CLOA Learning Outcomes

General Learning Outcomes

Outline principles that define the CLOA (8)Principles are the building blocks of that way of explaining human behaviour

1) The mind can be studied scientifically2) Mental processes guide behaviour3) Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors

Explain how principles that define the CLOA may be demonstrated in research (8)

- Magic Number 7, Miller (1956)o The mind can be studied scientifically

- Clive Wearing/H.M.o The mind is being studied through an experiment or brain scans

(scientifically)- War of the Ghosts, Bartlett (1932)

o Culture can influence memory recall- Car Crash, Loftus & Palmer (1974)

o Mental processes guide behaviour

Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the CLOA (22)Different methods have different data, quantitative and qualitative

Research methods include:- Experiments

o Loftus and Palmer- Case Studies

o Clive Wearing/H.M.

Experiments (Strengths)- Can be repeated, results tend to be more reliable- Controlled environment, removes confounding variable- Isolation of IV and DV give a clear cause and effect relationship- Can always be generalised to a certain extent- Data easily measured

Experiments (Weaknesses)- Lab environment, low in ecological validity- May break ethical guidelines- Lower generalising potential- [Natural experiment] No control over variables, unpredictable- Possibility of demand characteristics

Case Studies (Strengths)- Using different collection methods- Case studies gather rich information about an individual or small group

o Analysis will be very detailed and provide good evidenceo It allows greater insight

- Good validity- Useful in constructing and challenging new theories

Case Studies (Weaknesses)- Gathers subjective information because deals with qualitative data

o Researcher may have different interpretations (in control of the data)o Affected by possible relationships with participants

- Focused on individuals or small groups, not generalizable- They are usually long term studies

o Time consuming to gather informationo Costly to continue research for a long period of time

Technology, Brain Scans (Strengths)- Sometime the only way that data can be retrieved- High ecological validity- Data can be easily measured

o Quantitative data

Technology, Brain Scans (Weaknesses)- Interpretation of qualitative data can be ambiguous- To an extent, pressure in a lab may cause alteration of results- Expensive- Restrictions may apply to different types of scans

Essay Plan:Introduction – introduction to different research methods

- Research are used to collect qualitative and quantitative data to be used to test and construct theories for the CLOA

- Aim to have in-depth knowledge on mental processes that guide behaviour- Experiments- Case Studies- Technology

o Brain Scans

Paragraph 1 – experiments- Strengths

o Can be repeated, results tend to be more reliableo Controlled environment, removes confounding variableo Isolation of IV and DV give a clear cause and effect relationshipo Can always be generalised to a certain extento Data easily measured

- Weaknesseso Low ecological validityo Cannot be generalisedo Must follow ethical guidelineso Car Crash, Loftus and Palmer (1974)

Paragraph 2 – case studies- Strengths

o Include descriptions of personal experiences, feelings, thoughts, blood tests, survey data, interviews

Detailed research can be conductedo Combination of methods allows researcher to adopt different

perspectives to look at the case study, so that its more than cognitive level of analysis

o Not possible to generalize results of a unique case to the general population

o Rich source of datao Insight to unique phenomena / individuals behavioro Limited aspect on behavioro Highlights extraordinary behavior, stimulating new research

- Weaknesseso Impossible to replicate findings of a case study, as its unique caseso Reliability of the data is low (since it cant be replicated)o Time consumingo Expensiveo Clive Wearing/H.M.

Paragraph 3 – technology- Includes PET, fMRI, MRI CAT, EEG- How the brain works when metal processes take place- Expensive- Ethical results on abnormalities in the brain

o Must have informed consent beforehand- Artificial environment- PET Scan

o Shows blood flowo Highlights metabolic activity occurring in the braino Used to look at functiono Involves injecting a radioactive (gamma ray) tracero Can be harmful to subject

- fMRIo Measures hemodynamic response

Shows blood flow Related to neural activity in the brain or spinal cord

o Fast processing allows video-like images to be produced

o People who are obese or suffer claustrophobia cannot use the machine

o Subject must hold still for a long time

Conclusion – which is the best research method?- Most used method is experimentation- Most accurate to use is technology- Long-term studies will require case studies

o Clive Wearing/H.H.

Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the CLOA (22)Ethical guidelines to follow:

- Informed consent- Right to withdraw- Deception- Debriefing- Confidentiality/Privacy- Protection of participants

o Metal harmo Physical harm

The need to break ethical guidelines:- Research methods where no other method is possible- Demand characteristics

o Usually deception is used

Example 1: Fear in rats, LeDouxAimTo investigate the role of the amygdalaProcedure

- Rats were conditioned to feel fear when they hear the sound of a bello Assumption that the brain has made a connection between the bell

and fear- LeDoux lesioned the rats to find out which part of the brain made the

connection between the bell and fearFindings

- After several lesions, they removed the Auditory Thalamus- The rats did not show respond to the bell with fear anymore- In further studies, they found out that lesions on one site of the amygdala

was able to stop blood pressure from risingConclusionThis shows that there are biological interactions with emotionsEvaluation Points

- Unethical studyo Induced feat in subjects, caused mental harmo Performed lesioning on subjects, cause physical harm

Cognitive Processes

Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies (22)Schema Theory, Bartlett (1932)

- Schemas are a metal representation of knowledge stored in the braino Networks of knowledge, beliefs and expectations about aspects of the

worldo To a large extent the schema process is automatic

We make sense of the world from 2 sources:- Input (bottom up processing)

o Coming from our sense and moving up to our brains- Stored information (top down processing)

o Using memories from the brainThis is used together to interpret incoming information

Characteristics of schemas:- We cannot see schemas- What we already know will influence the outcome (behaviour)- Help predict future events- We can fill in the gaps

o Distortion may occur

Example 1: Gender SchemasCharacteristics associated with males:

- Strong- Blue- Competitive

Characteristics associated with females:- Soft- Caring- Weak

This can influence processing of social information- Self-esteem or attitudes consistent with gender schemas

Example 2: Gender Schemas“Why are you playing with a Barbie doll?”Saying this to a boy will suggest that it is not acceptable (wrong), when in fact, there is nothing wrong with this

- People associate different things with different genders- Children learn from parents

o Schemas come from the media or past experiences

Example 1: Schemas, Bartlett (1932)Schemas are active recognition processes

- Memory takes the form of schemao Providing a mental framework for understanding information

Example 2: Schemas, DiMaggio (1997)Schemas act as shortcuts to memory access

Essay Plan:Introduction – what are schemas?

- Packages of information stored in your brain helps you interpret situationso Bartlett (1932) definition of schemaso DiMaggio (1997) definition of schemas

Paragraph 1 – Cohen (1993)- The idea of schemas are too vague to be useful

o Schema theory Provides no explanation of how schemas work- Difficult to define schemas, no true findings of schemas in the brain- Not clear how schemas are acquired- Not clear how they influence schema theory

Paragraph 2 – War of the Ghosts, Bartlett (1932)- Native American participants found it easier to reproduce the story- European American participants left out or replaced details related to Native

American Culture (canoe becomes boat)- European Americans filled in the gaps in their memory with their own

cultural schema- A cultural schema affects the ability to recall specific information associated

with the Native American cultureo Provides evidence for reconstructive memory

- Distortion was used to make the story more understandable- Did not use standardized instructions- Not sophisticated methodology

o No IV, DV and control- Emic approach

o Results specific to European and Native American culture- Not representative of everyday memory tasks

Paragraph 3 – Car Crash, Loftus and Palmer (1974)- “Smashed” averaged a speed of 40.8 mph- “Contacted” averaged a speed of 31.8 mph- “Hit” averaged a speed of 34 mph- “Bumped” averaged a speed of 38.1 mph- “Collided” averaged a speed of 39.3 mph- A schema changes the estimated speed due to the chosen verb, which shows

that schemas can affect memoryo Also shows the unreliability of reconstructive memory

- Confounding variables- Cannot be generalized- Unethical study: Forced participants to watch graphic car crashes

Conclusion – schemas do affect memory processes- A lot of studies support schema theory

o [Against] Too vague- Enough research to say schemas do affect memory processes- Help us make sense of current experiences- Schemas are helpful concepts in helping us understand how we organise our

knowledge

Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies (22)Cognitive processes:

1) Reconstructive Memory (schema) – theory2) Multi-store Model of Memory – model3) Flashbulb Memory – theory

Reconstructive Memory- Memory is an active process

Multi-store Model of Memory- Suggests structured stores and processes

Flashbulb Memory- Suggests that emotion is connected to memory

Multi-store Model of Memory, Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

