geo, envi, s&t, agri current affairs by pmfias.com may 2021
TRANSCRIPT
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Geo, Envi, S&T, Agri Current Affairs by Pmfias.com – May 2021
PDF Contents
Environment Current Affairs by Pmfias.com – May 2021 ................................................................................. 4
{Envi – CC – 2021/05} Findings of the UNEP Report about Methane Emissions .......................................................... 4
Methane (CH4) .................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
Methane Sink .................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
{Envi – Conservation – 2021/05} Sunderlal Bhaguna ..................................................................................................... 8
Chipko Movement ............................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Anti-Tehri Dam Protest ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Similar Citizen Led Environmental Movements .............................................................................................................................. 10
{Envi – In News – 2021/05} Species in News for Prelims .............................................................................................. 11
Whiteflies ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 11
Skink Species ................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
{Envi – IUCN – 2021/05} Blackbuck ................................................................................................................................ 13
Associations with the Indian culture ............................................................................................................................................... 14
Abohar Wildlife Sanctuary and Bishnoi community ........................................................................................................................ 14
{Envi – IUCN – 2021/05} Snow Leopard ......................................................................................................................... 15
Project Snow Leopard ..................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Snow Leopard Population Assessment in India .............................................................................................................................. 15
Central Asian Mammals Initiative ................................................................................................................................................... 16
Keystone Species ............................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Indicator Species ............................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Flagship Species .............................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitat .................................................................................................................................. 18
Global Tiger Recovery Program (GTRP) ........................................................................................................................................... 18
Geography Current Affairs by Pmfias.com – May 2021 .................................................................................. 21
{Geo – CC – 2021/05} Shift in Earth’s Axis ..................................................................................................................... 21
What caused the shift? ................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Rotation of the Earth on a Titled Axis ............................................................................................................................................. 22
Factors affecting Distribution of Mass ............................................................................................................................................ 23
How Shift in Axis Affect Us? ............................................................................................................................................................ 23
{Geo – EG – Energy – 2021/05} Biodiesel from UCO ..................................................................................................... 24
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Used Cooking Oil (UCO) ................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Steps taken by India ........................................................................................................................................................................ 25
RUCO Project ................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Total Polar Compounds ................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) .................................................................................................................................................................... 26
FSSAI ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 27
{Geo – EG – Renewable Energy – 2021/05} Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) .................... 27
Green Urja Award............................................................................................................................................................................ 28
{Geo – Geomorphology – 2021/05} A-76 Iceberg ......................................................................................................... 28
How are Icebergs named? ............................................................................................................................................................... 29
Why does Melting of Floating Iceshelf does not cause a raise in sea level? ................................................................................... 30
Sea Ice and Climate Change ............................................................................................................................................................ 30
Iceberg ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 30
How do icebergs form, and where do they go? .............................................................................................................................. 31
{Geo LBT – World – 2021/05} Antarctica ....................................................................................................................... 34
Major Mountain Ranges of Antarctica ............................................................................................................................................ 35
Major Seas & Ice Shelves ................................................................................................................................................................ 36
Antarctica Circumpolar Current ...................................................................................................................................................... 37
Antarctic Treaty (1959) ................................................................................................................................................................... 38
India’s Antarctica Expedition ........................................................................................................................................................... 38
{Geo LBT – World – 2021/05} Israel-Palestine............................................................................................................... 39
Chronology of Israel – Palestine Conflict ........................................................................................................................................ 40
Important Geographical Locations .................................................................................................................................................. 43
Science & Technology Current Affairs by Pmfias.com – May 2021 ............................................................... 48
{S&T – BioTech – 2021/05} India’s Genome Consortium ............................................................................................. 48
Indian SARS-CoV-2 Genomics Consortium (INSACOG) .................................................................................................................... 48
Genome ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Genome Sequencing ....................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Whole genome sequencing ............................................................................................................................................................. 50
Human Genome Project .................................................................................................................................................................. 52
Genome India Project ..................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Key Terms ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 53
{S&T – Diseases – 2021/05} Antimicrobial Resistance.................................................................................................. 54
What is Antimicrobial Resistance? .................................................................................................................................................. 54
Concerns Raised Due to Antimicrobial Resistance .......................................................................................................................... 57
Measures Required ......................................................................................................................................................................... 57
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Steps taken Globally to fight Antimicrobial Resistance ................................................................................................................... 57
Steps taken by India to Fight Antimicrobial Resistance .................................................................................................................. 58
{S&T – Diseases – 2021/05} Multidrug-resistant Tuberculosis (MDR-TB) .................................................................. 60
Tuberculosis (TB) ............................................................................................................................................................................. 60
Tuberculosis Symptomatic Diagnosis .............................................................................................................................................. 61
TB Treatment .................................................................................................................................................................................. 62
Multidrug-Resistant TB (MDR-TB) ................................................................................................................................................... 62
Treatment for Drug-Resistant TB .................................................................................................................................................... 63
The goal to end TB by 2025 ............................................................................................................................................................. 64
{S&T – Diseases – 2021/05} WHO’s E-2025 Initiative to Eradicate Malaria ................................................................ 65
Malaria ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 66
Current Status of Malaria Disease in India ...................................................................................................................................... 67
Plasmodium Vivax ........................................................................................................................................................................... 68
Mosquito-Borne Diseases ............................................................................................................................................................... 68
{S&T – ISRO – 2021/05} Adtiya L1 ................................................................................................................................. 69
Adtiya L1 Mission ............................................................................................................................................................................ 69
Lagrange Points ............................................................................................................................................................................... 69
What is the importance of understanding Sun’s atmosphere? ...................................................................................................... 70
Other Missions to Sun ..................................................................................................................................................................... 70
{S&T – Physics – 2021/05} 22 Degree Circular Halo ..................................................................................................... 71
Sun Dogs .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Moon & Sun Halos........................................................................................................................................................................... 72
Dispersion........................................................................................................................................................................................ 72
Rainbow .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 74
Clouds .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 75
{S&T – Space – 2021/04} Black Holes ............................................................................................................................ 76
{S&T – Space – 2021/04} Mini Black Hole (Unicorn) .................................................................................................... 80
Tidal Distortion ................................................................................................................................................................................ 80
{S&T – Space – 2021/05} Cosmic Rays & Positrons ...................................................................................................... 82
Positron Excess ................................................................................................................................................................................ 82
Cosmic Rays ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 82
Anti-Matter ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 83
Cosmic Shower ................................................................................................................................................................................ 84
{S&T – Space – 2021/05} MARS Expeditions in News .................................................................................................. 86
Perseverance Rover......................................................................................................................................................................... 86
Curiosity Rover ................................................................................................................................................................................ 88
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Tianwen-1 ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 88
Other Missions to MARS ................................................................................................................................................................. 89
{S&T – Space – 2021/05} SpaceX & Crew-2Mission ..................................................................................................... 90
SpaceX Dragon ................................................................................................................................................................................ 90
Commercial Crew Programme ........................................................................................................................................................ 91
International Space Station ............................................................................................................................................................. 91
Indian Space Station ........................................................................................................................................................................ 92
Colour Codes:
1. Recently in News & Very Important
2. Important for Prelims + Mains
3. Important for Prelims
4. Very Important for Prelims
5. Important for Mains
6. Key Word or Key Phrase
Environment Current Affairs by Pmfias.com – May 2021
{Envi – CC – 2021/05} Findings of the UNEP Report about Methane Emissions
D2E | Prelims + Mains | GS3 > Environment conservation & pollution etc.
• Context: According to UNEP, urgent steps are needed to reduce human-caused methane emissions.
• More than 50% of the global methane emissions stems from human activities in 3 sectors:
1. Agriculture (40%)
2. Fossil Fuels (35%)
3. Waste (20%)
• It has asked countries to reduce human caused methane emissions by 45% by 2030.
• It has recommended different targets & areas for different countries.
• For India, it has recommended emission reduction in the waste sector (by improving sewage disposal).
Methane (CH4)
• It is the simplest hydrocarbon, consisting of 1 carbon atom & 4 hydrogen atoms.
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Sources & Credits
• It is the main constituent of natural gas.
• It is an odourless, colourless, tasteless gas that is lighter than air.
• When methane burns in the air it has a blue flame (because of complete combustion).
• In presence of oxygen, methane burns to give off carbon dioxide (CO2) & water (H2O).
• Methane is the most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide.
• The 20-year global warming potential of methane is 84 i.e., over a 20-year period, it traps 84 times
more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide (CO2) — it is a more potent GHG than CO2.
• However, its lifetime in the atmosphere is much shorter than carbon dioxide (i.e., it is short lived).
• It contributes to the formation of ground level ozone, a dangerous air pollutant.
Natural Sources of Methane Emissions
• Methane is naturally produced from decomposition of animal wastes and biological matter.
• Major natural sources include wetlands & oceans, & from the digestive processes of termites.
Wetlands
• Methanogens are microorganisms that produce methane as a metabolic byproduct during the decompo-
sition of organic matter in hypoxic (low oxygen) conditions.
• They are prokaryotic and belong to the domain of archaea.
• Wetlands provide a habitat favourable to methanogens.
• Wetlands contribute to about 80% of the global methane emissions from natural sources.
Termites
• Microbes in the guts of termites produce methane as part of their normal digestive process.
Oceans
• The source of methane from oceans is not entirely clear.
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• But two identified sources include the anaerobic (oxygen-free) digestion in marine zooplankton, fish &
also from methane produced in sediments & drainage areas along coastal regions.
Methane Hydrates
• Methane crystals called clathrates are formed when hydrogen-bonded water & methane gas come into
contact at high pressures & low temperatures in oceans.
• Clathrates are also trapped in permafrost (the permanently frozen soil in the arctic & subarctic latitudes).
• Overall, the amount of methane stored in these hydrates globally is estimated to be very large, making the
potential for the release of large quantities of methane a real possibility due to climate change.
Suggested Reading: Geography > Oceanography > Resources from the Ocean > Marine gas hydrates
Human Sources of Methane Emissions
• Globally, 50 – 65% of total CH4 emissions come from human activities.
Landfills
• Methane is generated in landfills as waste decomposes under anaerobic (oxygen-free) conditions.
• The amount of methane created depends on the quantity & moisture content of the waste.
Fossil Fuels
• Fossil fuels are formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms.
• Methane is the primary component of natural gas.
• Methane is released during the production, processing, storage, transmission, & distribution of natural gas.
• In addition, methane trapped in coal deposits is released during normal mining operations in both un-
derground & surface mines.
Livestock
• Domesticated livestock such as cattle, buffalo etc. produce large amounts of methane as part of their nor-
mal digestive processes.
• In the stomach, microbial fermentation converts feed into products that can be digested.
• This process produces methane as a by-product, which is exhaled by the animal (cow breath).
Wastewater Treatment
• Wastewater from sewage is treated to remove soluble organic matter, pathogenic organisms, etc.
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• These treatment processes can produce methane emissions if organic ingredients are treated without
oxygen.
Rice Cultivation
• Methane is produced during flooded rice cultivation by the decomposition of organic matter in the soil.
• Flooded soils are ideal environments for methane production because of their high levels of organic sub-
strates, oxygen-poor conditions, & moisture.
Biomass Burning
• Incomplete burning of both living & dead organic matter results in the emission of methane.
Human Source > Natural Source
In Natural Source ➔ Wetlands > Termites > Oceans > Methane Hydrates
In Human Source ➔ Agriculture > Fossil Fuels > Waste
Methane Sink
• Any process that consumes methane from the atmosphere can be considered a "sink" of atmospheric
methane.
• Soils act as a major sink for atmospheric methane through the methanotrophic bacteria that reside within
them.
• These bacteria use methane as a source of energy a process called Methane Oxidation.
Reaction with the hydroxyl radical
• The main mechanism for removal of methane from the earth’s atmosphere is oxidation within the tropo-
sphere by the hydroxyl radical (OH).
• A hydroxyl radical is a negatively charged oxygen atom bonded with hydrogen atom (OH).
• Hydroxyl radicals are a form of “sink” because they “scrub” the atmosphere clean of pollutant molecules
& break them down (For this reason OH is known as the ‘cleanser of the atmosphere’).
• After reacting with OH, atmospheric methane is converted to CO2 & water vapour by a long series of
chemical reactions.
• Some of the methane present in the troposphere passes into the stratosphere where the same process
scrubs the atmosphere clean of methane there.
Methane Hydrates
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• Clathrate deposits were once sinks where methane was isolated.
• However, as the planet warms, some of these deep, cold sediments are melting, sending methane bub-
bling to the surface.
{Envi – Conservation – 2021/05} Sunderlal Bhaguna
D2E | TH | Prelims + Mains | GS3 > Environment Conservation & pollution etc.
• Context: Sundarlal Bahuguna, an environmentalist & leader of the Chipko & Tehri dam movements
died due to COVID – 19.
Source & Credits
• Sundarlal Bahuguna is also known by Defender of Himalayas & Environmental Gandhi.
• He joined Freedom Struggle in his initial years & opened schools for Untouchables.
