unique position

to promote positive outcomes in adolescent to promote positive outcomes in adolescent parents and their young children. parents and their young children.

By understanding factors related to the By understanding factors related to the cognitive development of infants and young cognitive development of infants and young children of adolescent mothers, school children of adolescent mothers, school psychologists and other mental health psychologists and other mental health personnel will be better equipped to promote personnel will be better equipped to promote school readiness and collaboration between school readiness and collaboration between home and school. home and school. – This will allow professionals to develop and This will allow professionals to develop and

implement preventative and intervention implement preventative and intervention techniques to effectively serve young children and techniques to effectively serve young children and their adolescent mothers. their adolescent mothers.

Implications for Implications for Practice (cont’d)Practice (cont’d) School psychologists can play multiple roles in School psychologists can play multiple roles in

prevention and intervention efforts to:prevention and intervention efforts to:– Address the educational and mental health needs of Address the educational and mental health needs of

adolescent parentsadolescent parents– Promote parenting skills and early childhood Promote parenting skills and early childhood

development development – Screen for and addressing mental health issuesScreen for and addressing mental health issues

For parents who are experiencing depression, For parents who are experiencing depression, high levels of parental competence serve as a high levels of parental competence serve as a protective factor for their children’s protective factor for their children’s development. development. – Efforts should be made to improve overall sense of Efforts should be made to improve overall sense of

parental competence, through services such as parental competence, through services such as parent consultation, parent training, and other parent consultation, parent training, and other support servicessupport services

Implications for Implications for Practice (cont’d)Practice (cont’d) School psychologists can help build capacities School psychologists can help build capacities

in adolescent parents who are suffering with in adolescent parents who are suffering with depression.depression.

Other factors that school psychologists need to Other factors that school psychologists need to consider as they work to support school consider as they work to support school readiness in the young children of adolescent readiness in the young children of adolescent parents:parents:– Environmental factors, including home literacy Environmental factors, including home literacy

environment, poverty, and social stress.environment, poverty, and social stress. School psychologists need to serve as School psychologists need to serve as

advocates for adolescent parents and their advocates for adolescent parents and their childrenchildren– Support services such as the Student Parent Program Support services such as the Student Parent Program

can play an instrumental role in encouraging positive can play an instrumental role in encouraging positive development in both parents and children.development in both parents and children.

Questions?Questions?

Lisa Knoche: lknoche2@unl.edu

Jami Givens: jgivens@bigred.unl.edu

Sarah Springer: skspring@bigred.unl.edu

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