Sensory memory- Usually lasting for 0.25 to 0.5 seconds- Encoding: Sense specific

o Different stores for each senseShort-term Memory

- Usually lasting for 0 to 18 seconds- Capacity: 7 (±2) items- Encoding: Mainly auditory

Long-term Memory- Duration of memory is indefinite (currently undefined)- Capacity: unlimited- Encoding: Mainly semantic

o Can be visual or auditory

MSMM (Strengths)- Magic Number 7, Miller (1956)- Provides evidence to differentiate between STM and LTM

o Supports primacy and regency effectso Peterson and Petersono Glanzer and Cunitz

- Allows further explorations into memory

MSMM (Weaknesses)- The model is oversimplified

o There are different types of LTMo Rehearsal is not essential for certain long term memorieso Clive Wearing still able to play the piano

Flashbulb Memory, Brown and Kulik (1977)Flashbulb Memory is the memory of it’s reception context (feelings)

- Not of the event

Example 1: Definition of Flashbulb Memory, Brown and Kulik (1977)“Memories of the circumstances in which one first learned of a very surprising and consequential (or emotionally arousing) event”

How is FBM formed and maintained?- Formed in situations where we encounter surprising and highly emotional

information- Maintained by overt rehearsals (discussing with others) or covert rehearsals

(private rehearsing or ruminating)

Characteristics of FBM:- More vivid- Last longer- More consistent- More accurate- Involves a specialized neural mechanism

o Storing information permanently in a unique memory system

Flashbulb memory evaluates the multi-store model of memory- Skips short term memory- Rehearsal is not required to move the memory into long term memory

Factors that affect FBM- Involvement- Personal closeness

o Culturally relevanto Family relevanto Emotionally relevant

Essay Plan:Introduction – what are the models of memory?

- Models attempt to describe complex behaviourso Investigating how memory works

- Multi-store model of memory, Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)- Reconstructive memory, schema theory

Paragraph 1 – multi-store model of memory- Suggests that there are three memory stores

o Sensory memoryo Short term memoryo Long term memoryo Rehearsalo Decay, displacement, interference

- Magic Number 7, Miller (1956)- Primacy and regency effect, Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)- The model is oversimplified

o There are different types of LTMo Rehearsal is not essential for certain long term memories

- Clive Wearing

Paragraph 2 – reconstructive memory- Mental representation of knowledge created over time

o Childhood experienceso Repetitive exposureo Reinforcement

- Helps us organise information, guides our actions and make predictions of the world

- Encoding -> storage -> retrieval- War of the Ghosts, Bartlett (1932)- Car Crash, Loftus and Palmer (1974)- A lot of studies support this theory- Formation of schemas cannot be tested- The model is too vague, Cohen (1993)

Conclusion – which model is more reliable?- There are different models to how our memory works- Most reliable is reconstructive memory

o Still has limitations- These can only remain as models

o Currently no way to get biological evidence to support these models- Attempting to portray the complexity of our cognitive process: memory

Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process (8)Damage to brain structure/tissue:

- Dementia- Accidental damage to patients

Brain structure and functionality- Hippocampus

o Inform new episodic memoryo Process current information

- Amygdalao Storage of informationo Storage of emotional memory

Example 1: Case study, Clive Wearing- Suffered damage in Hippocampus due to a contraction of a virus

o Extensive brain damage (parts of his temporal lobes)- Suffers from Retrograde and Anterograde amnesia- MRI scanning show damage to the hippocampus and some of frontal regions- Episodic memory and some of his semantic memory are lost

o He can still play piano, conduct music and remember his wifeo He still has his implicit memory including his emotional memory for

his wifeFindings

- Hippocampus is responsible for encoding and transferring STM into LTMo If damaged, subject cannot of creating new long term memory

(Anterograde amnesia)o Subject cannot of retrieving LTM (Retrograde amnesia)

- Affects explicit memoryo Episodico Semantic

- Doesn’t affect implicit memoryo Still able to play piano showing that his procedural memory was not

lost (Procedural memory)o Still has memories of wife (Emotional memory)

Example 2: Cellular study on memory, Eric Kendel (1990)AimTo study the brain at a cellular level during cognitive processesProcedure

- Lesioning (brain dissection) was used to isolate different areas of the brain- Synaptic changes were studied in the hippocampus