• He protested for preservation of forests in Himalayas & led the Chipko Movement in 1970’s & Anti-
Tehri Dam movement starting in 1980’s.
• He was a follower of Gandhian Principles like Satyagraha, Peaceful Protests, Non – Violence, Self-
Reliance etc.
• He believed that ‘Ecology is permanent economy’.
Chipko Movement
• Chipko means ‘To Hug’.
• 1st recorded event took place Khejarli Village, Jodhpur in 1730 AD.
• 363 Bishnois led by Amrita Devi sacrificed their lives while protecting Khejri trees.
• Khejri trees (State tree of Rajasthan) are considered scared by Bishnoi community.
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Source & Credits
• The first Chipko movement in independent India took place in April 1973 in Upper Alakanada valley
(Garhwal Region in Uttarakhand (back then it was UP)) when the government had allotted land inside
forest territory to a manufacturer.
Role of Sunderlal Bhaguna
• He travelled 5000 km on foot from village to village gathering support for the movement.
• He had a meeting with Indira Gandhi & that resulted in 15 years ban on cutting of green trees in 1980.
Role of Women in the Movement
Source & Credits
• Gaura Devi came to notice that local loggers are cutting trees in Reni Village.
• Gaura Devi mobilized other women and confronted & challenged to shoot her instead of cutting trees.
• She described trees & forest as Vandevta (God of Forest) & Maika (Mother house).
• Therefore, Chipko Movement is rightly called as Women’s Movement.
Anti-Tehri Dam Protest
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• Tehri Dam is 2,400-megawatt multipurpose dam on the Bhagirathi River (tributary of the Ganga in Utta-
rakhand).
• It is India’s Tallest Dam.
• Tehri Dam lies in the Himalaya Seismic Gap i.e., a Major fault zone (Prone to Landslides, Earthquakes).
• Floods can cause massive damage to downstream public life.
• Sunderlal Bahuguna instrumental in protests against the construction of Teri Dam (Garhwal region, Utta-
rakhand).
Source & Credits
Similar Citizen Led Environmental Movements
Dasholi Gram Sawrajya Mandal (DGSM)
• In 1964, Chandi Prasad Bhutt founded an organization called Dasholi Gram Sawrajya Mandal (DGSM).
Source & Credits
• It aimed to foster small industries for rural villagers using local resources.
• Villagers were denied by government to access to small number of trees to build agricultural tools.
• Whereas government allotted a much larger area to cut trees to a sporting good company.
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• This outraged DGSM & Local Villagers.
• Chandi Prasad led villagers into forest & embraced the trees & asked to cut them before cutting trees.
• DGSM got success & government cancelled sporting good company permit.
Appiko Movement
• Appiko is a local term for Hugging in Kannada.
• The movement was inspired by massive success of Chipko Movement in North India.
• It first started in Karnataka in 1983.
Source & Credits
{Envi – In News – 2021/05} Species in News for Prelims
TH | Source1 | TH | D2E | Prelims
Whiteflies
• Context: A recent study shows how exotic invasive whiteflies in India are causing direct and indirect yield
losses in agriculture.
• Whiteflies are tiny, sap-sucking insects.
• They develop rapidly in warm weather.
• Despite their name, whiteflies are not a type of fly, though they do have wings and are capable of flying.
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Source & Credits
• Whiteflies use their piercing, needle like mouthparts to suck sap from phloem, the food-conducting tis-
sues in plant stems and leaves.
• Honeydew left on its own can cause fungal diseases.
• It causes leaves to turn yellow, appear dry, or fall off plants.
Control & Management
• Water sprays (syringing) may be useful in dislodging adults.
• Reflective Mulches
✓ Reflective mulches are reflective material such as Aluminum or Silver Polyethylene mulch that re-
flects light up onto the leaves of plants.
✓ It increases the amount of light available to plants & increases air temperature and photosynthesis,
which means better growth.
✓ They are effective for management of certain pests and, thus, possible virus transmission.
Source & Credits
Skink Species
• Context: Researchers have discovered a new Skink species from Western Ghats.
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Source & Credits
• The species is named ‘Subdoluseps nilgiriensis’ after the Nilgiris.
• It is considered a vulnerable species as there are potential threats from seasonal forest fires, housing con-
structions and brick kiln industries in the area.
What are Skinks?
• Skinks are harmless insectivorous lizards found across the country in every bio-geographic zone.
• Skinks can often hide easily in their habitat because of their protective colouring (camouflage).
• They play a prominent role in maintaining ecosystems.
{Envi – IUCN – 2021/05} Blackbuck
• Context: Odisha’s blackbuck population has doubled in the last six years, according to figures from the
latest population census.
• The Indian antelope or blackbuck is native to India and Nepal.
• It is known locally as Krushnasara Mruga.
• Distribution: In the Indian subcontinent, the blackbuck can also be found in deserts (in the north western
region), coastal areas, mountains (in the northern-north-eastern region).
• Habitat: Grassy plains and lightly forested areas with perennial water sources.
• Threats: Excessive hunting, deforestation, habitat degradation.
• Some blackbucks are killed illegally especially where the species is sympatric with Nilgai.
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• Conservation Status:
✓ IUCN Red List – Least Concern
✓ WPA (1972) – Schedule 1
✓ CITES – Appendix III
Associations with the Indian culture
• It had been a source of food in the Indus Valley civilisation (3300–1700 BCE).
• Bone remains have been discovered in sites such as Dholavira & Mehrgarh.
• The blackbuck is routinely depicted in miniature paintings of the Mughal Era (16th to 19th centuries).
• Tribes such as the Bishnois revere the blackbuck.
Temple pillar at Lepakshi Akbar hunting blackbuck
Source & Credits
Abohar Wildlife Sanctuary and Bishnoi community
• Abohar WLS is located Punjab close to the intersection of Haryana, Rajasthan & Punjab.
• Unlike other wildlife sanctuaries that are located over public land, the Abohar WS spreads over the pri-
vate land inhabited by the Bishnoi community.
• The black buck is the State Animal of Punjab and is considered to be sacred by the Bishnois.
• The blackbuck’s presence in the State is confined only to the Abohar Wildlife Sanctuary.
• The Bishnoi community has shown concern and taken up the responsibility to protect the black buck deer.
• There were 3,273 blackbucks, according to the 2017 census, against 3,500 in 2011.
• The community also protects the blue bull popularly known as the Nilgai.
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{Envi – IUCN – 2021/05} Snow Leopard
D2E | Prelims | GS3 > Environment Conservation & degradation etc.
• Context: A new report on snow leopards says 70% per cent of the species’, 1.7 million sq km, and habitat
is still unexplored by researchers.
Source & Credits
• A snow leopard (also known as Ghost of the Mountains) is both a Keystone & Indicator Species of the
health of their high-altitude habitat.
• It inhabits alpine & subalpine zones at elevations from 3,000 to 4,500 m.
• In India, their range encompasses a large part of the western Himalayas including the states of Jammu &
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand & Sikkim & Arunachal Pradesh in the eastern Himalayas.
• Threats: Human interference, competition with livestock, poaching, climate change, unregulated tourism,
illegal trade, infrastructure development in the mountains, and excessive livestock grazing.
• Government has identified it as a flagship species for the high-altitude Himalayan ecosystem.
• Snow leopard is also included in Species Recovery Programme.
• Conservation Status
✓ IUCN Red List – Vulnerable
✓ CITES – Appendix 1
✓ Wildlife Protection Act 1972 – Schedule 1
Project Snow Leopard
• It was launched in 2009.
• The goal of Project Snow Leopard is to safeguard & conserve India’s unique natural heritage of high-
altitude wildlife populations & their habitats.
Snow Leopard Population Assessment in India
• It was launched during the 4th steering committee meeting of the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem
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Protection Program (GSLEP).
• This is the 1st time that India will have a national level protocol to count snow leopard’s population.
• It is a part of Population Assessment of the World’s Snow Leopard (PWAS), which was launched by
Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Protection Programme (GSLEP).
Central Asian Mammals Initiative
• Through its Central Asian Mammals Initiative, the Convention of Migratory Species (CMS COP13) aims to
conserve 15 migratory mammal species in Central Asia (including Snow Leopard, Saiga and Bactrian
Camel) and their habitats.
• CAMI’s working is approved for 2021-2026, incorporating IUCN Save Our Species’ Central Asia initiative
as a possible funding mechanism for the conservation of key threatened migratory species.
• All Parties to the CMS also adopted the Gandhinagar Declaration.
✓ It underscores the importance of migratory species for a new global biodiversity strategy.
✓ It calls for migratory species and the concept of ‘ecological connectivity’ to be integrated and priori-
tized in the post-2020 global biodiversity framework.
List of animals Included in Central Mammals Initiative
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Keystone Species
• Keystone species is a species whose addition to or loss from an ecosystem leads to major changes in the
occurrence of at least one other species.
• Certain species in an ecosystem is considered more important in determining the presence of many other
species in that ecosystem.
• All top predators (Tiger, Lion, Crocodile, Elephant) are considered as keystone species because they
regulate all other animal population indirectly.
• Hence, top predators are given much consideration in conservation.
• If keystone species is lost, it results in the degradation of the whole ecosystem.
• For example, certain plant species (ebony tree, Indian-laurel) exclusively depends upon bats for its pollina-
tion. If the bat population is reduced, then regeneration of particular plants becomes more difficult.
Indicator Species
• An Indicator species is an organism whose presence, absence or abundance reflects a specific environ-
mental condition.
• These signal a change in biological condition of a particular ecosystem, & thus may be used as a proxy to
diagnose the health of an ecosystem.
• These organisms are very sensitive to environmental changes.
• Changes associated with external factors like pollution, climate change first appear in Indicator Species.
• For this reason, they are called as Sentinel Species.
• For ex. Lichens are very sensitive to SO2 pollution. If air is badly polluted by SO2 no lichens would be pre-
sent.
Flagship Species
• A flagship species is a species chosen to represent an environmental cause, such as an ecosystem in
need of conservation.
• These species are chosen for their vulnerability, attractiveness or distinctiveness in order to engender sup-
port & acknowledgement from the public at large.
• Example: Indian tiger, African Elephant, Snow Leopard, Giant Pandaa of China, Leatherback Sea Tur-
tle, etc.
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Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitat
• It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme.
• It was restructured & made operational by adding more components to the erstwhile scheme - "Assis-
tance for the Development of National Parks and Sanctuaries" during the 11th Plan Period.
• It aims to protect and conserve wildlife and its habitats in Protected Areas (PAs) as well as outside PAs
and also for the recovery programmes of the critically endangered species.
Components of the Scheme
1) Support to Protected Areas (National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation & Community Re-
serves).
2) Protection of Wildlife outside Protected Areas.
3) Recovery programmes for saving critically endangered species and habitats.
Species Recovery Programme
• This programme aims at saving critically endangered species.
• So far, 22 species have been identified under the recovery programme.
• Some of the important species included are:
✓ Snow Leopard
✓ Great Indian Bustard (including Floricans)
✓ Dolphin
✓ Hangul
✓ Nilgiri Tahr
✓ Dugongs
✓ Asian Wild Buffalo
✓ Northern River Terrapin
Global Tiger Recovery Program (GTRP)
Global Tiger Initiative
• It was launched in 2008 by:
1. World Bank
2. Global Environment Facility
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3. Smithsonian Institution
4. Save the Tiger Fund
5. International Tiger Coalition
• It aimed at protecting wild tigers from extinction.
T*2 Program
• In 2010 St. Petersburg Declaration on Doubling the Tiger Population (T*2 Program) was signed.
• Under these all 13 Tiger Range Countries in Asia & partner organizations of Global Tiger Initiative agreed
to GTRP.
• Tiger Range Countries part of GTRP are:
1. Bangladesh
2. Bhutan
3. Cambodia
4. China
5. India
6. Indonesia
7. Malaysia
8. Myanmar
9. Russia
10. Thailand
11. Vietnam
12. Nepal
13. Lao PDR
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• Declaration of 2010 established 29th July as International Tiger Day (Global Tiger Day).
Global Tiger Initiative (GTI) Secretariat
• It was hosted by World Bank till 2015.
• After that Global Tiger Initiative Council was recreated with 2 arms for implementation:
a) Global Tiger Forum (GTF) – New Delhi
b) Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Program – Bishkek (Kyrgyzstan)
Global Tiger Forum
• It is an intergovernmental body (Not an NGO).
• It was established in 1993 at New Delhi.
• India elected as chair in 1994 (1st meeting) & in 2011.
• It meets in every 3 years.
Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Program (GSLESP)
• In 2013 Global Tiger Initiative scope was broadened to include Snow Leopards.
• Members include:
Source & Credits
1. Kyrgyzstan
2. Afghanistan
3. Kazakhstan
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4. Mongolia
5. Pakistan
6. 13 Tiger Range Countries
• Countries adopted Bishkek Declaration that aims members to work together to identify & secure at least
20 snow leopard landscapes across the cat’s range by 2020 or, in short – “Secure 20 by 2020.”
International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime (ICCWC)
• It was established in 2010 St. Petersburg at Tiger Forum Meeting.
• It aims to strengthen criminal justice systems & provide coordinated support at national, regional &
international level to combat wildlife & forest crime.
• Partner agencies to ICCWC are:
1. CITES Secretariat
2. INTERPOL
3. United Nations Office on Drugs & Crime (UNODC)
4. World Bank
5. World Customs Organization (WCO)
Gandhinagar Declaration: adopted by all parties to CMS. It underscores the importance of migratory
species. It calls for migratory species and the concept of ‘ecological connectivity’.
St. Petersburg Declaration: Doubling the Tiger Population (T*2 Program). Initiative by Global Tiger
Recovery Program (GTRP)
Bishkek Declaration: it wanted the members of Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Program (GSLESP)
to work together to identify & secure at least 20 snow leopard landscapes across the cat’s range by
2020 or, in short – “Secure 20 by 2020.”
Geography Current Affairs by Pmfias.com – May 2021
{Geo – CC – 2021/05} Shift in Earth’s Axis
IE | Prelims + Mains | GS1 > Changes in critical geographical features etc.
• Context: According to a new study, loss of water on land is shifting the earth’s axis of rotation.
• Earth’s axis of rotation has been rotating faster than normal since the 1990s due to the significant melt-
ing of glaciers caused by global warming.
• According to NASA, the spin axis drifted around 10 cm every year in the 20th century.
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• It means, in a year, polar motion exceeds 10 metres.
What caused the shift?
• In the mid-1990s, melting glaciers redistributed a large amount of water.
• It changed the direction of the routine polar wander to turn eastward and accelerate it.
• The average drift speed rose by around 17 times between 1995 and 2020.
• The primary cause of polar drift is water loss from the Polar Regions, with contributions from water loss
in non-polar regions, which describes the eastward shift of polar drift.
• Melting of glaciers: Climate change has caused billions of tonnes of glacial ice to melt into oceans. This
has caused the Earth’s poles to move in new directions.
Rotation of the Earth on a Titled Axis
• Earth rotates along its axis from west to east.
• It takes approximately 24 hrs. to complete on rotation.
• Days and nights occur due to rotation of the earth.
• Earth's axis of rotation is not straight up and down like the axes of Mercury or Jupiter.
• Earth rotates on a tilted axis.
• Earth’s rotational axis makes an angle of 23.5° with the normal i.e., it makes an angle of 66.5° with the
orbital plane.
• That is why the northern and southern hemispheres get varying amounts of sunlight at different times of
the year, which is why we have seasons.
• Orbital plane is the plane of earth’s orbit around the Sun.
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• The poles are where the planet's axis of rotation (Invisible line running through the center of Earth's mass,
around which it spins) intersects the surface.
• But their geographic locations aren't fixed points: As the Earth's axis moves, so do the poles & movement
is called “Polar Motion”.
• Imagine that the Earth is like a spinning top: If the top's weight is evenly distributed, it should whirl per-
fectly, without any wobbling to one side or another.
• But if some of weight were to shift to one side or the other, that would change the top's center of mass
and axis of rotation, leading it to lean toward the heavier side as it spins.
• The same thing happens to the Earth when weight moves from one area to another.
Factors affecting Distribution of Mass
• Sometimes, changes in the distribution of molten rock in Earth's outer core can alter how the planet's
mass is distributed.
• The way water is distributed on Earth's surface also plays a big role.
• So, if water that was frozen in glaciers in the planet's polar regions melts and joins the ocean, the weight of
that water gets spread across a different area.
How Shift in Axis Affect Us?
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• The recent change to Earth's axis won't affect our everyday lives, but it could slightly change the length of
our days.
• Earth takes 24 hours to complete one rotation. But the movement of its axis, and therefore its poles, could
add milliseconds to that spin time, making our days a tiny bit longer.
Related: pmfias.com/geomagnetic-reversal-magnetic-declination-magnetic-inclination/
{Geo – EG – Energy – 2021/05} Biodiesel from UCO
PIB | Prelims + Mains | GS3 > Energy Sources
• Context: 1st supply of Used Cooking Oil-based Biodiesel under the ‘Randhan se Indhan (from cooking to
fuelling)’ scheme was flagged off recently.
• This initiative will economically benefit the country by boosting indigenous biodiesel supply, reducing im-
port dependence for oil & generating rural employment.
Used Cooking Oil (UCO)
• Consumption – Bulk use of cooking oil in India is by:
✓ Restaurants & eateries
✓ Ready-to-eat food producers
✓ Canteens in institutions (educational, commercial/offices & industrial)
How to know oil is suitable for consumption or not?
• If blue-grey smoke is emitted & tough foam is formed or the oil becomes dark & murky indicates oil is
inedible & dangerous to consume.
Harmful effects of UCO
• Repeated use & frying leads to the formation of TPC (Total Polar Compound).
• Nutritional & physiochemical properties of cooking oils are affected drastically.
• It increases Trans-Fats & gives rise to free radicals.
• Regular consumption has serious consequences like heart attack, liver diseases etc.
• It chokes & clogs municipal sewers & drastically reduces the efficiency of the Wastewater Treatment
Plants.
• It is raises chemical oxygen demand & in water body & severely harms the aquatic & marine life.
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• It harms the marine fauna by coating them with oily layers, literally reducing their ability to breathe, thus,
choking them to death.
Good Practices for maintaining the quality of fried foods:
• Should use good quality frying oil (oil having high saturated & monounsaturated fatty acids are good
for frying).
• Selection of the lowest frying temperature consistent with producing a fried product of good quality. The
oil should not reach its smoke point. Frequent filtering of the oil to remove food particles.
• Use of stainless Steel & avoiding iron pans as it accelerates oxidation resulting in rancidity.
Steps taken by India
• The government has set the maximum permissible limit of Total Polar Compound (TPC) in cooking oil
at 25%.
• The Food Safety & Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has issued outlining the Standard Operating
Procedure (SOP) on handling & disposal of UCO.
✓ UCO should not be disposed off into the municipal sewers or drains.
✓ UCO to be discarded by providing it to the authorized oil aggregators/collectors.
• Dumping UCO into the water bodies is a punishable offence under The Water (Prevention & Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974.
• Government also came up with RUCO Project to convert UCO into Biodiesel.
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RUCO Project
• Food Safety & Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) in association with the Biodiesel Association of
India (BDAI) launched RUCO (Repurpose used cooking oil) Project.
• It aims to convert vegetable oils, animal fats or restaurant grease that has already been used in cooking
into biodiesel for running diesel vehicles.
• It will help in reducing India’s oil import bill, preventing adulteration of new cooking oil with UCO in the
market & reducing repeated usage of the same UCO by food joints keen to cut corners.
• It provides for a RUCO label indicating consumer that provider conforms to the RUCO ecosystem & does
not reuse the cooking oil.
Total Polar Compounds
• During frying, oil undergoes degradation due to their exposure to elevated temperatures which results
in formation of polar compounds.
• It imparts undesirable odor, unpleasant color & high viscosity to final products or fried oil.
• TPC is used to measure the quality of oil, & its level increases every time oil is re-heated.
• TPC beyond 25 per cent is considered unfit for human consumption.
• Higher level of TPC in cooking oil leads to health issues like hypertension, atherosclerosis, Alzheimer’s
disease & liver disease.
• One of the studies also noticed high levels of glucose, creatinine & cholesterol with declined levels of pro-
tein & albumin in cooking oil.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
• Presence of organic & inorganic wastes in water decreases the dissolved oxygen content of the water.
• Water having DO content below 8.0 mg/L may be considered as contaminated.
• Water having DO content below. 4.0 mg/L is considered to be highly polluted.
• DO content of water is important for the survival of aquatic organisms.
• A number of factors like surface turbulence, photosynthetic activity, O2 consumption by organisms
& decomposition of organic matter are the factors which determine the amount of DO present in water.
• The higher amounts of waste increase the rates of decomposition & O2 consumption thereby de-
creases the DO content of water.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
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• Water pollution by organic wastes is measured in terms of Biochemical Oxygen Demand & (BOD).
• BOD is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by bacteria in decomposing the organic wastes pre-
sent in water.
• It is expressed in milligrams of oxygen per litre of water.
• The higher value of BOD indicates low DO content of water.
• Since BOD is limited to biodegradable materials, it is not a reliable method of measuring water pollu-
tion.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
• It is a slightly better mode used to measure pollution load in the water.
• COD measures the amount of oxygen in parts per million required to oxidize organic (biodegradable &
non-biodegradable) & oxidizable inorganic compounds in the water sample.
FSSAI
• It is under administrative control of Ministry of Health & Family Welfare.
• It is statutory body established under the Food Safety & Standards Act, 2006.
• It is responsible for protecting & promoting public health through the regulation & supervision of food
safety.
• Objectives are:
1. Framing of regulations to lay down food safety standards.
2. Laying down guidelines for accreditation of laboratories for food testing.
3. Providing scientific advice & technical support to the Central Government.
4. Collecting & collating data regarding food consumption, contamination, emerging risks, etc.
5. Disseminating information & promoting awareness about food safety & nutrition in India.
Suggested Reading : Biofuels, Important Biofuels, National Policy on Biofuels 2018 | Trans Fat
{Geo – EG – Renewable Energy – 2021/05} Indian Renewable Energy Development
Agency (IREDA)
PIB | Prelims | Economic Geography > Energy Sources > Renewable Energy
• Context: Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) Ltd has been conferred with “Green
Urja Award”.
• IREDA is a Mini Ratna (Category – I) Public Limited Government Company.
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• It is under the administrative control of Ministry of New & Renewable Energy.
• IREDA is established as a Non-Banking Financial Institution in 1987.
• It is engaged in promoting, developing & extending financial assistance for setting up projects relating to
new & renewable sources of energy & energy efficiency/conservation with the motto: “Energy for Ever”.
Objectives:
• To give financial support to specific projects & schemes for generating electricity & / or energy through
new & renewable sources & conserving energy through energy efficiency.
• To increase IREDA’s share in the renewable energy sector by way of innovative financing.
Green Urja Award
• The Indian Chamber of Commerce (ICC) has launched the Green Urja Award.
• IREDA gets the award for the pivotal & developmental role it plays in Green Energy Financing.
Indian Chamber of Commerce
• It was founded in 1925.
• It has its head office in Kolkata.
• The Indian Chamber of Commerce was closely associated with the Indian Freedom Movement, as the
first organized voice of indigenous Indian Industry.
• It was set up by a group of pioneering industrialists led by Mr. G D Birla.
• The India Energy Summit is an annual & flagship initiative of ICC.
{Geo – Geomorphology – 2021/05} A-76 Iceberg
TH | PIB | Prelims + Mains | GS1 > Geographical features & their location – changes in critical geograph-
ical features (including water bodies and icecaps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes.
• Context: A huge ice block has broken off from Western Antarctica into the Weddell Sea, becoming largest
iceberg in the world.
• The ice in Antarctica might seem static, but it is constantly moving. Pieces of ice are continuously breaking
off from ice shelf, glaciers, or other icebergs.
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Source & Credits
• A-76 measures around,170 km long and 25 km wide with an area of 4320 sq. km.
• A-23A, the previous world’s largest title holder, has remained in the area since 1986.
• The breaking off of A-76 is not linked to climate change.
✓ Periodic calving of large chunks of those shelves is part of a natural cycle.
✓ However, some shelves have experienced rapid break up in the last few years due to global warming.
✓ As the ice was already floating in the sea before dislodging from the coast, its break-away does
not raise ocean levels.
How are Icebergs named?
• They are traditionally named from Antarctica Quadrant in which they were originally sighted.
• If the iceberg breaks, a sequential letter is given to it.
• US National Ice Center is only organization that names and tracks Antarctic Icebergs.
Source & Credits
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Why does Melting of Floating Iceshelf does not cause a raise in sea level?
• When ice on land slides into the ocean, it displaces ocean water and causes sea level to rise.
• When this floating ice melts, water level doesn’t raise by an additional amount because the freshwater
ice displaces the same volume of water as it would contribute once it melts.
• Because when floating, the ice displaces an amount of water equal to its mass, and when melted, it be-
comes an amount of water equal to its mass.
• However, recent studies show that it can contribute to rising sea levels.
a) An iceberg (Freshwater) is less dense than salty sea water.
b) So, while the amount of sea water displaced by the iceberg is equal to its weight, the melted fresh
water will take up a slightly larger volume than the displaced salt water.
c) This results in a small increase in the water level.
Sea Ice and Climate Change
• Sea ice is frozen sea water.
• It perennially expands & contracts during each year’s winter and summer.
• Melting sea ice does not contribute directly to sea level rise (ice floats and displaces the same volume of
water), but sea ice is important because it enhances climate warming.
• It changes the reflectivity of the sea water, reflecting lots of sunlight back (High Albedo).
• Hence, it is important component of the climate and Cryospheric (Icey) System.
Iceberg
• Icebergs are pieces of ice that formed on land and float in an ocean or lake.
• Chunks of ice greater than 5 m across are called ‘Icebergs’.
• 90% of the mass of an iceberg is underwater.