Findings- STM and LTM results in synaptic changes in the neural network

Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process (22)Culture and social factors influence and manipulates behaviour

- War of the Ghosts, Bartlett (1932)o Study uses a foreign storyo Testing cultural influence

- Knowledge from schemas built from cultureo Cultural schemas can manipulate behaviour

Cultures deal with emotions differently- Individualistic vs. collectivist societies

o Individualistic societies tend to show more emotion freely (to stand out)

o Collectivist societies tend to show less emotion (to fit in)Emotional strength is linked with the strength of a memory

- In collectivist societies, FBM may be less likely due to the cognitive cost of suppressing their emotion

Example 1: Emotional Suppression, Richard and Gross (2000)AimInvestigate whether the regulation of emotion will affect memoryProcedure

- 53 subjects (45% male 55% female) were split into 2 groups- One group was told to suppress their emotion while watching a film about

and argument between two parents with the presence of a little girl- The other group was asked to watch the film- The film is of a married couple arguing over the husband’s extramarital affair

while their young daughter watches themFindings

- The group that was suppressing their emotion throughout the film (regulation of emotion) had poor recall

- Did a natural observation and compared the memory of those who regulate and freely express their emotions

- Those who express their emotions have better memoryConclusionThe cognitive cost of suppressing their emotion throughout the film took up the capacity for encoding memory, therefore some participants that suppressed their emotion could not recall the film as well as the control group.Evaluation Points- Low ecological validity, lab experiment- Offered a controlled environment- Repeated experiment in natural conditions, increase in ecological validity- Made the assumption that regulating emotion took up the capacity of memory encoding

- Methodology is not scientific

Cultural dimensions can affect memory:1) Transmission of information (encoding)2) Importance (encoding and storage)3) Social sharing of information (rehearsal and retrieval)

Transmission of information – how do we get information

Example 1: Media Analysis, Shoemaker and Cohen (2006)Sports takes up different times in media in different cultures

- 19% in US- 13% in Germany- 4.5% in Asia

Importance – significance of the event

Example 1: Margaret Thatcher Resignation, Conway et al. (1994)AimInvestigating how culture can affect flashbulb memoryProcedure

- Researchers interviewed the British and Foreign students about their personal memories around the resignation of Margaret Thatcher

Findings- 85.6% of British students had flashbulb memory after 11 months- 29% of foreign students had flashbulb memory after 11 months- British students had more accurate recall after 11 months than foreign

studentsConclusionFlashbulb memory can be affected by the culture of the participantsEvaluation Points

- Cannot generalize, student participants- Information could have been rehearsed over the time

Example 2: Assassination of MLK and JFK, Brown and Kulik (1977)AimTo investigate if people can recall flashbulb memoriesProcedure- 9 of 10 events that were asked were mostly assassinations or attempted assassinations known to American personalities, the tenth event was a self-selected personal event involving an unexpected shock- 80 participants (40 white and 40 black) were asked to recall the circumstances they found themselves in when they first heard the news about the 10 events- They were also asked how often they rehearsed (overtly or covertly) the information about each event- They were asked again 2 days after the event, then 2 and a half years laterFindings- 90% of the participants recalled the assassination of J. F. Kennedy in vivid detail- African Americans reported more FBM for leaders of civil rights moments than Caucasian Americans- Most participants recalled a personal FBMConclusionThis supports the multi-store model of memory.Evaluation Points- Memory could have been rehearsed over the time period

Social sharing of information

Example 1: Emotional Experiences, Rime et al. (2001)Different cultures share their emotion differently

- 20% of Koreans do not share their emotion- 5% of people in US do not share their emotion- Collectivist vs. individualistic cultures

With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent is one cognitive process reliable (22)Factors that can affect memory recall:

- Emotional repressiono Trying to forget negative memorieso FBM, Richard and Gross (2000)

- Cultural dimensionso FBM, Rime et al. (2001)o FBM, Brown and Kulik

- Post-event informationo Leading Questions

Car Crash, Loftus and Palmer (1974)o Planting False Memories, Loftus (1995)

- Stress- Weapon Effect, Loftus et al. (1987)- Attribution errors

o Fundamental Attribution Error- Schemas

This can all affect an eyewitness testimony, due to the distortions in memory recall.