• Icebergs can have many colors:
a) Blue icebergs are formed from basal ice from a glacier. The compressed crystals have a blue tint.
b) Green and red icebergs are colored by algae that lives on the ice.
c) Stripy icebergs are colored by basal dirt and rocks, ground up by the glacier and carried away within
the glacier ice.
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Source & Credits
Difference between Glacier & Iceberg
• Glacier is a massive moving permanent mass of ice that is much larger in size than an Iceberg.
• Glaciers are located on land whereas Iceberg is found in water & 90% of it remains below the water level.
• Glacier are formed when rate of deposition of snow is more than rate of ablation (all processes that re-
move mass from a glacier), whereas Icebergs are formed from chunks of ice break off from glaciers.
How do icebergs form, and where do they go?
• Icebergs are formed due to ice calving.
Source & Credits
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Ice Shelf
• Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica, Greenland, Northern Canada, and the Russian Arctic.
• An ice shelf is a large floating extension of land ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to
a coastline and onto the ocean surface.
• Ice shelves lose ice in several ways:
a) Melting from below (from relatively warm ocean currents).
b) Melting from above (from warm air temperatures).
c) Calving icebergs.
• The boundary between the floating ice shelf and the anchor ice (resting on bedrock) that feeds it is the
grounding line.
• Movement of Ice shelves
✓ The movement of ice shelves is principally driven by gravity-induced pressure from the grounded ice.
✓ That flow continually moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the shelf.
Ice Calving
• It is the breaking of ice (mechanical loss) chunks from the edge of a glacier.
a) Before calving occurs, smaller cracks in glacier ice grow (or propagate) into larger crevasses.
b) When crevasses penetrate the full thickness of the ice, calving occurs.
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Source & Credits
• Waterline Melting:
a) Glacier ice at or below a lake waterline often melts at a faster rate than the ice above a lake waterline.
Source & Credits
b) When calving occurs due to waterline melting, only the sub-aerial part of the glacier will calve, leaving a
submerged 'foot'.
Source & Credits
• Upward buoyant forces:
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Source & Credits
• Tidal and Seismic events can also lead to calving.
{Geo LBT – World – 2021/05} Antarctica
TH | PIB | Prelims | Geography > Location Based Topics > World
• Antarctica is the 5th largest continent of the world.
• It contains the geographical South Pole.
• It is the single largest reservoir of freshwater.
• Antarctica is a cold desert, with annual precipitation of only 200 mm along the coast.
• It was a part of Gondwana land mass.
• It became isolated with the opening of the Drake Passage between Antarctica and South America.
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• It is the only continent which is isolated and zero populated.
• About 98% of Antarctica remains covered with snow permanently.
• The average thickness of icesheet is 2-5 km.
• The Palmer Peninsula is the part of the Antarctica which is ice-free to some extent.
✓ It is the northernmost part of the mainland of Antarctica.
• Vegetation: Lichen and Moss are the main vegetation of the continent.
• Major Fauna: Penguin is a well-known flightless bird found in this continent.
Major Mountain Ranges of Antarctica
• Antarctic Peninsula Cordillera:
✓ It is located on the northern Antarctic Peninsula, in the Graham Land and Palmer Land.
• Ellsworth Mounatins: To the south of Antarctic Peninsula Cordillera are the Ellsworth.
✓ Mt. Vinson Massif (Ellsworth Mountains) is the highest peak in Antarctica.
• Transantarctic Mountains: It runs north to south and splits the continent into East (Greater Antarctica)
and West (Lesser Antarctica).
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• Mt. Erebus is the only active volcano of Antarctica.
• Vida is a 19m thick ice layer saline lake in Antarctica. (Salinity is equal to that of Dead Sea).
• Aurora Australis or Southern Lights, Diamond Dust (ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals),
Sun Dogs (bright spots on the 22 degree Halo — ring with an apparent radius of approximately 22°
around the Sun) are frequent optical phenomenon observed in Antarctica.
Major Seas & Ice Shelves
• Weddell Sea
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• Ross Sea: It is the southernmost sea on Earth.
• Ross Ice Shelf: The Ross Ice Shelf is the largest ice shelf of Antarctica and about 800 kilometres across.
• Ronne Filchner Shelf: It is an Antarctic ice shelf bordering the Weddell Sea.
Antarctica Circumpolar Current
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• It is an ocean current that flows clockwise (when seen from the South Pole) from west to east around Ant-
arctica.
• It is also known as West Wind Drift.
• It flows through:
a) Drake Passage between South America & Antarctic Peninsula.
b) Split by the Scotia Arc to the east, a shallow warm branch flows to the north as the Falkland Current.
c) Passing through the Indian Ocean, the current first retroflects the Agulhas Current to form the Agulhas
Return Current before it is split by the Kerguelen Plateau, and then moving northward again.
Antarctic Treaty (1959)
• It is collectively known as the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS).
• It regulates international relations with respect to Antarctica.
• For the purposes of the treaty, Antarctica is defined as all of the land & ice shelves south of 60°S latitude.
• The treaty entered into force in 1961.
• The treaty sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, establishes freedom of scientific investigation, and
bans military activity on the continent.
• Any nuclear explosions in Antarctica and radioactive waste disposal are prohibited.
• Protocol on Environment Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (Also known as Madrid Protocol):
✓ It came into force into 1998.
✓ It is the main instrument concerned with conservation & management of biodiversity of Antarctica.
India’s Antarctica Expedition
• Context: India marks four successful decades of scientific endeavour in Antarctica with the return of the
40th Scientific Expedition to Antarctica in April 2021.
Indian Antarctic Programme
• The program was initiated in 1980-82.
• It aimed at conducting scientific research in frozen continent.
• 1st Indian Expedition to Antarctica was in 1981.
Indian Research Stations in Antarctica
• Under environment protocol of Antarctic Treaty (1959), India has set up 3 stations till now.
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Dakshin Gangotri
• It is the1stIndian research station established in Antarctica in 1983-84 (during 3rd Antarctic expedition).
• It is located 2500 km from South Pole.
MAITRI
• It was established in 1988.
• Ice-free, rocky area on Schirmacher Oasis selected for this second research station.
BHARATI
• It was established in 2015.
• It is located beside Larsmann Hill.
• It is constructed using 134 recycled shipping containers.
National Centre for Antarctic & Ocean Research (NCAOR)
• It is a research & development body.
• It supervises & controls Indian Antarctic Programme.
• It comes under Ministry of Earth Sciences.
{Geo LBT – World – 2021/05} Israel-Palestine
• Context: Confrontations between Palestinians & Israeli security forces at Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem
have escalated into armed conflict between Hamas (Palestinian militant group based in Gaza) & Israel.
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• Israel is the world’s only Jewish state.
• Palestinians, the Arab population that hails from the land Israel now controls, refer to the territory as
Palestine, and want to establish a state by that name on all or part of the same land.
• The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is over who gets what land and how it’s controlled.
Chronology of Israel – Palestine Conflict
Before Christ
• Israelite King Solomon built a temple in Jerusalem for Jewish people.
• It remains the holiest site for them.
• Those were times of empire building and Jerusalem was invaded by Egyptian and later Roman cam-
paigners who attacked that temple.
• In 70 BC, Romans destroyed a reconstructed temple built at the Jerusalem site.
• Jewish people fled in large numbers during these centuries.
7th Century
• Islamic Caliphate army took control of Jerusalem.
• Flight of the Jewish people continued for centuries.
• Europe, particularly in and around Germany, got the biggest population of Jews.
19th Century
• Zionist movement was launched with appeal for the return of Jews to Israel or Palestine as it was known.
Post-World War-I
• Defeat of Germany in WWI saw the rise of Adolf Hitler, who blamed Jews for the country’s defeat.
• He expanded Germany and Jews were persecuted in areas he controlled.
• In the post-war settlement, Britain was given the mandate for Palestine and Trans-Jordan (areas in-
cluding Israel, West Bank and Gaza).
Post-World War-II (1939-45)
• With the support from the US and the UK, Jews created the state of Israel in 1948.
• They created a new state after Arabs opposed for carving out a separate state from Palestine.
1948
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• 1st Israel-Arab War began after the Britain’s mandate ended and it lifted its control.
• Arab countries sided with Palestine, but the war ended with Israel, backed by the US, controlling large
area for its nation.
• Estimated 7 lakh Palestinians lost their homes and became refugees.
1956
• 2nd Israel-Arab war began after Egypt announced nationalization of the Suez Canal.
• Israel invaded Egypt, got support from Britain and France.
• The US and erstwhile USSR brokered a deal to end the war.
1964
• Palestinians organized themselves under the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO) for struggle
against Israel.
1967
• 6 Day War took place in which Israel defeated Egypt, Jordan & Syria.
• Israel took control of the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, Sinai Peninsula (from Egypt), the Golan Heights
(border region captured from Syria) & East Jerusalem.
• More than 2.50 lakh Palestinians were displaced.
1991
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• Israel begins peace talks with Palestinian leaders, Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan in Spain — Madrid Confer-
ence.
1993
• Israel and the PLO signed what is called the Oslo Peace Accord. It was backed by the United Nations.
1994
• A follow-up deal was signed, called the Cairo Agreement between Israel and the PLO.
• The agreements created the Palestinian Authority which was given the charge of administrative affairs
in the West Bank and Gaza.
• Question of Israeli settlements (that continued since 1967) in the West Bank, and status of Jerusalem
remained unresolved.
• Both Israel and Palestine view Jerusalem as their future capital.
Source & Credits
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2006
• Hamas won election in Gaza emerging as a political challenger to Fatah party that was moderate and
had won in the West Bank.
2021
• Israel barricades Damascus Gate Plaza in the East Jerusalem on April 12.
• It is a popular gathering place for Palestinians during Ramzan.
• Protests broke out. Israel limits the number of people who can prayer at Al-Aqsa — considered the third
holiest mosque in Islam — in East Jerusalem to 10,000 people.
• Clashes erupt and spread to Gaza and the West Bank.
Important Geographical Locations
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Israel
• Country in the Middle East, located at the Eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea.
• It is bounded to the north by Lebanon, to the Northeast by Syria, East and Southeast by Jordan, to the
Southwest by Egypt, and West by the Mediterranean Sea.
• Major cities: Tel Aviv (the most important technological & economic centre), Jerusalem (capital) & Haifa.
• Lowest Point: Dead Sea
• Longest River: Jordan River
• Largest Lake: Lake of Galilee
• Other rivers in Israel are the Yarqon, which empties into the Mediterranean near Tel Aviv.
Palestine
• The location of Palestine is at the Eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, south of Lebanon and to the
west of Jordan.
Gaza Strip
• Gaza was part of the:
o Ottoman Empire, before it was occupied by the United Kingdom (1918–1948)
o Egypt (1948–1967)
o Israel, which in 1993 granted the Palestinian Authority in Gaza limited self-governance through the Os-
lo Accords.
o Since 2007, the Gaza Strip has been de facto governed by Hamas, which claims to represent the
Palestinian National Authority and the Palestinian people.
• Gaza borders Egypt on the southwest & Israel on the east and north.
West Bank
• It is a landlocked territory near the Mediterranean coast of Western Asia, bordered by Jordan & Dead
Sea to East and by Israel to the south, west and north.
Jerusalem
• It is a city in Western Asia, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the
Dead Sea.
• It is one of the oldest cities in the world and is considered holy to the three major Abrahamic religions —
Judaism, Christianity, & Islam.
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• Both Israel and the Palestinian Authority claim Jerusalem as their capital,
Sinai Peninsula
• It is a triangular peninsula linking Africa with Asia.
• The Sinai Desert is separated by the Gulf of Suez and the Suez Canal from the Eastern Desert of Egypt.
• Usually regarded as being geographically part of Asia, the Sinai Peninsula is the North-Eastern extremity
of Egypt and Adjoins Israel and the Gaza Strip on the east.
Dead Sea
• It is a Salt Lake bordered by Jordan (East) and Israel & West Bank (West).
• It lies in the Jordan Rift Valley, and its main tributary is the Jordan River.
• It is deepest Hypersaline lake in the world.
• To the west of the Dead Sea, the Judaean Mountains rise less steeply and are much lower than the
mountains to the East.
Gulf of Aqabba
• The Gulf of is a large gulf at North of Red Sea, East of Sinai Peninsula & West of Arabian Peninsula.
• Its coastline is divided among four countries: Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia.
Gulf of Suez
• It is at the northern end of the Red Sea, to the west of the Sinai Peninsula.
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Mediterranean Sea
• Intercontinental sea that stretches from the Atlantic Ocean on the West to Asia on the East and separates
Europe from Africa.
• It connects:
✓ To the Atlantic Ocean by the Strait of Gibraltar in the West.
✓ To the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, by the Straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosporus re-
spectively, in the East.
✓ To the Southeast connected with Red Sea by the Suez Canal.
• Countries bordering Mediterranean Sea
✓ Albania, Algeria, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovnia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Lebanon,
Libya, Malta, Morocco, Monaco, Montenegro, Slovenia, Spain, Tunisia and Turkey.
Golan Heights
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• Golan Heights, also called Golan Plateau, is a hilly area.
• It is bounded by the Jordan River and Sea of Galilee on the West, Mount Hermon on the North and
Yarmūk River on the South.
Science & Technology Current Affairs by Pmfias.com – May 2021
{S&T – BioTech – 2021/05} India’s Genome Consortium
PIB | PIB | Prelims + Mains | GS3 > Applications of Biotechnology
• Context: Indian Genomic Consortium has so far processed more than 13,000 samples for Genome Se-
quencing.
Indian SARS-CoV-2 Genomics Consortium (INSACOG)
• It is a network of 10 laboratories established in December 2020.
• It aims at continuously monitoring the genomic changes of SARS-CoV-2 in India.
• Monitoring is done through Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS).
• Knowledge generated though this research consortium will assist in developing diagnostics & potential
therapeutics & vaccines in the future.
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Genome
• A genome is the DNA, or sequence of genes, in a cell.
• Most of the DNA is in the nucleus and intricately coiled into a structure called the chromosome.
• The rest is in the mitochondria, the cell’s powerhouse, and some is chloroplast DNA.
• Every human cell contains a pair of chromosomes, each of which has three billion base pairs or one of
four molecules – adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) – that pair in precise ways.
• The order of base pairs & varying lengths of these sequences constitutes the “genes”.
• Genes are responsible for making amino acids, proteins and, thereby, everything that is necessary for the
body to function.
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• When these proteins do not function as intended, it leads to disease.
Genome Sequencing
• Sequencing a genome means deciphering the exact order of base pairs in an individual.
• This “deciphering” or reading of the genome is what sequencing is all about.
• In this particular piece of DNA, an adenine (A) is followed by a guanine (G), which is followed by a thymine
(T), which in turn is followed by a cytosine (C), another cytosine (C), and so on.
How do you sequence a genome?
• Almost any biological sample containing a full copy of the DNA — even a very small amount of DNA or
ancient DNA — can provide the genetic material necessary for full genome sequencing.
• Such samples may include saliva, epithelial cells, bone marrow, hair (as long as the hair contains a hair
follicle), seeds, plant leaves, etc.
• The whole genome cannot be sequenced all at once because available methods of DNA sequencing can
only handle short stretches of DNA at a time.
• Scientists must break the genome into small pieces, sequence the pieces & then reassemble them in the
proper order to arrive at the sequence of the whole genome.
• One strategy, known as the "clone-by-clone" approach, involves first breaking the genome up into rela-
tively large chunks.
• The other strategy, called "whole-genome" method, involves breaking the genome up into small pieces,
sequencing the pieces, & reassembling the pieces into the full genome sequence.
Whole genome sequencing
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• Exome, the portion of the genes responsible for making proteins occupies just about 1% of the actual
gene. Rather than sequence the whole gene, many geneticists rely on “exome maps”.
• However, the non-exome portions also affect the functioning of the genes.
• Hence to know which genes of a person’s DNA are “mutated” the whole genome sequencing is re-
quired.
• Whole genome sequencing is the process of determining the complete DNA sequence of an organ-
ism's genome at a single time.
• This entails sequencing all of an organism's chromosomal DNA as well as DNA contained in the mito-
chondria and, for plants, in the chloroplast.
• In practice, genome sequences that are nearly complete are also called whole genome sequences.
• The whole genome sequencing relies on new technologies that allow rapid sequencing of the entire ge-
nome in a matter of a few days.
Source & Credits
Advantages of Whole Genome Sequencing
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• It provides a high-resolution, base-by-base view of the genome.
• Captures both large & small variants that might be missed with targeted approaches.
• Identifies potential causative variants for further follow-up studies of gene expression & regulation.
• Delivers large volumes of data in a short amount of time to support assembly of novel genomes.
• Whole genome sequencing data of a person can be analysed to determine if they carry genes for par-
ticular single genetic disorders (caused due to mutation). This will help usher in a new era of personal-
ized medicine.
Human Genome Project
• Human Genome Project is a publicly funded international collaborative research project aimed at
✓ determining the sequence of chemical base pairs which make up human DNA, &
✓ identifying & mapping all of the genes of the human genome.
A base pair (bp) is a unit consisting of two nucleobases bound to each other by hydrogen bonds.
They form the building blocks of the DNA double helix & contribute to the folded structure of both
DNA & RNA.
• Human Genome Project was formally launched in 1990, & finally declared complete in 2003.
• The mapping of the human genome involves sequencing multiple variations of each gene.
• The HGP has revealed that there are probably about 20,500 human genes.
Applications & Benefits of Human Genome Project
It can help us
1. understand diseases including genotyping of specific viruses to direct appropriate treatment,
2. in identification of mutations linked to different forms of cancer,
3. understand the design of medication & more accurate prediction of their effects,
4. in advancement of forensic applied sciences, biofuels, animal husbandry, etc.
5. understand evolution much more accurately.
• Another proposed benefit is the commercial development of genomics research related to DNA based
products, a multibillion-dollar industry.
Genome India Project
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• Taking inspiration from the Human Genome Project, the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) initiated
the ambitious Genome India Project” (GIP) in 2020.
• It aims to collect 10,000 genetic samples from citizens across India, to build a reference genome.
• Gene Mapping project involves 20 leading institutions of the country with the Centre for Brain Re-
search of Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bangalore as the nodal point.
IndiGen: India’s Genome Sequencing Project
• The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) concluded the six-month long exercise of conduct-
ing a “whole-genome sequence” of a 1,008 Indians that beloged to diverse ethnicities.
• The project is part of a programme called “IndiGen” and is a precursor to Genome India Project” (GIP).
• The project involved the Hyderabad-based Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) and the
CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology (IGIB).
Goals & Objectives of Genome India Project” (GIP)
• Whole-genome sequencing and subsequent data analysis of the genetic data of these 10,000 individ-
uals would be carried out.
• It aims to aid understanding of the nature of diseases affecting the Indian population.
• It allows India to draw upon its tremendous genetic diversity, given the series of large migrations historical-
ly, and thus, add greatly to the current information about the human species.
• This initiative would help lay the foundation of personalized healthcare for a very large group of persons
on the planet.
Priority Areas
• Some of the priority areas are:
1) Precision health
2) Rare genetic disorders
3) Mutation spectrum of genetic and complex diseases in the Indian population
4) Genetic Epidemiology of Multifactorial Lifestyle Diseases
5) Translational Research.
Key Terms
• DNA: hereditary material of most of the living beings.
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• RNA: hereditary material of some microorganisms (virus).
• Genes: specific section of DNA which encodes the synthesis of gene product either RNA or for proteins,
i.e., it is involved in making RNA (transcription) or proteins (translation).
• Chromosome: are thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal & plant cells.
✓ The DNA is coiled to make thread like structure called chromosomes.
✓ Human beings have 46 chromosomes (23 from each parent).
✓ Each chromosome is made of protein & a single molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
• Genome sequencing: Deciphering the exact order of bases pairs (complete DNA sequence) in an organ-
ism's genome.
✓ This entails sequencing all of an organism's chromosomal DNA as well as DNA contained in the mito-
chondria and, for plants, in the chloroplast.
Suggested Reading: PMF IAS NCERT Biology Compilation Chapter 12: Nucleic Acids – DNA & RNA
{S&T – Diseases – 2021/05} Antimicrobial Resistance
TH | Prelims + Mains | GS2 > Health | GS3 > Diseases
• Context: Many infectious diseases have ceased to respond to antibiotics.
What is Antimicrobial Resistance?
• Antimicrobials include antibiotics, antiviral, antifungal & anti-parasitic medication.
• The WHO defines antimicrobial resistance (antibiotic, antiviral, anti-malarial resistance) as a microorgan-
ism's resistance to an antimicrobial drug that was once able to treat an infection by that microorganism.
• E.g., In Multi Drug Resistant TB (MDR-TB), the TB bacteria are resistant to two of the most important TB
drugs, isoniazid (INH) and rifampicin (RMP).
• Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) are the recommended first-line treatment for un-
complicated P. falciparum malaria & are used by most malaria endemic countries.
• Partial resistance to Artemisinin has been confirmed in South-East Asia.
Causative Factors for Antimicrobial Resistance
• Antimicrobial resistance occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi & parasites change over time & no longer
respond to medicines.
• They become Superbugs and become resistant to the drugs that should usually destroy them.
• Micro-organisms can develop resistance mainly in two ways:
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a) Intrinsic resistance: Ability of an organism to resist a class of antimicrobial agents.
b) Acquired resistance: Micro-organisms acquiring the gene coding (genetic mutation) for resistance.
• Intrinsic Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) occurs naturally over time, usually through genetic changes.
• Acquired resistance is more common than intrinsic resistance.
Causes Behind Acquired Antimicrobial Resistance
• Overuse, misuse, and improper use (e.g., taking antibiotics to treat viral diseases!) of antimicrobials.
• Greater access to over-the-counter antibiotic drugs in developing countries.
• Using broad-spectrum antibiotics over narrow-spectrum antibiotics (targeting specific microbes only).
• Dumping of inadequately treated effluents from the pharmaceutical industry.
• Antibiotic use in livestock feed at low doses for growth promotion is industrialized countries.
• Poor sanitation and hygiene that forces the extended use of antimicrobials.
World’s Rivers Loaded with Antibiotics Waste
• The concentrations of major antibiotics like Ciprofloxacin (treatment for intestinal and urinary tract infec-
tions) and metronidazole in water bodies were several times above the limit in many parts of the world.
Colistin in the Food Industry
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• Colistin is a valuable, last-resort antibiotic that saves lives in critical care units.
• Colistin is as growth supplement (growth factor) in poultry & animals.
• In recent years, may patients have exhibited resistance to the drug.
• If colistin-resistant bacteria are found in the blood, there is 80% chance of death.
Why are Antibiotics effective against Bacterial Infections but not Viral Infections?
• Taxonomically, all bacteria are closely related to each other than to viruses & vice versa.
• This means that many important life processes are similar in the bacteria group but are not shared with the
virus group.
• As a result, drugs that block one of these life processes in one member of the group is likely to be effective
against many other members of the group.
• But the same drug will not work against a microbe belonging to a different group.
• As an example, let us take antibiotics. They commonly block biochemical pathways important for bacteria.
• Many bacteria, for example, make a cell-wall to protect themselves.
• The antibiotic penicillin blocks the bacterial processes that build the cell wall.
• As a result, the growing bacteria become unable to make cell-walls & die easily.
• Human cells don’t make a cell-wall anyway, so penicillin cannot have such an effect on us.
• Similarly, many antibiotics work against many species of bacteria rather than simply working against one
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group.
• But viruses do not use these pathways at all, & that is the reason why antibiotics do not work against
viral infections.
• If we have a common cold, taking antibiotics does not reduce the severity or the duration of the disease.
• However, if we also get a bacterial infection along with the viral cold, taking antibiotics will help.
• Even then, the antibiotic will work only against the bacterial part of the infection, not the viral infection.
Why is it harder to make antivirals compared to antibiotics?
• Unlike bacteria, viruses have few biochemical mechanisms of their own.
• This means that there are relatively few virus-specific targets to aim at.
• Despite this limitation, there are now effective anti-viral drugs, for example, the drugs that keep HIV infec-
tion under control.
Concerns Raised Due to Antimicrobial Resistance
• As a result of drug resistance, it has become increasingly difficult or impossible to treat some diseases.
• Treating resistant microbes require alternative or higher doses of medication (expensive + toxic).
• In 2016, upto 4,90,000 people developed multi-drug-resistant TB globally.
• Drug resistance is starting to complicate the fight against HIV and malaria.
• Organ transplantation, chemotherapy & surgeries would be compromised without effective antimicrobials.
• Medical procedures, such as surgery have become riskier.
• Antimicrobial resistance increases the cost of health care with lengthier stays in hospitals, additional tests
& use of more expensive drugs.
• It can ultimately lead to Antibiotic Apocalypse – A future without antibiotics, with bacteria becoming
completely resistant to treatment & when common infections & minor injuries could once again kill.
Measures Required
• Global collective action through international treaties on antimicrobial resistance.
• Preventing over the counter sale of antibiotics.
• Swatch Baharat, awareness, etc.
Steps taken Globally to fight Antimicrobial Resistance
Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (GAP)
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• Globally, countries committed to the framework set out in the Global Action Plan (GAP) 2015 on AMR
during the 2015 World Health Assembly.
• t mandated nations to develop & implement national action plans to tackle microbial resistance.
Tripartite Joint Secretariat on Antimicrobial Resistance
• A tripartite joint secretariat (FAO, World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) & WHO) is established
in 2016.
• It aims to drive multi-stakeholder engagement in AMR.
World Antimicrobial Awareness Week (WAAW)
• Held annually since 2015.
• It is a global campaign that aims to raise awareness of antimicrobial resistance worldwide.
The Global Antimicrobial Resistance & Use Surveillance System (GLASS)
• It was launched by WHO in 2015 to continue fill knowledge gaps & to inform strategies at all levels.
• It is conceived to progressively incorporate data from surveillance of AMR in humans, medicines, food
chain & in the environment.
Global Research & Development priority setting for AMR
• In 2017, to guide research & development into new antimicrobials, diagnostics & vaccines, WHO devel-
oped the WHO priority pathogens list.