Example 1: Planting False Memories, Loftus (1995)AimTo attempt to implant false memoryProcedure

- Loftus told participants 4 stories of their own childhood that supposedly were all from members for the family

- In the 4 stories, one of which is false- The false story describes the participants being lost in a mall at a young age

for an extended period of time- The mall was based upon participant’s actual trips to the mall

Findings- 25% of participants remembered that no such event happened- Many other participants were able to provide details for the false events

ConclusionThe act of imagining the event created a false memoryEvaluation Points

- Getting lost in a mall is common- Prove that false memory can be induced- Confounding variable: Did not take into account that the participant actually

had a similar event happened to them- Low ecological validity, lab experiment- Cultural factors

o LTM store is triggered meaning that emotion must be involvedo Different culture might express different level of emotional arousalo Can affect the strength of the imagined event turning into a false

memory

- Ethical considerationso Unethical study: Therapy retrieving repressed memoryo Unreliable because therapist can induce false memory into clients

Example 2: Yerkes and Dodson Law“A person’s performance can be improved if the person is aroused in some manner, however, if the level of arousal increases too much, performance decreases.”

Example 3: Weapon Focus, Loftus et al. (1987)This refers to an eyewitness’s concentration on a weapon to the exclusion of other details of a crime

- The eyewitness can usually describe the weapon in more detail than the person holding it

- Yerkes and Cutshall (1986) rejects this theoryProcedure

- 2 groups of participants were shown a series of sliders of a customer in a restaurant

- In one version the customer was holding a gun- In another version, the same customer was holding a checkbook

Findings- Participants who saw the gun version, tend to focus on the gun

o Therefore, could not identify the customer very well- Participants who saw the checkbook, could identify the customer easily

Example 4: Eyewitness Testimony

Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes (22)Brain scanning technology can be used to evaluate studies

Technology, Brain Scans (Strengths)- Sometime the only way that data can be retrieved- High ecological validity- Data can be easily measured

o Quantitative data

Technology, Brain Scans (Weaknesses)- Interpretation of qualitative data can be ambiguous- To an extent, pressure in a lab may cause alteration of results- Expensive- Restrictions may apply to different types of scans

PET Scans (Positron Emission Tomography)- Shows blood flow- Highlights metabolic activity occurring in the brain- Used to look at function- Involves injecting a radioactive (gamma ray) tracer- Can be harmful to subject

fMRI Scans (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)- Measures hemodynamic response

o Shows blood flowo Related to neural activity in the brain or spinal cord

- Fast processing allows video-like images to be produced- People who are obese or suffer claustrophobia cannot use the machine- Subject must hold still for a long time

EEG Scans (Electro Encephalon Graph)- Observing brain activity

o Recording electrical signals in neurons- Shows how long it takes to process various stimuli- Shows the state a person is in

o Asleepo Awakeo Anaesthetised

- Cannot show the structure and anatomy of the brain

MRI Scans (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)- Detects changes in blood flow

o Shows which areas are used during cognitive processes- Deoxygenated haemoglobin is more magnetic than oxygenated haemoglobin- Subject must hold still for a long time

- People with metal parts on their body or claustrophobia cannot use the MRI machine

CAT Scans (Computerised Axial Tomography)- Detect brain damage- Highlights changes in blood flow during cognitive processes- Combining 2D X-Ray images to create a 3D model of the brain

Cognition and Emotion

To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion (22)Theories of emotion:

- Neurobiological Contributions, LeDoux- Lazarus’ Theory of Appraisal- Two Factor Theory of Emotion, Schatcher and Singer

Biological Pathways of Emotion, LeDoux (1999)- There are two pathways to the emotional response

Advantages of short route:- Gives an immediate emotional response to the situation- Fight or flight situations

Advantages of long route:- Take time to reflect on the situation- Finds the appropriate behaviour to react

Doesn’t have to go through both routes to initiate a behaviourial response

Cognitive Appraisal Theory, Lazarus and FolkmanIn the absence of physiological arousal, we decide what to feel after interpreting what just happenedHow do we evaluate the situation?