• It will be updated in 2022.
Global Antibiotic Research & Development Partnership (GARDP)
• A joint initiative of WHO & the Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi).
• The partnership aims to develop & deliver 5 new treatments that target drug-resistant bacteria identified
by WHO as posing the greatest threat by 2025.
Steps taken by India to Fight Antimicrobial Resistance
• India formed National Action Plan to combat Antimicrobial Resistance.
• The National Health Policy 2017 highlights the problem of antimicrobial resistance & calls for effective
action to address it.
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• Since 2014 a separate Schedule H-1 has been incorporated in Drug & Cosmetic rules to regulate the
sale of antimicrobials in the country.
• Health Ministry initiated Red Line Campaign:
✓ It urged people not to use the medicines marked with a red vertical line without prescription.
• The Food Safety & Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) banned the use of antibiotics & several phar-
macologically active substances in fisheries.
2019: Colistin banned in animal food industry
• The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has prohibited the manufacture, sale and distribution of colistin
and its formulations for food-producing animals, poultry, aqua farming and animal feed supplements.
• The move is a “massive victory” for the movement against anti-microbial resistance.
National Action Plan – India
• National Action Plan to combat Antimicrobial Resistance is on the lines with World Health Organization’s
Global Action Plan (GAP) for AMR.
• The plan highlights the need for tackling AMR across multiple sectors such as human health, animal
husbandry, agriculture & environment in consideration of the “One-Health” approach.
Priority Areas
Education & Training
• Revision of curriculum for professionals in animal, agriculture & environment sector with focus on AMR.
Surveillance
• Conducting national-level surveillance of antibiotic residues in food from animals & in environment.
Infection Prevention & Control
• Restricting antibiotics in animal feed, & regulating their import, direct distribution & online marketing.
• Eliminating use of critically important antimicrobials for humans in food animals.
• Ensuring prescription sale of antibiotics & appropriate labeling of food from animals produced with or
without routine use of antibiotics.
Environment
• Strengthening of necessary laws & regulations, environment risk assessment; extended producer re-
sponsibility for expired/unused antibiotics.
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Mains Practice: “Anti-Microbial Resistance is a complex global problem & requires multi-faceted approach”.
Discuss (250 Words)
{S&T – Diseases – 2021/05} Multidrug-resistant Tuberculosis (MDR-TB)
Prelims + Mains | This is a revised & refined version of the content given earlier.
• Worldwide, TB has surpassed HIV-AIDS as the leading cause of death due to infectious diseases.
• India contributes to 27% of the global TB burden, the highest share globally.
• As per WHO, an estimated 4.5 lakh people have MDR-TB and nearly 37,500 people have XDR-TB.
• Out of these, India has 24% of MDR-TB cases in the world.
Tuberculosis (TB)
• Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
• TB commonly affects the lungs (pulmonary TB) but can also affect other parts (extra pulmonary TB).
Source & Credits: Wikipedia
• Pulmonary tuberculosis is a chronic consumptive disease, but it can be present as an acute pneumonia.
• Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lung affecting primarily the microscopic air sacs known as
alveoli.
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• Tuberculosis spreads from person to person through the air, when people who are infected with TB infec-
tion cough, sneeze or otherwise transmit respiratory fluids through the air.
• The most common risk factor associated with TB is HIV & other conditions that impair the immune sys-
tem.
Tuberculosis Symptomatic Diagnosis
• Most infections do not have symptoms, known as latent tuberculosis.
• About 10% of latent infections eventually progresses to active disease which, if left untreated, kills about
half of those infected.
Common symptoms of tuberculosis are:
• Chronic cough with blood-tinged sputum,
• Loss of weight,
• Loss of appetite,
• Fever and night sweats,
• Fatigue are common symptoms of tuberculosis, etc.
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Source & Credits: Wikipedia
TB Treatment
• The standard 6-month course treatment consists of 2 phases:
1) 1st phase – It lasts for 2 months and is called Intensive phase.
2) 2nd phase – It lasts for 4 months and is called Continuous phase.
• For new TB cases, the treatment in intensive phase (IP) consists of four drugs:
1. Isoniazid (INH),
2. Rifampicin,
3. Pyrazinamide &
4. Ethambutol.
• For previously treated cases of TB, the intensive phase is of 12 weeks, where injection streptomycin is giv-
en for eight weeks along with four drugs.
• Most people with TB are cured by a strictly followed 6-month drug regimen.
Multidrug-Resistant TB (MDR-TB)
• CBNAAT (Cartridges Based Nucleic Acid Amplification Test) is used for early diagnosis of MDR-TB.
• In MDR-TB, the bacteria that cause TB develop resistance to antimicrobial drugs used to cure the disease.
• MDR-TB does not respond to at least isoniazid and rifampicin, the 2 most powerful anti-TB drugs.
• Treatment options for MDR-TB are limited, and expensive.
• In some cases, even more severe drug-resistant TB may develop.
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Extensively Drug-Resistant TB (XDR-TB)
• XDR-TB is a form of multidrug-resistant TB with additional resistance to more anti-TB drugs.
• People who are resistant to isoniazid and rifampicin, plus any fluoroquinolone and at least one of three
injectable second-line drugs (amikacin, kanamycin, capreomycin) are said to have XDR-TB.
Causes of Multidrug Resistant-TB
• Multidrug resistance is caused due to mismanagement of treatment & person-to-person transmission.
• Mismanagement of TB treatment involves inappropriate or incorrect use of antimicrobial drugs or use of
ineffective formulations of drugs and premature treatment interruption.
Treatment for Drug-Resistant TB
• The treatment success in MDR-TB patients is about 54%, while it is just 30% in the case of XDR-TB patients.
• A combination of eight drugs for more than a year is need for XDR-TB treatment.
• Treatment success in XDR-TB patients depends on the extent of the drug resistance, the severity of the dis-
ease, whether the patient’s immune system is weakened, and adherence to treatment.
• Drugs used for treating MDR-TB and XDR-TB can cause serious adverse effects such as deafness.
New Promising Drug Pretomanid
• Treating MDR-TB and XDR-TB could get simpler and shorter with the new drug Pretomanid.
• Pretomanid is only the third anti-TB drug approved by U.S. FDA in more than 40 years.
• The drug was developed and tested by New York-based non-profit organisation TB Alliance.
What makes Pretomanid promising?
• The duration of treatment for drug-resistant TB can be cut from 18-24 months to just six-nine months
when three-drug regimen consisting of Bedaquiline, Pretomanid and Linezolid (BPaL regimen) is used.
• The all-oral, three-drug regimen can vastly improve the treatment success rate & adherence to treatment.
• Importantly, the regimen was found to be safe and effective in curing TB in people living with HIV.
• Unlike bedaquiline, which is expensive, pretomanid might become affordable.
Which category of drug-resistant TB patients will benefit from this new drug?
• BPaL regimen is meant for treating adults with XDR-TB.
• In the case of MDR-TB, the three-drug regimen containing pretomanid can be used only in those patients
who cannot tolerate the MDR-TB treatment or do not respond to standard MDR-TB treatment regimen.
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• The three-drug regimen is meant only for treating pulmonary TB and should not be used for treating ex-
tra-pulmonary TB, drug-sensitive or latent TB.
What are the adverse reactions caused by the drug?
• The three-drug regimen was reported to have caused adverse reactions including liver toxicity (hepatotoxi-
city), suppression of bone marrow leading to reduced production of red & while blood cells & platelets, etc.
The goal to end TB by 2025
• Revised National TB Control Programme was renamed as the National TB Elimination Programme
(NTEP).
• The change in name is in line with the larger goal of eliminating the disease by 2025, five years ahead of
the Sustainable Development Goals target of 2030.
National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP)
• 1962: The National TB Programme (NTP) was launched by GOI with BCG vaccination at the district level.
• 1993: WHO declared TB as a global emergency and devised the directly observed treatment (DOTS).
• 1993: GOI revitalized NTP as Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP).
• 1997: DOTS was launched as the RNTCP strategy. By 2006 the entire country was covered under RNTCP.
• In its second phase (2006–11), RNTCP improved the quality and reach of services.
• Despite the measures, undiagnosed and mistreated cases continued to drive the TB epidemic.
• A large number of MDR-TB cases were reported every year.
• To address this, National Strategic Plan for Tuberculosis Control 2012-2017 was documented with the
goal of ‘universal access to quality TB diagnosis and treatment’.
• Significant interventions were taken during NSP 2012-2017 in terms of mandatory notification of all TB
cases, integration of the programme with the National Health Mission, etc.
• To eliminate TB in India by 2025, National Strategic Plan for Tuberculosis Elimination 2017-2025 in-
volving all the stakeholders was formulated by RNTCP.
• On 01-01-2020, RNTCP was renamed as National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP).
National strategic plan for tuberculosis elimination (NSP) 2017-2025 (NSP)
• TB elimination has been integrated into the four strategic pillars of “Detect – Treat – Prevent – Build”
(DTPB).
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Detect
• Early diagnosis and treatment of TB is an important step in TB elimination.
• The objective of NSP was to find all drug sensitive TB cases (DS-TB) and drug resistant TB cases
(DRTB).
• To facilitate TB notification, RNTCP has developed a TB surveillance system called “NIKSHAY”
(https://nikshay.gov.in) for both government and private health care facilities.
• For TB diagnosis more than 14,000 designated microscopy centres spread across the country.
• Cartridge Based Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests (CBNAAT) / Line Probe Assay (LPA) has been estab-
lished at district levels for decentralised molecular testing for drug resistant TB.
• From 2020, GOI will be using Truenat test as a part of early-stage diagnosis.
Treat
• Screening of all patients for rifampicin resistance (and for additional drugs wherever indicated) is done.
• For drug sensitive TB, daily fixed dose combinations (FDCs) of first-line anti-tuberculosis drugs is given.
Prevent
• Isoniazid Preventive Therapy (IPT) is given to children who are close contacts of a TB patient.
• BCG vaccination is provided at birth or as early as possible till one year of age.
✓ BCG vaccine has a protective effect against meningitis and disseminated TB in children.
Build
• Health system strengthening for TB control under the NSP 2017-2025 is recommended in the form of
building and strengthening enabling policies, empowering institutions, and human resources.
{S&T – Diseases – 2021/05} WHO’s E-2025 Initiative to Eradicate Malaria
D2E | PIB | Prelims + Mains | GS2 > Issues related to health | GS3 > S&T developments
• Context:
• In 2017, WHO launched the E-2020 initiative to support a group of countries to achieve zero indigenous
cases of malaria by 2020.
• After success of E – 2020 initiative, WHO has identified 25 countries, including 3 from Africa, with the po-
tential to eradicate malaria by 2025 under its ‘E-2025 Initiative’, ahead of World Malaria Day 2021.
✓ 25th April is observed as ‘World Malaria Day’.
✓ 2021 theme: “Reaching the Zero Malaria Target’’
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• WHO will provide specialized support & technical guidance to these countries under the initiative.
• The African continent shares over 94% of the global malaria death burden.
Malaria
• Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans & other animals.
• It is caused by single-celled microorganisms of the Plasmodium group of protozoans (microscopic het-
erotrophs that live as predators or parasites).
• Five species of Plasmodium can infect & be spread by humans.
✓ Most deaths are caused by Plasmodium Falciparum (Deadliest). Recent evidence has shown drug-
resistant mutations in Plasmodium Falciparum.
✓ P. vivax, P. ovale & P. malariae generally cause a milder form of malaria.
✓ P. knowlesi rarely causes disease in humans.
• The disease is most commonly spread by an infected female Anopheles mosquito (disease vector).
• The mosquito bite introduces the parasites from the mosquito's saliva into a person's blood.
• Mosquito injects the sporozoite of the parasite into the skin & the sporozoites travel to the liver where
they mature & reproduce.
• The parasite can remain in the liver in a dormant stage & relapse later.
• The disease is widespread in the tropical & subtropical regions of the world.
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Symptoms
• Symptoms of malaria include fever, tiredness, vomiting & headaches.
• In severe cases, it can cause yellow skin, seizures, coma, or death.
• Symptoms usually begin ten to fifteen days after being bitten by an infected mosquito.
• If not properly treated, people may have recurrences of the disease months later.
Diagnosis & Treatment
• Malaria is typically diagnosed by the microscopic examination of blood using blood films, or with antigen-
based rapid diagnostic tests.
• It is preventable as well as curable.
• Methods used to prevent malaria include medications, mosquito elimination.
• As of 2020, there is one vaccine for malaria known as RTS,S
✓ Commonly known as Mosquirix.
✓ Not licensed in India.
Current Status of Malaria Disease in India
• The World Malaria Report (WMR) 2020 released by WHO, indicates that India has made considerable
progress in reducing its malaria burden.
• Government’s efforts have resulted in 84.5% reduction in malaria cases & 83.6% reduction in deaths in
2020 compared to 2015.
Steps taken by India
• In 1953, government launched the National Malaria Control Program with the focus on indoor residual
spraying of DDT (a persistent organic pollutant).
• Within five years, the program helped to dramatically reduce the annual incidence of malaria.
• To combat malaria in high transmission areas of the country, an enhanced Malaria Control Project was
launched with the World Bank’s help in 1997.
• In 2003, malaria control was integrated with other vector borne diseases under the National Vector
Borne Disease Control Programme (NVBDCP).
a) It is an umbrella programme for prevention & control of 6 vector borne diseases.
b) 6 vector borne diseases (VBDs) covered are Malaria, Dengue, Lymphatic Filariasis, Kala-azar, Jap-
anese Encephalitis & Chikungunya in India.
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c) Under the programme it is ensured that disadvantage & marginalized sections benefit from delivery of
service so that desired National Health Policy & Rural Health Mission Goals are achieved.
d) Directorate of NVBDCP is nodal agency.
• The National Framework for Malaria Elimination (NFME) 2016-2030:
a) It aims to eliminate malaria (zero indigenous cases) throughout the country by 2030.
b) It is aligned with WHO Global Technical Strategy for Malaria 2016–2030 (GTS) & the Asia Pacific
Leaders Malaria Alliance Malaria Elimination Roadmap (aims to make region free of malaria by 2030).
• National Strategic Plan for Malaria Elimination (2017-2022):
✓ In 2017, India launched its 5-year National Strategic Plan for Malaria Elimination that shifted focus
from Malaria control to elimination & provided a roadmap to end malaria in 571 districts out of
India’s 678 districts by 2022.
• Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has recently established ‘Malaria Elimination Research Alli-
ance-India (MERA-India) which is a conglomeration of partners working on malaria control.
Plasmodium Vivax
• Plasmodium vivax is a protozoal, parasite & a human pathogen.
• This parasite is the most frequent & widely distributed cause of recurring malaria.
• P. vivax is carried by the female Anopheles mosquito; the males do not bite.
• Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, & Pakistan account for more than 80% of estimated cases of P. vivax.
• Certain malaria-endemic countries have even abandoned chloroquine for P. vivax treatment but fortu-
nately chloroquine is still effective in India.
Mosquito-Borne Diseases
• Mosquito-borne diseases are those spread by the bite of an infected mosquito.
• Diseases that are spread to people by mosquitoes include Zika virus, West Nile virus, Chikungunya virus,
dengue, & malaria.
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Source & Credits
{S&T – ISRO – 2021/05} Adtiya L1
TH | Prelims + Mains | GS3 > Awareness in the field of space etc.
• Context: Aryabhata Research Institute for Observational Sciences (ARIES) will host the support centre for
Aditya-L1 mission.
• ARIES is an autonomous institute under the Department of Science & Technology.
• It is located in Nainital (Uttarakhand).
Adtiya L1 Mission
• ISRO is preparing to send its first scientific expedition to study the Sun in 2022.
• Named Aditya-L1, the mission will try to obtain information about Sun’s atmosphere & magnetic field.
• It will be launched using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) in XL configuration.
• It will be inserted in a halo orbit around L1, which is 1.5 million km from the Earth.
• A Satellite placed in the halo orbit around the Lagrangian Point 1 (L1) of the Sun-Earth system has the
major advantage of continuously viewing the Sun without any eclipses.
Aditya-L1 Support Centre (ASC)
• It will help researchers perform analysis over data obtained from Aditya-L1.
• It will host a compendium of the location & duration of different features on the solar surface such
as coronal holes, prominences, flares, CMEs & sunspots.
Lagrange Points
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• Lagrange Points are positions in space at which a small body (like a satellite), under the gravitational
influence of two large ones (like Sun and Earth) will remain approximately at rest relative to them.
• These can be used by spacecraft to reduce fuel consumption needed to remain in position.
• Lagrange Point 1 refers to one of five points in the orbital plane of the Earth-Sun system.
• The L1 point is home to the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory Satellite (SOHO), an international col-
laboration project of NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA).
Source & Credits
What is the importance of understanding Sun’s atmosphere?
• Sun's corona gives rise to solar wind which are hot, energised & charged particles that stream out-
ward from the Sun & fill the solar system.
• These charged particles (solar winds) beaming outwards affects space weather & violent solar wind can
hamper satellites & electronics on Earth.
Other Missions to Sun
• NASA’s EZEI Mission: Electro-jet Zeeman Imaging Explorer Mission aims to study the atmosphere of the
earth & electric currents in it, which links the aurora to the magnetosphere.
• NASA’s Parker Solar Probe: It aims to trace how heat move through the Sun’s corona & to study the
source of the solar wind’s acceleration.
Suggested Reading: Sun’s Internal Structure & Atmosphere, solar wind
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Mains Practice: ‘The ambitious Adtiya L1 mission holds great significant to India’. Elucidate. Also explain
the benefits of launching it at L1 point. (150 words)
{S&T – Physics – 2021/05} 22 Degree Circular Halo
IE | Prelims | GS3 > General Science > Physics
• Context: The rare optical phenomenon known as ‘22 degree circular halo’ appeared in Bengaluru skies.
• A halo is a ring of light surrounding the sun or moon.
• It is an optical phenomenon that occurs due to refraction & dispersion of light in millions of hexagonal
ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere.
• It takes the form of a ring with a radius of approximately 22 degrees around the sun or the moon.
• Generally, halos appear as bright white rings.
• But, in some instances, due to dispersion of light through ice crystals found in upper-level cirrus clouds
can cause a halo to have color.
• All ice crystals in the clouds deviate the light similarly, but only the ones from the specific ring at 22 de-
grees contribute to the effect for an observer at a set distance.
• During the process, light undergoes two different refractions once when it passes through ice crystals
and the second when it exists.
Source & Credits
Sun Dogs
• Sun dogs consists of a bright spot to one or both sides of the Sun.
• Two sun dogs often appear around the Sun within a 22° halo.
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• As the ice crystals gently float downwards with their large hexagonal faces almost horizontal, sunlight is
refracted horizontally, and sun dogs are seen to the left and right of the Sun.
Source & Credits
Moon & Sun Halos
• More Red is seen on the inside and more blue on the outside of the halo.
• Lunar Halos are mostly colorless because moonlight isn’t very bright.
• Colors are more noticeable in Sun halos.
Moon’s Halo & Sun Halo (Source & Credits)
What it Indicates
• In the ancient times, atmospheric optical phenomena like halos were used for weather forecasting.
• They often do indicate that rain will fall within the next 24 hours, since the cirrostratus clouds that
cause them can signify an approaching frontal system.
Dispersion
• Splitting of light into its colours is known as dispersion of light.
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• Hexagonal ice crystals in atmosphere acts like 60° prism and hence separate the colors of white light.
• Rainbow is a natural phenomenon showing dispersion.
Dispersion of white light by a glass prism
• White light is dispersed into its seven-colour components by a prism.
• Different colours of light bend through different angles with respect to the incident ray, as they pass
through a prism. The red light bends the least while the violet the most.
• Thus, the rays of each colour emerge along different paths and thus become distinct. It is the band of dis-
tinct colours that we see in a spectrum.
• The various colours seen are Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red.
• The acronym VIBGYOR will help you to remember the sequence of colours.
• The band of the coloured components of a light beam is called its spectrum.
• Isaac Newton was the first to use a glass prism to obtain the spectrum of sunlight.
• He tried to split the colours of the spectrum of white light further by using another similar prism.
• However, he could not get any more colours.
• He then placed a second identical prism in an inverted position with respect to the first prism.
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• This allowed all the colours of the spectrum to pass through the second prism.
• He found a beam of white light emerging from the other side of the second prism.
• This observation gave Newton the idea that the sunlight is made up of seven colours.
• Any light that gives a spectrum similar to that of sunlight is often referred to as white light.
Rainbow
• A rainbow is a natural spectrum appearing in the sky after a rain shower.
• It is caused by dispersion of sunlight by tiny water droplets, present in the atmosphere.
• A rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that of the Sun.
• The water droplets act like small prisms.
• They refract and disperse the incident sunlight, then reflect it internally (total internal reflection), and
finally refract it again when it comes out of the raindrop.
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• Due to the dispersion of light and internal reflection, different colours reach the observer’s eye.
• You can also see a rainbow on a sunny day when you look at the sky through a waterfall or through a water
fountain, with the Sun behind you.
Clouds
• Clouds are grouped under four types:
1) Cirrus
2) Cumulus
3) Stratus
4) Nimbus.
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More about clouds: https://www.pmfias.com/condensation-forms-of-condensation-types-of-clouds/#Clouds
{S&T – Space – 2021/04} Black Holes
TH | Prelims + Mains | GS3 > Awareness in the field of space etc.
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• Black holes are believed to form from massive stars at the end of their lifetimes.
• The density of matter in a black hole cannot be measured (infinite!).
• Black holes distort the space around them & can suck neighboring matter into them including stars.
• These are objects in space that has strong gravity that no matter & light can escape its pull.
• Because no light can escape its pull, it is black & invisible.
• There is a boundary at the edge of black hole called ‘Event Horizon’, which is ‘Point of No Return’.
✓ Gravity is constant across the event horizon.
✓ Once a particle crosses the event horizon, it cannot leave.
✓ Anything that crosses event horizon falls to very centre of hole where the mass of black hole is con-
centrated called ‘Singularity’.
If black holes are invisible, how can we detect or photograph them?
• The first way we detect black holes is by their gravitational influence.
a) For example, at the centre of the Milky Way, we see an empty spot where all of the stars are circling
around as if they were orbiting a really dense mass. That's where the black hole is.
b) Scientists have also detected gravitational waves generated when 2 black holes collide.
c) Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO) project helps in detecting gravi-
tational ripples.
• The second way is by observing & capturing images of Last Photon Ring.
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1) Anything after event horizon is invisible, but outside that boundary there is spiral disk of gas that
sometimes is heated up & causes them to glow extremely brightly.
2) The photon sphere represents the last possible points from which light can escape the gravita-
tional pull of the black hole.
3) It is called as Last Photon Ring.
4) The ring is brighter on one side because the black hole is rotating & side facing the earth is more
brighter (Due to Doppler Effect). The colours are invisible to eye but X – Rays telescopes can find out.
Source & credits
• If there are other stars orbiting a black hole, their orbits can be used to determine the black hole's mass &
location.
Where are Black Holes found?
• They are found at the centre of most galaxies, including our own Milky Way.
• The one in our galaxy is called Sagittarius A*. It is a Supermassive black hole.
Where do black holes come from?
• Black Holes are believed to form at the same time as the galaxy that surrounds them but astronomers
aren’t sure exactly how.
• Einstein theory of general relativity predicts the size & shape of black holes.
• Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) showed world the very first image of Black Hole.
✓ Event Horizon is array of a global network of radio telescopes.
✓ It is an international collaboration launched in 2009.
EHT – Global Network
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Source & credits
Types of Black Holes
Stellar Black Holes
• Black holes formed by the collapse of individual stars are relatively small, but incredibly dense.
• This leads to a crazy amount of gravitational force pulling on objects around the object.
• This collapse also causes a supernova, or an exploding star, that blasts part of the star into space.
• Stellar black holes then consume the dust & gas from their surrounding galaxies, which keeps them grow-
ing in size.
• For ex. ‘Unicorn’ is a stellar black hole.
Supermassive Black Holes
• These enormous black holes are millions or even billions of times as massive as the sun.
• Such black holes are thought to lie at the center of every galaxy, including the Milky Way.
• Once these giants have formed, they gather mass from the dust & gas around, allowing them to grow to
even more enormous sizes.
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• It may be the result of hundreds or thousands of tiny black holes that merge together.
• Ex: Sagittarius A* in Milky Way galaxy.
Intermediate Black Holes
• These are also found with masses somewhere in between Stellar & Supermassive.
• For ex: GW190521 {Black hole 85 times as massive as sun (first-ever to be observed)}.
Mains Practice: If black holes are invisible, they how did scientists detect or photograph them? (150
Words)
{S&T – Space – 2021/04} Mini Black Hole (Unicorn)
TH | Prelims + Mains | GS3 > Awareness in the field of space etc.
• Context: Scientists have discovered what may be the smallest-known black hole in the Milky Way gal-
axy & the closest to our solar system named 'Unicorn’ or ‘V723 Mon’.
• It is roughly 3 times the mass of our sun.
• The black hole is located about 1,500 light years from earth.
• By way of comparison, the closest star to our solar system, Proxima Centauri, is 4 light years away.
What indicated Unicorn’s presence?
✓ Tidal Distortion indicated its presence.
✓ Its strong gravity altered the shape of its companion star making it elongated rather than spherical &
causing its light to change as it moves along its orbital path.
Tidal Distortion
• Tidal distortion of an astronomical body usually arises from its gravitational interaction with a partner
object in a binary system. For ex: Earth–moon system.
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Sources & Credits
• It is a gravitational effect that stretches a body along the line towards the centre of mass of another body
due to a gradient (difference in strength) in gravitational field from the other body.
• It is responsible for diverse phenomena, including tides, tidal locking, breaking apart of celestial bod-
ies.
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Source & Credits
• It arises because the gravitational field exerted is not constant: The nearest side is attracted more
strongly than the farthest side.