- Do we interpret the event positively or negatively- What is the cause of the event?- Must go through both primary and secondary

Primary Appraisal- How the situation affects our personal well-being- Prepares us in the event of danger

o Used to activate fight and flight responseo Acts as a safety

- Determines if the situation is positive or negative

Secondary Appraisal- Evaluates the situation, what are my coping options?

o Problem focused coping strategyo Emotion focused coping strategy

- Avoid inappropriate behaviour/responses

Example 1: Speisman et al. (1964)AimTo investigate the relationship between the appraisal of different situationsProcedure

- Participants were split up into four groupso Control group (no soundtrack)o Trauma condition (soundtrack)o Denial condition (patients were happy)o Intellectualization condition (medical soundtrack)

- All participants were shown a graphic video of Stone Age rite of passage for teenage boys

- The participant’s stress levels was measured by testing the participants heart rate and getting them to complete a survey

Findings- Participants who were exposed to the trauma condition reacted more

emotionally- Other conditions reacted with less emotions

Conclusions The experiment supports LeDoux’s model of two biological pathways in the brain, and also reinforced Lazarus’s theory. The experiment also concluded that appraisal does have an effect on the emotional arousal of people. This suggests that appraisal of situation depends on the personal interpretation of the event rather than the event itself.Evaluation Points

- Unethical study: Deception, psychological trauma- Low ecological validity, lab experiment- The idea and concept of appraisal is broad and vague

o Difficult to find a clear cause and effect relationship between appraisal and emotion

Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process (22)Flashbulb Memory is the memory of it’s reception context (feelings)

- Not of the event

Example 1: Definition of Flashbulb Memory, Brown and Kulik (1977)“Memories of the circumstances in which one first learned of a very surprising and consequential (or emotionally arousing) event”

How is FBM formed and maintained?- Formed in situations where we encounter surprising and highly emotional

information- Maintained by overt rehearsals (discussing with others) or covert rehearsals

(private rehearsing or ruminating)

Neisser suggests that FMB is just memory that is rehearsed over and over again into LTM

- Thinking about the event, reconsidering the event, telling the event- Supporting MSMM (Atkinson and Shiffrin)

Characteristics of FBM:- More vivid- Last longer- More consistent- More accurate- Involves a specialized neural mechanism

o Storing information permanently in a unique memory system

Flashbulb memory evaluates the multi-store model of memory- Skips short term memory- Rehearsal is not required to move the memory into long term memory

Factors that affect FBM- Involvement- Personal closeness

o Culturally relevanto Family relevanto Emotionally relevant

Essay Plan:Introduction – what is flashbulb memory?

- FMB, Brown and Kulik (1977)- FMB is created when we experience an event that is surprising and highly

emotional- We will be able to remember this event in vivid detail, and it will last longer- Rejects MSMM

o Memory skips the STM store

o Rehearsal is not required to move the memory into LTM

Paragraph 1 – FBM, Brown and Kulik (1977)- 90% of the participants recalled the assassination of J. F. Kennedy in vivid

detail- African Americans reported more FBM for leaders of civil rights moments

than Caucasian Americans- Most participants recalled a personal FBM- Supporting FBM, African American participants are more emotionally

connected to civil rights leaderso Culturally and emotionally relevant

- Shows that emotionally connected memories can be remembered for a long period of time

- However, memory could have been rehearsed over the time period

Paragraph 2 – Challenger Space Shuttle, Neisser and Harsch (1992)- 3 of 44 students had perfect recall- 25% had completely inaccurate memory- 40% of the subjects had distorted memory

o Possibly influenced by post-event information- Subjects were confident with the accuracy of their recall- Challenges the existence of flashbulb memory

o Suggesting that it could be reconstructive memoryo Only 3/44 had perfect recall even with an emotional event

- Assumed flashbulb memory was created- Cannot generalize- Shows the inaccuracy in emotional memory- Only relied on questionnaires to determine whether the memory was FBM

Paragraph 3 – strengths and weaknesses of FBMStrengths

- Prove that a different area of the brain is active when recalling FBM- Explains why memory with high emotional connection is recalled better- Studies that disproves FBM failed to show relationship between the event

and the subject- May not have triggered FBM

Weaknesses- Plenty study that disproves the existence of Flashbulb memory- Better recall may be due to multiple rehearsals

Conclusion – can emotion really affect memory recall?- Emotion can clearly affect memory recall

o Challenger Space Shuttle, Neisser and Harsch- However, there are still several limitations in the study- Memory is an extremely sensitive topic, and therefore very hard to study

o Memory is not always reliableo We do not fully understand how our cognitive processes work