{S&T – Space – 2021/05} Cosmic Rays & Positrons
PIB | Prelims | GS3 > Awareness in the field of space etc.
• High energy particles are generally lower in number in the cosmic universe.
• But the excess number of high energy particles called Positrons has intrigued scientists for long.
• Now they have found an explanation for this mystery.
Positron Excess
• It is antiparticle or the antimatter counterpart of the electron.
• Over the years astronomers have observed an excess of positrons having energy:
✓ more than 10 giga-electronvolts, or 10 GeV.
✓ or with energy more than 300 GeV (lower in number).
• This behavior of positrons between 10 & 300 GeV is what astronomers call the ‘positron excess’.
Mystery Solved
• Researchers from the Raman Research Institute (RRI), Bengaluru have resolved the mystery in a new study.
• As per them, cosmic rays while propagating through the Milky Way galaxy interact with other matter.
• Hence, producing other cosmic rays, primarily electrons & positrons.
• As per study, these new cosmic rays are the origin of the ‘positron excess’ phenomenon.
Explanation Provided
• The Milky Way consists of giant clouds of molecular hydrogen.
• They are the seats of the formation of new stars & can be as massive as 10 million times the Sun’s mass.
• Cosmic rays, produced in supernovae explosions propagate through these clouds before they reach the
Earth (resulting into cosmic shower).
• Cosmic rays interact with molecular hydrogen & can give rise to other cosmic rays.
Cosmic Rays
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• Cosmic rays are high-energy protons & atomic nuclei that move through space at nearly the speed of
light.
• Most of them are high energy protons (hydrogen nuclei) & all sorts of nuclei up to uranium (although
anything heavier than nickel is very, very rare).
• Other energetic particles in the cosmos are mainly electrons & positrons, as well as gamma-rays & neu-
trinos.
• They are believed to be created in supernova explosion.
• These rays are blamed for electronics problems in satellites & other machinery.
• Scientists are trying to trace back cosmic ray origins by looking at what the cosmic rays are made of.
Anti-Matter
• It is said that every elementary particle in the Universe has a partner particle, known as an Anti-Particle.
• Particle & its Anti-Particle share many similar characteristics, but many other properties are the exact
opposite.
• Electron, for example, has as its antiparticle called Anti-Electron.
• They both have same masses, but they have exactly opposite electrical charges.
• When a matter particle meets its antimatter particle, they destroy each other completely (i.e., Annihilation),
releasing the energy equivalent of their rest masses (following Einstein’s E = mc2).
• For instance, when an electron meets its anti-electron, the two annihilate and produce a burst of light which
produces a corresponding energy level equivalent to the masses of two particles.
• Most of the human understanding of anti-matter comes from high energy accelerator experiments.
Similar Terms: Dark Energy & Dark Matter
Fundamental Particles (Elementary Particles)
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Source & Credits
• Leptons (e.g., electrons), quarks & Higgs Bosons are the basic building blocks of matter.
• Quarks combine to form particles called hadrons (made of two or more quarks) like
✓ baryons (made of odd no of quarks, e.g., protons & neutrons) and
✓ mesons (composed of an equal number of quarks and antiquarks, usually one of each).
• The Higgs boson is the fundamental particle associated with the Higgs field.
• The Higgs field gives mass to other fundamental particles such as electrons and quarks.
• A particle’s mass determines how much it resists changing its speed or position when it encounters a force.
• Not all fundamental particles have mass.
• The photon, which is the particle of light and carries the electromagnetic force, has no mass at all.
• The Higgs boson was proposed in 1964. Scientists confirmed its existence in 2012 through the ATLAS and
CMS experiments at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN in Switzerland.
Cosmic Shower
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• An air shower or cosmic shower is extensive ionized particles & electromagnetic radiation produced in
the atmosphere when a primary cosmic ray enters the atmosphere.
• Cosmic rays constantly rain down on Earth:
a) High-energy "primary" rays collide with atoms in the Earth's upper atmosphere & rarely make it
through to the ground.
b) “Secondary" particles are ejected from this collision & do reach us on the ground.
Source & credits
• When primary particles interact in upper atmosphere, in such collisions, many new particles are usually
created.
• Most of the new particles are pi-mesons (pions).
• Therefore, some of the pions may collide with yet another nucleus of the air before decaying, which would
be into a muon & a neutrino.
• The fragments of the incoming nucleus also interact again, also producing new particles.
• The gamma-rays from the neutral pions may also create new particles, an electron & a positron, by the
pair-creation process.
Shower development
• The number of particles starts to increase rapidly as the particle shower moves downwards in the atmos-
phere.
• On their way & in each interaction the particles loose energy & eventually will not be able to create
new particles.
• Only a small fraction of the particles usually comes down to the ground.
• These secondary cosmic rays constitute about one third of the natural radioactivity.
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• When a primary cosmic ray produces many secondary particles, we call this an air shower or cosmic shower.
• When many thousand (sometimes millions or even billions) of particles arrive at ground level, perhaps on a
mountain, this is called an Extensive Air Shower (EAS).
{S&T – Space – 2021/05} MARS Expeditions in News
IE | TH | IE | Prelims | GS3 > Awareness in the field of space etc. | Planets >MARS
• Context: A device aboard the Perseverance rover was able to produce oxygen from the thin Martian
atmosphere for the first time.
• It holds great significance as it promises hope for future crewed missions that can rely on this technology
for astronauts to breathe & return to Earth.
Perseverance Rover
• It is a car-sized rover designed to explore the crater Jezero on Mars.
• It was launched in 2020 as part of NASA's Mars 2020 mission.
• It was manufactured by Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
• The rover carried the mini-helicopter Ingenuity.
• The rover's goals include:
a) Identifying ancient Martian environments capable of supporting life.
b) Seeking out evidence of former microbial life existing in those environments.
c) Collecting rock & soil samples to store on the Martian surface.
d) Testing oxygen production from the Martian atmosphere to prepare for future crewed missions.
How did Perseverance produce oxygen on Mars?
• Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment (MOXIE) produced 5 grams of oxygen from
carbon dioxide in the Martian atmosphere, enough for an astronaut to breathe for 10 minutes.
• MOXIE separates oxygen atoms from carbon dioxide molecules by using heat at a temperature of
around 800 degrees Celsius, & in the process also produces carbon monoxide as a waste product.
• MOXIE is designed to generate up to 10 grams of oxygen per hour.
• Over the next two years, MOXIE is expected to extract oxygen nine more times.
Significance of the Project
• On Mars, carbon dioxide makes up ~96% of the gas in the planet’s atmosphere.
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• Oxygen is only 0.13%, compared to 21% in Earth’s atmosphere.
• A substantial amount of oxygen supply on Mars is essential for crewed missions that plan to go there – not
just for astronauts to breathe but also for rockets to use as fuel while coming back to Earth.
Ingenuity Helicopter
• Context: NASA successfully flew its tiny helicopter Ingenuity on Mars.
• Ingenuity travelled to Mars attached to the underside of Perseverance.
• Ingenuity goal is to demonstrate how its technology works, and it won’t contribute to Perseverance’s sci-
ence goals.
Source & Credits
• It was launched as part of NASA's Mars 2020 mission.
• It uses autonomous control during its short flights, which will be Tele-robotically planned & scripted by op-
erators at Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL).
Significance of this Achievement
• Because the atmosphere of Mars is only about 1/100 as dense as that of Earth at surface level.
• It is much harder for an aircraft to generate lift there.
• It carries a piece of fabric from the wing of the 1903 Wright Flyer, the Wright Brothers' airplane.
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1st flight on a planet beyond Earth was an unpowered balloon flight on Venus, by the Soviet Ve-
ga 1 spacecraft in 1985.
Ingenuity’s flight in the Martian atmosphere is the 1st powered flight on a planet beyond Earth.
Curiosity Rover
• Curiosity is rover designed to explore the Gale crater on Mars as part of NASA's Mars Science Laborato-
ry (MSL) mission.
• The rover's goals include an investigation of the Martian climate & geology.
• In December 2012, Curiosity's two-year mission was extended indefinitely (still in operation).
Tianwen-1
• Tianwen-1 is an interplanetary mission by the China National Space Administration (CNSA).
• It sent a robotic spacecraft to Mars, consisting of an orbiter, camera, Lander & the Zhurong rover.
• Zhurong Rover successfully touched down on Mars making China the 3rd nation to both land softly on
& establish communication from the Martian surface, after the Soviet Union & the US.
• The Lander touched down in the southern part of Utopia Planitia, a vast plain on the northern hemi-
sphere of Mars.
Objectives
• To record the Martian landscape with high-resolution 3-D images.
• To analyse the material composition of the planet’s surface, detect its subsurface structure & magnetic
field.
• To search for traces of water, ice & observe the surrounding meteorological environment.
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Source & Credits
Other Missions to MARS
• UAE – Hope Mars Mission (1st ever interplanetary mission by UAE)
• India – Mars Orbiter Mission or Mangalyaan
Mars Orbiter Mission
• It was launched in 2013 by ISRO.
• It was indigenously built space probe being India's 1st interplanetary mission.
• It made ISRO the 4th space agency to achieve Mars orbit, after Roscosmos, NASA, and the European
Space Agency.
• It is first Asian Nation to reach Mars orbit and 1st in the world to achieve it on its first attempt.
• It was lifted off using a Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) rocket.
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Source & Credits
• Objectives:
1) Exploration of Mars surface features by studying the morphology, topography and mineralogy
2) Study the constituents of Martian atmosphere including methane and CO2 using remote sensing
techniques.
3) Study the dynamics of the upper atmosphere of Mars, effects of solar wind and radiation and the es-
cape of volatiles to outer space.
{S&T – Space – 2021/05} SpaceX & Crew-2Mission
TOI | Prelims + Mains | GS3 > Awareness in the field of space etc.
• Context: A recycled SpaceX capsule carrying 4 astronauts arrived at the International Space Station un-
der its Crew – 2 Mission.
• The Crew-2 mission is the 2nd of 6 crewed missions NASA & SpaceX will fly as part of the agency’s
Commercial Crew Program.
SpaceX Dragon
• The Dragon spacecraft is capable of carrying up to 7 passengers to & from Earth orbit & beyond.
• It is the first private spacecraft to take humans to the space station.
• It is the only spacecraft currently flying that is capable of returning significant amounts of cargo to Earth.
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Source & Credits
Commercial Crew Programme
• It is a human spaceflight program operated by NASA, in association with SpaceX.
• This program transports crew to & from the International Space Station (ISS).
• It superseded NASA's dependence on the Russian Soyuz program to transport its astronauts to the ISS
following the retirement of its Space Shuttle Programme (retired due to high costs).
• Development of the Commercial Crew Program began in 2011, through a re-scope of the Commercial
Crew Development (CCDev) program.
• It aimed at funding private sector development of human spaceflight technologies.
International Space Station
• It is a modular space station (habitable artificial satellite) launched in 1998.
• It is multinational project involving 5 participating space agencies (ISRO is not part).
✓ NASA (United States)
✓ Roscosmos (Russia)
✓ JAXA (Japan)
✓ ESA (Europe)
✓ CSA (Canada)
• The ownership & use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties & agreements.
• The station serves as:
1) Microgravity & space environment research laboratory in which scientific research is conducted in
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astrobiology, astronomy, meteorology, physics & other fields.
2) For testing the spacecraft systems & equipment required for possible future long-duration missions
to the Moon & Mars.
• It is the largest artificial object in space & the largest satellite in low earth orbit, regularly visible to
the naked eye from Earth's surface.
• ISS circles the Earth in roughly 93 minutes, completing 15.5 orbits per day.
• It is the 9th space station to be inhabited by crews (not the 1st one).
• The station is divided into two sections, the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS), which is operated by Russia
& the United States Orbital Segment (USOS), which is shared by many nations.
Source & Credits
Indian Space Station
• India is not inclined to join the ISS; instead, it wants to establish its own space station.
• It will be much smaller (mass of 20 tonnes) than the International Space Station.
• It will be used for carrying out microgravity experiments (not for space tourism).
• It will be capable of harbouring 3 crew members for 15-20 days.
• It will orbit Earth at an altitude of around 400km.
• ISRO is working on space docking experiment.
• Space docking is a technology that allows transferring humans from one spacecraft to another.
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Challenges
• India still has to master many technologies like:
✓ Launch Escape System,
✓ Re-entry & Recovery Techniques,
✓ Space Suit,
✓ Astronaut Training,
✓ Heavy Lift Launch Vehicles,
✓ Life Support Systems,
✓ Soft Landing,
✓ Docking & Un-docking,
✓ Rendezvous, etc.
• The second & more challenging is budget mobilization.
Importance
• Space station is essential for collecting meaningful scientific data, especially for biological experiments.
• It will provide platforms for greater number & length of scientific studies than available on other
space vehicles. (As Gaganyaan will take humans & experiments in microgravity for few days only).
• Space stations will be useful to study the effects of long-term space flight on the human body.
Suggested Reading: Low Earth Orbits
Mains Practice: ”The success of the Gaganyaan project will act as a precursor to Indian Space Station
project’.’ Discuss (250 words)