general knowledge in art for senior high schools

1. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS

2. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ARTFOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS S.K. AMENUKE B.K. DOGBE F. D.K. ASARE R.K. AYIKU A. BAFFOE MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, GHANA GHANA GOVERNMENT PROPERTY STRICTLY NOT FOR SALE

3. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS REPUBLISHED BY: EBENEZER VANDYCK TANDOH AS HIS PROJECT WORK DEPARTMENT OF GRAPHIC DESIGN UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA SUPERVISED BY: JOSEPH ESUMAN LECTURER DEPARTMENT OF GRAPHIC DESIGN UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA

4. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS ContentsCONTENTS 25 Art Forms and their Functions SECTIONC 7 Composition 19 Drawing 24 Attitudes to Ghanaian Arts Advanced Design 26 28 Advanced Colour Work 29 Roman Lettering & Calligraphy 5 Terms in Art 4 Design 3 African Art 2 Ancient Art 1 Rationale for Visual Arts Education 6 Creativity & Appreciation 8 Principles of Drawing 9 Principles of Colour Work 10 Lettering 11 Printmaking SECTIONA 12 Indigenous African Arts (Concept & Types) 13 Contemporary African Arts 14 Ghanaian Arts & Artist 15 Form,Symbolism &Functionsin GhanaianArts 16 Art Associations 21 Gothic Lettering & Calligraphy 20 Colour Work 18 Two-dimensional and Three- dimensional Composition 17 Product Design SECTIONB 22 Block Printing 23 Indigenous African Art 30 Screen Printing 27 Advanced Composition & Drawing Preface

5. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS General Knowledge in Art is the first book of its kind for senior secondary schools in Ghana. It provides broad-based information in history of art, creativity and appreciation, and teaches basic elements and principles of art as well as skills in their application to various practical art processes. The emphasis is on the acquisition of knowledge, skills, competences and attitudes in visual arts for individual and national development. The book has grown out of several years of art teaching experience in Ghana. It tries to integrate a considerable body of research and classroom experiences with an in everyday life. It is also the result of new concepts and national policies on education reform in Ghana. Discussion of major issues and concerns expressed by the Ghanaian Ministry of Education gave much impetus to the development of the content for the manuscript. The focus of history of art in this book is on the contributions of visual arts and artists to the socio-economic development of selected societies. This is done in the context of ancient, African and Ghanaian arts. History for historys sake has not been the aim of the authors. Promotion of aesthetics and criticism, creativity and procedures in appreciation of visual arts is an important feature of the text. The book also aims to help the student observe and respond to the visible world and stimulate him towards personal awareness and identity. In addition, he will be helped to acquire useful practical skills, techniques and knowledge of tools, materials and processes in art. The practical component of exercises is designed to help the student to acquire skills in: describing visual forms and analyzing ideas through drawing, printing and colour work; communicating through graphic work and appreciation of visual forms; problem solving by designing and making articles.

6. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS The text is arranged in three sections A, B and C. corresponding to senior secondary school years one, two and three. The text is sequentially arranged from introductory knowledge m Section A to more advanced skills in Sections B and C. Each chapter begins with objectives that highlight essential features of various topics. Exercises, practical assignments and references are indicated at the end of some topics and chapters. Chapter Five on Terms in Art is not a glossary. It is an integral part of the text aimed at providing the student with the necessary vocabulary to cope with the content of appreciation in his other chosen visual art subjects. This provision is consistent with the new structure and content of visual arts education in the senior secondary school. Although the book is not printed in colour, all colour exercises should be done in colour. A suitable sketch pad may be used for practical exercises. Limitations of space do not permit detailed treatment of every topic. The student is advised to consult other relevant texts that may be available to him. This manuscript was written and illustrated by the following writers: Dr S.K. Amenuke, Department of Art Education, U.S.T., Kumasi Dr B.K. Dogbe, College of Art, U.S.T., Kumasi Mr Francis D.K. Asare, Presbyterian Secondary School, Logon Mr Robert K. Akiyu, c/o College of Art. U.S.T., Kumasi Alice Baffoe (Mrs), C.R.D.D., Ministry of Education Accra. We hope that this book will provide the student with the basic background in general concepts of art so that he can cope with the subject of visual arts as a whole. Acknowledgements; Dr B.K. Dogbe for organizing the photographs for this book Dr S.K. Amenuke for drawings in Chapters 4,8, 19, 26, and 27 Mr Franc Asare for illustrations in Chapters 4,7,9. 10,21 and 29 Mr Robert Ayiku for illustrations in Chapters 11 and 15 Alice Baffoe (Mrs) for direct prints in Chapter 11

7. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS The rose red city of Petra Where history has been carved from the rock itself

8. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Rationale for Visual Arts Education Objective After reading through this chapter, the student should be able to explain the role of visual arts education in: fostering creativity by helping the individual to think, act and feel creatively; educating the whole person - head, hand and heart; encouraging appreciation of the artistic and cultural heritage; creating an awareness of the role of art in society; promoting qualities of citizenship desired in an artist. The basic reasons for visual arts education as outlined in this book are necessarily selective so as to meet specific requirements for education in Ghana. Visual arts education encourages personal development and an awareness of both the cultural heritage and the role of art in society. The major purposes of visual arts education are derived from the personal, social and historical functions of general education. You will acquire personal knowledge, skills and competences through visual art activity. When you study Ghanaian visual arts, you will understand that they are integrated with our past and present culture. By studying the role of art in society, you will begin to understand art as an integral part of everyday life. The purposes of visual arts education can be described as follows: Itdevelopsyourabilitytothink,feelandactcreativelywithvisualmaterials. Visual thinking in creative activity occurs through active exploration of ideas, materials, tools and processes; selection, grasping of the key ideas,simplification,analysis,comparison,problemsolving,combining and separating ideas. These experiences make up education of the head. When we use tools and materials such as knives, hammers, pens, pencils, brushes, inks, clay, straw, wood, metal or fabric to make artefacts, we acquire manual skills. This is education of the hand. When we see an artefact, it arouses certain feelings in us. As we appreciate the work by talking intelligently and knowledgeably we are expressing our feelings about it. This is education of the heart. Thus, visual arts education caters for education of the whole person head, hand and heart.

9. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Educating people in visual arts is necessary for the artistic development of Ghana. The artist has an important role in the major areas of national development agriculture, health, culture, education, industry, science and technology. Activities in visual arts will provide the opportunity to study the nature of local tools, materials and technologies. Thus the art programme should provide basic education for prospective designers of industrial products. Works of an are used to maintain the ideas, knowledge, practices and beliefs of a society as handed down from one generation to another. In this way we learn about our cultural heritage. African works of arts such as pots, bowls, baskets, bags, kente and fugu are useful in everyday life. We use artefacts as teaching aids, to educate our youth about various responsibilities of life motherhood, fatherhood, worship, work, recreation and so on. Works of art such as emblems, linguist staffs, clan staffs, state skins and stools identify us as individuals, groups and institutions. An artefact can serve as a source of knowledge because it is possible to interpret it in terms of history, sociology, religion, function and ideas of beauty. In this way, we use art to help us understand ourselves and the world around us. As society changes, its members should become more aware of the visual changes in their environment. This will help them take decisions and make good judgments about what is pleasant or unpleasant to look at. It is believed that an activities can help to reduce tension in people. Art also helps handicapped persons and social misfits to reorganize their life. Rationale for Visual Arts Education

10. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS In Ghana, the study of visual arts will encourage us to appreciate the usefulness of indigenous art processes. This knowledge will help us consider ways of developing and improving them. The visual arts programme provides a creative base for small-scale and rural art industries. Students who have followed the programme should be able to produce high quality products which can attract a good market. Desirable Qualities to be Developed Through the Arts Programme By following the programme set out in this book, the student will be able to develop certain qualities that are desirable in present-day society. Practical activity in art helps to exercise the muscles and keep the body healthy. Skills in thinking are developed by organizing materials into art forms, and critically a preciating them. This helps to develop sound mental health. When the artist produces works of art for the benefit of society, he is exercising his civic rights and responsibilities. The artist is resourceful and relies on tools, materials and ideas in his environment to produce artefacts. This shows that he understands the need to be self-sufficient, and the need for economic advancement. In order to learn how to listen and communicate ideas clearly, the artist derives ideas from life in society and communicates his observations through works of art. The need to manage personal resources to achieve optimum satisfaction in life can be met by acquiring practical skills in planning and organization through art. By applying such skills to his personal resources, a person is better able to manage his own life. Rationale for Visual Arts Education

11. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS The artist needs to understand and apply scientific knowledge in everyday life. As he works with tools, materials and processes: he applies basic scientific knowledge in his daily activities. The benefits of technology are applied in art drawing, colour work, printing, lettering and design. Technology in this context means designing and making an artefact faster and more efficiently. Skills needed to build a healthy family and human relationships are reflected in art activities. The artist is able to organize contradictory elements of line, shape, texture, tone, pattern and colour into pleasant relationships. This helps him to cultivate peaceful relations with other human beings. An appreciation of our national cultural heritage can be acquired through learning about the history of art, appreciation and criticism of artefacts. These activities help the artist understand the meaning and usefulness of his own arts. The quality of creative thinking and systematic problem solving is derived from thinking with art materials - identifying, selecting, composing and analyzing are skills employed in the production of artefacts. We need to value and enjoy leisure and recreational activities. The artist should visit art exhibitions, galleries, museums and national parks. Through art appreciation, the artist develops a consciousness which makes him sensitive to expressive activities such as sport, music, dance, drama and verbal arts. The artist should be able to express cultural and spiritual qualities as well as appreciation of beautiful things. In the context of African arts, creative activity is integrated with the culture, so that an artefact may be considered as a history book of culture. Rationale for Visual Arts Education

12. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS We need to learn to plan work and time well. The art course emphasizes preliminary planning and design. The artist works according to the nature of the tools and materials he uses. Precision and self-discipline are needed in much of an artists work. For example, precision and punctuality are important qualities for a graphic artist. The African artist should understand African and world affairs through the study of art history and appreciation; through collections of artefacts and antiques; through souvenir artefacts and through the artefacts given as gifts to dignitaries on official visits to other countries. The need to cope with the stress and strains of life is met by the nature of art activity. Art helps to develop qualities of patience, tolerance and long- suffering in the learner through the practice of careful organization of art forms. Visual arts subjects provide opportunities to learn how to learn. The learner develops the ability to; (a) identify tools, materials and ideas for art; (b) collect information for art; (c) analyze and interpret information; (d) form his own opinions; (c) apply the ideas to his own situations. Questions 1 Give ten reasons why visual arts should be studied in our schools. 2 Explain some of the qualities the learner is expected to develop by studying visual arts. Rationale for Visual Arts Education

13. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS References ARNHE1M. Rudolf. Visual Thinking. University of California Press, Berkeley. 1974. p 13 CHAPMAN, Laura. Approaches to Art in Education. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc. New York. 1978. pp 19-20 CLEMENT. Robert. The Art Teacher's Handbook. Century Hutchinson Ltd. London. 1987. pp. 17 18 DAY, Michael. Rationales for Art Education in Art Education. Journal of the Nation- al Art Education Association, vol. 25. No. 2. February 1972 GREENBERG. Pearl. Art Education Elementary. NAEA. Washington DC. 1972. pp 6-7 HARDIMAN. George W. and THEODORE. Zernich, Curriculum Considerations for Visual Arts Education: Rationale Development and Evaluation. Stipes Publishing Company. Champaign. 1974. pp 26-9 HUBBARD: Guy. A Revision of Purposes of Art Education in Concepts in Art Educa- tion, od. George Pappas. The Macmillan Company. New York, 1970. pp. 246-51 MOE. Needs Assessment, a paper prepared by the Ministry of Education for senior secondary school programmes in Ghana. 1989 WEBO. E.B.. Handbook for Primary Teachers. Heinemann Educational Books (EA) Ltd. Nairobi. 1980. p. 3 Rationale for Visual Arts Education

14. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Masaccio. Madonna Casini (c. 1426).

15. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Ancient Art Objectives The student should be able to understand: the beginnings of art and where they happened; the use of art in promoting aspects of living; the creative desire and ability in mankind; how prehistoric man and the Greeks. Indians. Chinese, Japanese, Melanesians and Polynesians used art. Prehistoric Art The term prehistory was introduced in the nineteenth century. It marks the time before all the civilizations when there were no written records or verbal accounts (oral traditions) of mans activities, that is between 80,000 and 5000 BC. The term historic is used for the era when oral traditions and writing started. It began about 5000 BC and has continued to the present day. Prehistoric art began-in 30.000 BC and ended in 5000 BC. It refers to paintings, engravings and sculpture done in the earliest stage of development of mans culture when there were no writings. It is the beginning of art and shows how art served man in his efforts to survive and develop. Distribution Examples of prehistoric art can be found all over the world. In North Africa they are found in Morocco, Tunisia, Libya. Algeria and in large areas of the Sahara Desert. The Sahara contains the most varied and the largest number of examples of prehistoric art in the world. In Southern Africa numerous examples are found in Namibia. Mozambique, Zimbabwe and the Republic of South Africa (Figure 2.1) Prehistoric art is found in Spain. Portugal. France. Sicily and in Northern Europe. In the Middle East, it is found in the land we now call Israel and in Jordan.

16. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Figure 2.1 Distribution of prehistoric art in Africa have survived to the present day because they were made deep inside caves, on rocks and cliff surfaces protected from bad weather conditions. Most of the works were discovered recently by chance. The first discoveries were made in Mozambique in AD* 1721 and in South-West Algeria in AD 1847 by some French army officers. The rest of the prehistoric art was discovered many years later. The oldest works we know of are in Namibia in Southern Africa, in caves at Altimira in Spain, at Lascaux, Trois Freres and Niaux, all in France, and at other places in south-west Europe. They were done between 30,000 and 10,000 BC. Those done in other parts of the world were produced between 10,000 and 6000 BC. The ages of the works were determined by a scientific method. The works of prehistoric art were made independently and at different times throughout the world! There is no evidence that particular works in one part of the world influenced others in different regions. For example, we cannot say

17. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS that European works influenced works in Africa, Asia or Australia, or the other way round. But scholars have noticed some strong resemblances between European (especially in eastern Spain) and African prehistoric art. Therefore they believe that (here was direct contact between North Africa and Europe at some point in the prehistoric era. Mode of life Prehistoric men and women lived in caves and natural shelters. The women gathered wild crops, and the men gathered wild honey and hunted large animals. The flesh of the animals was used for food, the skin and furs for clothing and the fat for fuel in lamps made of stone or clay. They also hunted animals that troubled them. The men had the simplest weapons made of wood, stone and bone. They were bows, arrows, clubs and spears. Hunting was risky. The men therefore relied on a kind of practical magic known as sympathetic magic. This magic is a belief that there is a strange relationship between a living thing and its image. The people painted, carved or modelled images of animals and then hurt these images with weapons, believing that the wounding would result in the power to kill the live animals. Sometimes parts of the images were damaged to make them defenceless. For example, images of animals were sometimes made without eyes or noses. This, they believed, would deny the animals the sight and scent to detect and avoid the hunters. Once the hunting was successfully done the image was discarded and a fresh one made for another hunt. This is the reason why there are so many prehistoric works of art. It also shows that the works of art were not made for appreciation or beauty. Figure 2.2 shows an image of a bison with two arrows in its body. The different techniques and styles used by the prehistoric artists and the quality of their works suggest that they were experienced, imaginative and creative. There is no evidence of how the artists acquired their skills of painting, drawing, engraving and sculpting. Ancient Art

18. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Figure 2.2 A bison with two arrows in its body (from the cave of Niaux. France) It is believed that they got their idea of picture-making from the rough and bumpy surfaces of the cave and rocks on which they made their pictures. Art forms The techniques of drawing and painting consisted of simple outline and detailed shading or model ling (i.e. making the image look solid).The animals depicted in the works of art include deer, elephants, bisons, woolly rhinoceroses, horses, lions and others. Sometimes rare birds, reptiles or even insects were represented. Some of the animal species are extinct. Human figures are also portrayed in simple forms. The compositions represent men fighting or hunting. In such scenes, cattle, men and women are scattered about in confusion across the rock on which they were painted. There are other scenes which show examples of orderly arrangement of animals and men (Figure 2.3).

19. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Figure 2.3 Deer hunt (painting from Castellon, Spain) Prehistoric compositions do not show landscape (mountains, rivers or vegetation). The animals drawn or painted are often shown in profile and are of different sizes. The paintings were done deep in the caves with the aid of small lamps, torches of wood or small fires. The artists might have stood on platforms to paint pictures high up. Different earth colours were mixed with animal fat and used as paint or crayons. The colours included yellow, red, brown and orange. Black was obtained from charcoal or manganese oxides and white from kaolin. Blue and green were not commonly used. Engraving and paintings were sometimes combined. Flint tools were used in cutting outlines of animals on rock surfaces. Another technique of engraving was pecking the outline or the whole picture. Like the paintings, the engravings were superimposed on (done over) old pictures. In some eases new ones were superposed on (placed over) the old ones. In other eases new ones were juxtaposed with (done either side of) the old picture.

20. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Sculpture is represented in low relief and also in the round, in small forms (miniatures). It includes animals and human figures carved in stone, bone and modelled inclay. The clay figures remained unbaked. There are more female figures than male ones. The female ones are thought to be fertility symbols because they have large breasts and buttocks. The female figures discovered in Western Europe were called Venuses by scholars, because they believed that the figures were sexual objects for the prehistoric men. A typical example is the Venus of Willendorf (Figure 2.4). This Venus has a knob-like head without facial features. The breasts are big and heavy. The stomach, buttocks, thighs and the hips are also massive. The hands and legs are short and they look unimportant. The animal sculptures were also used for fertility rites. Summary Prehistoric art has contributed to the culture of mankind. It reveals aspects of the life of early man. It shows the development of creative ability in man and how it was stimulated by observation of nature. The details of the animals drawn, painted, engraved and carved enable us today to identify the type of animals that existed thousands of years ago. This is important for a better understanding of life on earth. The distribution of the works throughout the world shows that artistic creation was not limited to one kind of people. These works show us that works of art can survive a long time to tell the story of the people who made them. In addition to written records, the works of art we do today can tell stories about us to future peoples. They will also identify us as Greeks. Egyptians, Ghanaians and so on. Fig. 2.4 The Venus of Willendorf (stone)

21. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Greek Art Greek Art Greece is a land of mountainous peninsulas and islands which are separated by straits and bays. The land is rugged and stony with scanty arable land. Ancient Greece was one of the earliest and most important centres of civilization in Europe. It developed between l000 and 30 BC, and it comprised independent city-states like Athens, the most famous of all the cities in the history of art, Argos, Corinth, Delphi, Mycenae, Sparta, Troy and others. The Greeks worshipped many gods who protected various human activities. The gods were portrayed as strong, ideally beautiful, and like men and women. They expressed themselves through love, hatred, jealousy, joy, sorrow and so on towards the Greek people. The gods were believed to live in a state of constant rivalry and conflict. Many sanctuaries, temples and statues were built for them. The Greeks were imaginative, adventurous and warlike. They took a great interest in athletics and sports. They invented the Olympic Games which was an athletics and sports festival. This festival was celebrated along with literary and musical contests every four years throughout ancient Greek history. They celebrated it in honour of Zeus, the king of the gods. This festival was closely connected with the religious beliefs and rites of the people. Art played a major part in the celebration. The Greeks also contributed to many fields of human endeavour. This has influenced European cultures greatly. In the field of politics, the Greeks invented many systems of government, the most important of which was democracy. The works of Greek writers and philosophers are still being studied in Europe and other parts of the world. In the field of science especially medicine, mathematics and astronomy the Greeks contributed a great deal of useful knowledge to the world. Art is another field of study through which Greek civilization is fell today.

22. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS The highest artistic development was.in sculpture, painting, architecture and pottery. The history of ancient Greek art can be divided into three important periods: (i) the archaic period (700 480 BC) (ii) the classical period (480-323 BC) (iii) the Hellenistic period (323-27 BC) Archaic period The term archaic is a Greek word which means early. It is used to describe the many developments which occurred in die early stages of Greek culture. In sculpture, the Greeks produced images mainly of gods and goddesses in the likeness of men, women and children. They carved statues which they placed over graves and erected at other places to commemorate important events and the victors at national games and contests. They also carved reliefs to decorate public buildings. When carving standing or seated statues, the Greeks studied and imitated Egyptian models or examples. The statues were characterized by symmetry and stiffness of forms. The female figures were fully clothed, and the male ones were naked with the left leg placed in front. The male figure shown in Figure 2.5 was called Kuoros (youth) and it is naked because the Greek athletes and sportsmen performed naked in public. The female figure shown in Figure 2.6 was called Kore (maiden). The lips of the figures are curved and drawn into the expression commonly called the archaic smile by art historians. The Greeks mostly carved their statues in marbles which were abundant in their mountainous land. They smoothed and waxed the carvings in order to give to the surface the highest degree of perfection or painted the carvings in life-like colours. Other materials less used for sculpture were gold, ivory, timber and bronze. Greek Art

23. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Fig. 2.6 Kore(Greek,530 BC; marble height 121.9 cm; Acropolis Museum, Athens) Fig. 2.5 Kuoros (Greek, 570 BC; marble, life size; Glyptothek, Munich) The Greeks developed a splendid tradition of fresco painting on walls and on movable panels but all have perished. Very little is known, therefore; of early Greek painting. We have some idea of what their paintings were like from those found on vases and jugs. The early paintings on the vases also show Egyptian influence. They show strong outlines of Figures; the eyes and the chest are in frontal view, and the foot and the head are in profile. The stories of gods and heroes were the chief subject for painting. Foreshortening was discovered later in the period. This means that, for example, in painting the foot from the front, the five toes were depicted like a row of five little circles.

24. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Owing to the great demand for containers for storing water, oil. honey and com. and for other domestic purposes, the art of pottery was developed to a high level. Pottery became a big industry, especially at Ceramicus, the potters quarter in Athens. The Greeks used fast potters wheels to make their drinking cups, bowls, large storage jars, wine vessels and oilier articles. They used clay of even textures. The pottery wares were lightly fired; then the surfaces were smoothed and painted. Black, red and white or cream-coloured slip was used in painting and decorating the wares. They sometimes used the colour violet. The paintings made the wares shiny. The decorations on the wares were geometric patterns, figures of animals, human beings, gods and plants. The Greeks also made pottery sculptures in terracotta. Drinking mugs were shaped in the likeness of human heads or as caricatures. The Greeks needed shelters to protect die statues of their gods, so they built beautiful wooden temples for them. Later they used marbles for the buildings. The Greeks did not worship the gods in the temples. They worshipped outside the temples in the open air where there were altars. The temples only housed the statues of the gods. The style of the temples is called Doric, named after the Doric tribe to which the Spartans belonged. The Greeks also built stadiums for athletic contests. Some of the stadium- could seat about 45,000 spectators. They also built unroofed theatres for drama; Greeks often painted the upper parts of their stone buildings. They used mainly blue and red, and sometimes yellow, green, black and gildings. The unpainted parts were rubbed with wax. Classical period The word classical means of high excellence or first class. It is often applied to all antiques (old valuable objects) and to some types of music and literature. Strictly speaking, the word only applies to the finest Greek art of the fifth century BC. Greek art of this period reached the highest point of its development. It shows the adventurous and the imaginative spirit of the Greeks. Greek Art

25. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Sculptors were no longer anonymous or unknown. The famous sculptors of this period include Myron, Phaidas and others. Through the efforts of the artists the Greek statues freed themselves from the influence of Egypt. The artists sculpted their human figures incorrect proportions and gave them movement and flexibility. Greek sculptors were able to do this because they studied the naked athletes and sportsmen in different postures. Figure 2.7 shows a figure of a naked athlete with correct proportions, flexibility and movement. Vase painting continued through the classical period. Potters tried to improve the shapes and handlesofthepots,theproportions, contours and the decorations, although they did not invent any new shapes for the vessels. Figure 2.8 shows some of the Greek vessels of improved workmanship. The attempt to make everything perfect can also be seen in architecture. In addition to the old Doric style, Ionic and Corinthian styles were invented. The Corinthian style was the richest and most elegant in design. It was invented in die rich city of Corinth in 420 BC. These styles were used only for temples in Greek cities were clusters of small house in which the people lived, with small lanes between the houses. There were no streets and no drainage. The market places were the only open spaces where people could come together to talk about their lives. Fig. 2.7 The discus thrower (Greek, marble; life size; Route)

26. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Fig. 2.8 Types of Greek Pottery Hellenistic period The term Hellenistic applies to the art made under Greek influence in Alexandria in Egypt, Antioch in Syria, and Pergamum in Asia Minor. These countries and cities fell to the Greeks when the Greek prince, Alexander the Great, conquered them in 33 BC. Both artists and the public developed more interest in all the achievements in art. Art was no more used only for religious purposes. Writers began to write about art and the artists lives. People began to collect and own art works because of their beauty. They used them to decorate their houses. Landscape painting was invented. It showed simple countryside life, like shepherds and their sheep. The landscapes were painted for the city dweller.

27. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Greek Art Summary In sculpture the Greeks learned how to make statues from the Egyptians; they improved upon the statues and learned how to give correct proportions to the human figure; they introduced movement into the figure. They used the statues to decorate their architecture, and to mark important events and deeds. In architecture the Greeks invented three beautiful types of temple; they painted landscapes of the countryside (around the villages) on panels for the people in the cities. In pottery they made huge jars for storing food for themselves and for export; they improved the shapes of their vases; they painted the vases to make them beautiful.

28. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Oriental Art Oriental Art Indian Art Buddhism is one of the main religions of the Indians. One of its beliefs is that there is life after death and that everything done in one life determines the next life; and that each human soul passes from one body to another. This belief determined the form and function of Indian an. Indian art began in 3000 BC and has continued to today, but with many improvements. There are two types of religious building in India. Firstly, there are temples built out of stone and wood for worship. An example is the Sanchi Stupa. The roof is a big dome with a flat top. The dome rests upon circular terraces with small stair rails surrounding the dome. It was built in about 300 BC to protect a sacred place. The second type of religious building consists of temples, assembly halls and monasteries. Many of them are hundreds of years old and they were entirely hollowed and cut out from huge rocks or from the side of cliffs. The Indians worshipped, met and Studied in these buildings. The two types of building were decorated with carvings in relief and in the round both inside and outside. Figure 2.9 shows carvings in Khajuraho Temple. The figures in the carving are wearing many jewels. Indian sculptors carved cult statues and huge statues of Buddha. Buddha was often carved seated with legs crossed, hands folded in his lap and with his eyes looking down. As dancing is pan of Indian worship the sculptors also carved dancing figures of women and gods in stone. Bronze was used for popular subjects like Lord of the Dance, Lord of Pity and other important gods. Figure 2.10 shows an example of a Lord figure in bronze. Buddhist themes were also painted on walls in frescoes. Weaving was an important form of art in India. The textiles were either hand- painted or printed. The chief material used was always cotton. The textiles were used for garments, turbans, hangings, bedspreads and for religious use. Jewels also played an important role in the life of the Indians.

29. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Figure 2.9 Carvings in Khajuraho Temple (Indian; about 1000 AD, stone) Figure 2.10 Lord of the Dance (Indian; 11th century; bronze; height 114.5 cm; Government Museum, Madras)

30. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Summary The Indians used art to express their thoughts and beliefs. Their temples carved out of rocks pay tribute to their imagination, desire to create and skill in architecture and sculpture. The rock temples also show how patient, determined and hard-working the Indians were. They successfully used art to meet the irreligious and social needs. Chinese Art (2000 BC-AD 1800) Chinese culture is about 4000 years old. Over time it has absorbed some foreign influences. The earliest Chinese works of art included ancient sacrificial bronze vessels which were made in 1300 BC. These were decorated with masks of mon-sters. Some of these bronze vessels were made in the shape of birds and animals. They were used in the rites of ancestor worship. They also made bronze jars with meandering and fret (net-like) patterns incised on them. They were used in libation. Figure 2.11 shows a jar in the form of an owl. It is decorated with incised patterns. Casting of bronze images of all sizes was a great skill practiced by the Chinese from ancient days. Sculpture-making was connected with the dead. Stone figures of animals like the lion and chimera were placed on tombs. The inside of the tombs was often decorated with reliefs showing processions of horsemen and chariots. They also made terracotta figures and carved figures in ivory and semi-precious stones like jade, ruby, quartz and garnet. The painting of the Chinese was very close to their system of writing. Chinese writing was invented around 1000 BC. Oriental Art

31. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Their greatest painters were highly educated - poets, philosophers, priests and court officials. They painted on paper, silk and on walls. They used fine brushes, ink and water colours. They painted both simple subjects like a bamboo shoot and complicated subjects like a landscape with mountains. Figure 2.12 shows a Chinese landscape painting. It was painted with ink on silk. There is only one type of Chinese architecture. Buildings were made of wood and stones. The edges of the roofs were always curved up. The buildings served all needs religious, secular, public and private. The Chinese also had a very rich tradition in pottery, porcelain, embroidery, lacquered woods and jewellery. Summary The Chinese combined art with other activities. A poet, philosopher, priest or doctor had to be able to paint or to carve small and simple figures, their desire for beauty and skill was shown in everything they created. The Chinese liked to keep their traditions so they did not change their styles of art much, but they did make improvements in the details of the artefacts, and in skill and techniques. Fig. 2.11 A jar in the form of an owl (Chinese; bronze) Fig. 2.12 A landscape painting (Chinese; 10th century AD; ink on silk; Beijing Palace Museum)

32. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Japanese Art (AD 400-1800) The Japanese have always been inspired by the Chinese. But the Japanese were more active and warlike than the Chinese. Japanese art was therefore dramatic and vigorous. A typical Japanese painting is a silk screen used as a folding partition in the home. They painted portraits and pictures showing the social and military life of the rich people in the society. Because there is little stone in Japan, wood, metal and clay were used a lot for their sculpture and architecture. The clay sculptures were painted and lacquered. The sculptures often looked like the works of the Chinese. The Japanese built their houses and temples with wood. Their buildings had more than one roof like those of the Chinese. The edges and comers of the roof were also curved up. Figure 2.13 shows a Japanese temple with a double roof. Colour priming is a uniquely Japanese form of art. It was used to produce portraits of popular actors and beautiful women. Figure 2.14 shows the portrait of the actor, Matsumoio Koshiro IV. Summary Japanese art was influenced by Chinese art, but die Japanese were able to use the art to satisfy their own social and national needs. This shows that the art of a people can be studied and used by other people for their own good. Oriental Art

33. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Fig. 2.13 Japanese temple: golden hall (607 AD) Fig. 2.14 Portrait of the actor, Matsumoto Koshiro IV. (Japanese, c. AD 1793; Art Institue of Chicago

34. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Oceanic Art Melanesian art Melanesia consists of several islands of different sizes in the Pacific Ocean. The most important islands are New Guinea, New Britain, the Solomons, New Caledonia, New Ireland and Fiji. The art forms of the people were closely related to their social customs and religious ideas. The arts, customs and beliefs are several centuries old. They probably date back to 2000 or 3000 BC. They are still practiced in the same way as they were years ago, probably with little modification! It was believed that all aspects of life and the after-life were controlled by supernatural forces and ancestral spirits. Many ceremonies and rites were often performed to honour and to obtain favour from the many spirits. Different works of art were needed in the ceremonies. The most important art forms were the ancestor figures which were believed to contain the spirit of the ancestor after death. They were carved in wood showing a huge head, into which the skull of the dead person was fitted. Sometimes the skull was attached to a figure that was small. Other carvings included masks, canoe prows in the form of crocodiles, andceremonialstoolssupportedbyhumanfigures.Architecture,painting, basketry and clay modelling formed part of the art of the Melanesian people. Summary The Melanesians identified their social and religious problems and used art to solve them. They produced sculptures and other forms of art for their ceremonies and rites. Oceanic Art

35. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Polynesian Art The name Polynesian comes from the Greek words for many islands. Polynesia is made up of islands spread over a vast area in the North, Central and South Pacific. Some of the islands arc Hawaii, Easter Islands. Tonga, Samoa, Tahiti. Marquesas Island, and New Zealand. They have common traditions and forms of art. The traditions and art were developed in about 2000 BC. They are still practised as they were. Like the art of the Melanesian people. Polynesian art was strongly linked with their beliefs and practices. The Polynesians liked to specialize in different types of work, like the priesthood, sculpting, canoe making and housebuilding. They trained for a long time as apprentices before entering these vocations. All artists training as apprentices learned the proper methods of handling tools and materials. They also learned about all the ideas and beliefs related to every aspect of artistic creation. The good training of the artists enabled them to produce works of a high standard both technically and aesthetically. Art was therefore associated with rank and prestige. The Polynesians were noted for the production of a fabric of die finest quality called tepa. It was produced from the bark of the paper-mulberry tree. The tepa fabrics were decorated by painting. White tepa was used in their temples. The specialists in house building were organized into powerful groups. They built large and important guest or ceremonial houses. These houses were over 12 m long and 8.1 m high. The walls were made of matting or reeds and the roofs were of heavy thatch. Feather work was also an important form of art among the Polynesians. Figure 2.15 shows a Polynesian feather cloak from Hawaii. Oceanic Art

36. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Summary The Polynesians attached great importance to art. They used art to promote their beliefs and culture, and also to satisfy their desire for beautiful things. Fig. 2.15 A feather cloak (Polynesian; Hawaii)

37. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Questions 1 How does prehistoric art tell us about the environment and the feelings of early man? 2 What is sympathetic magic and how did. Prehistoric man use it? 3 Briefly explain: superimposition, superposition and juxtaposition. 4 What were the main contributions of the Greeks to art? 5 What is the archaic smile? 6 How did the Greeks use art in their everyday life? 7 What is-foreshortening? 8 What were the uses of Indian temples? 9 Describe a Chinese bronze jar. (Use Figure 2.11.) 10 From which people did the Japanese learn art? 11 How did the Melanesians use art to meet their religious needs? 12 How do we know art provides vocations for the Polynesians? References GARDNER. Helen. Art through the Ages. Harcourt, Brace and World Inc., New York. edn. pp. 1-5. 122-79. 569-653 GOMBRICH. E.H., The Story of An, Phaidon Press Lid. London. 1957 MEYERS. Bernard S. Art and Civilization. McGraw-Hill Book Company. New Yorkpp. 9-18. 42-62 and 91-112. WINGERT. Paul. Primitive Art: Its Traditions and Styles. Oxford University Press New York, 1962. pp 183-330 Questions

38. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Anonymous Grebo Mask, date unknown

39. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS African Art Objectives The student should be able to understand: the influence of religious beliefs on types of art forms and their functions; how the art forms promoted religious beliefs and social needs; how the arts of the Greeks, Romans and Muslims influenced art in North Africa; how people south of the Sahara Desert show their awareness of their environment; how these people developed their beliefs and used an to promote them. North Africa Prehistoric men in North Africa settled in villages in about 7000 BC. They no longer hunted or gathered food. They built simple houses of mud, wood or stones. They made farms and grew corn, rice, wheat and other crops. They also took care of animals like sheep, goats, cats, cattle, donkeys, ducks and others. They worshipped many gods. Because of these changes in their lifestyle, they stopped using an only for sympathetic magic. They used art to help them worship their gods and also to decorate themselves and other things. The people made wonderful artefacts: fine cloth, pottery, golden ornaments, wigs, jewellery, copper-work, bronze-work, silver-work and glassware. After a long time their villages grew into big towns and cities, such as those in Egypt. Egypt became the first great centre of civilization on the African continent roughly after 5000 BC. It had a great influence on the development of other North African countries: Mauritania, Western Sahara, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Sudan. Ethiopia, Djibouti, Somalia. Chad and the northern parts of Niger and Mali.

40. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS The ancient Egyptians invented a calendar and a system of picture-writing (hieroglyphics) in about 4000 BC. They also invented paperfromthepapyrusreed, a plant found in Egypt. They had powerful kings called Pharaohs. The Pharaohs were respected like gods and had a navy and great armies which organized the people to do communal work.TheEgyptiansbelieved that when they died their souls (ka) would continue to live in another world but inside the same bodies. Because of this they treated dead bodies carefully and wrapped them so that they would not decay. These bodies (mummies) were laid in tombs. The mummies of the Pharaohs and important people were buried with many treasures in tombs called pyramids. Works of art were used to decorate the inside and outside of the tombs. Painting Beautiful paintings were done on papyrus paper, wooden panels and on walls of temples and tombs. They show incidents from the lives of important people and their journey to the land of the dead. The paintings also show people hunting and feasting. The artists used powder colours made from rocks, stones and earth. They mixed the powders with gum and used brushes to paint on walls. They painted men bigger and darker than women. Slaves were painted very small. Painters showed distance in their drawings and paintings by placing one body above another. Figure 3.1 shows an Egyptian painting. Fig. 3.1 Egyptian painting: fowling scene (1570-1344 BC)

41. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS ItdepictsaPharaohandhiswifeand slave hunting birds. The painting is from a tomb. Sculpture Sculpture was made to serve the dead. Sculptors carved life-size figures to replace the mummies in case the mummies perished by chance. Wood and stones were used: The wooden figures were covered with linen glued to the wood and painted life-like. Statues of men and women were made wearing wigs and they were seated, standing or kneeling. The standing ones had their left feet placed in a forward position. Figure 3.2 shows a Pharaoh and his queen wearing wigs and their left feet placed in front. Huge statues (sphinxes) were carved and placed at the front of the tombs or pyramids to guard the tombs. Fig. 3.2 A Pharaoh and his queen (height 140 cm; Museum of Fine Art, Boston) Figure 3.3 shows a pyramid and a sphinx. Beautiful portrait busts of Pharaohs, queens, officials and even slaves were carved and painted. Inside the tombs, the walls were covered with reliefs. Like the paintings, the reliefs show scenes from everyday life, the production of grain, the raising of cattle, pressing grapes, the making of boats, jewellery and vases, hunting on the desert, fishing in rivers, Pharaohs making offerings to the gods and other activities. The reliefs were often brightly painted.

42. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Fig. 3.3 A sphinx and pyramid Architecture The Egyptians made one of the greatest structures ever built in the world - the pyramid. One of the pyramids is about 150 m high and it took 3000 men about ten years to build. Egyptians learned mathematics and geometry in order to cut huge stones, move them about, and lift them to build the pyramids and temples. They did not use iron in their buildings. The stones they used were so heavy that when they put one on top of another it would not fall. They plastered the surfaces of the walls or covered them with paintings, reliefs and hieroglyphics. The houses of the ordinary Egyptians were built of dried bricks. In the cities the houses were very close to each other so they sometimes made gardens on their flat roofs. They made beautiful furniture with wood, gold and ivory for the palaces and tombs. Figure 3.4 shows a beautiful wooden chair, decorated with gold, ivory and relief patterns. Other artefacts used in the homes included decorated mirrors, silver and glass jars for drinking wine, jewel boxes, walking sticks and spoons for perfume.

43. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS The Egyptians produced a fine fabric for their clothes. The same type of fabric was used in wrapping the mummies. They invented and used glazes for the pots and tiles. African Art Foreign influences When the Greeks conquered Egypt in 333 BC, the Pharaohs ceased to rule the country. The Greeks introduced Hellenistic art to Egypt. They build the city Alexandria and used their styles of building in this city and in others. They also built libraries, museums, banks, cemeteries and other public building. They introduced their language and gods to the Egyptians and to people in Libya, Morocco, Algeria, Sudan and Ethiopia. Fig. 3.4 Choir (Egyptian: cedar wood) They also introduced a new form of art called mosaic to the North Africans. Mosaic is the use of small cubes of Shiny stone to make pictures. Mosaic was done on the walls, floors and ceilings of houses. The Romans conquered the Greeks and became the rulers of North Africa. Many years later in 30 BC, the Romans introduced the Christian religion to Egypt. This soon spread throughout North Africa.

44. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS The Romans built many churches and decorated the insides with mosaic. The Muslims came and conquered the Romans in AD 641 in Egypt and the whdle1 of North Africa. They introduced their system of beliefs Islam and built many mosques for worship. They also introduced their language (Arabic), writing and art. These continue to be used in Egypt today. Summary The driving force behind the Egyptian civilization was their beliefs. The different forms of art played important roles in the expression of these beliefs. Through art many of the peoples religious and social needs were met. For example; to build a pyramid was a religious need. In these problem solving efforts the Pharaoh and his armies organized farmers to grow more food. They irrigated the land. The navy and sailors went abroad to fetch other things not available on the land. The Egyptians needed several sculptors, painters, potters, goldsmiths and weavers. Many young men and women were trained as artists. This helped to solve the problem of unemployment. From our study, we notice how Egyptian life came to be affected by many strong influences from outside. This hindered the development of true Egyptian art and culture. The same can happen to any culture today: strong outside influences can affect the art and culture of any nation. Questions 1 Why did the Egyptians use many men and take many years to build the pyramids? 2 Why and how did true Egyptian art cease to develop? 3 Today many people from other countries visit the pyramids in Egypt. Why do you think the visitors (tourists) do this? African Art

45. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS African Art South Saharan Arts South Sahara (sub-Sahara) comprises West Africa. Central Africa, East Africa and Southern Africa. In about 6000 BC men began a settled way of life. They fanned, fished, raised domestic animals and built houses. A few thousand years later men began to work in metals: copper, bronze, iron, gold and silver. They had powerful leaders and kings who developed kingdoms, empires and cities. In due course these fell and perished due to wars and outside influences. The ways of living in the sub-Sahara reflect awareness of a hostile environment. The people created religious beliefs, ideas and practices to guide and help them to adjust to the environment. The religious activities included worship, rituals, rites and ceremonies. The arts were used in these activities to control and relate to the environment. The arts included sculpture, painting, architecture, textiles, pottery, jewellery, body art, furniture, household objects, music, leatherwork, blacksmithing, dance and storytelling. We shall discuss the religious beliefs and practices and relate them to the arts. This will help us to understand some of the social functions and the importance of the arts to the people of the sub-Sahara. The religious beliefs, practices, and the arts are still practised today as they were done many years ago. The sub-Saharan religion comprises a belief in God, ancestors, spirits, animism and the practices of magic, sorcery, witchcraft and rites of passage. Godisthecreatoroftheuniverse.Heisverypowerful.Heknowseverything and he is everywhere. Most sub-Saharan peoples do not worship him directly. They do not build temples, shrines or images of him, although a few shrines are found among the Ashanti (Ghana), Ewes (Ghana and Togo), Dogon (Mali) and Kikuyu (Kenya).

46. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Ancestor veneration (respect for ancestors) is based on the belief that God has given power to the founders of societies and families. The ancestors help people in everything and punish them when they go wrong. The people call the ancestors for help through libations, drums, songs, dances, prayers and offerings. Small statues, masks, stools and thrones are carved for the ancestors to live in when they visit the people. Figure 3.5 is a carved female ancestor figure of the Baluba (Zaire). Shrines and temples arc built for the ancestors. They are decorated with graphic designs, collages, paintings, reliefs and statues of the ancestors. Figure 3.6 is an example of a Dogon temple for ancestors. Festivals and ceremonies are held in honour of the ancestors to thank them and to ask for more help. The arts used on such occasions include body paintings, sculpture, music, dance, pottery, textiles and praise names (appellations):Some of the artefacts are hairstyles, cloths, drums, bowls (made of brass, bronze, clay or wood), umbrellas, walking sticks, jewels, songs, masquerades, pantomime and household Objects. There are priests who keep the shrines and temples. They wear special costumes, have special hairstyles and do special dances. At death, the soul of the deceased returns to the ancestors. It may also become an ancestor. Funeral ceremonies are held. People put on spiral clothes or paint their bodies with symbolic colours like red, white and black. There is also special drumming, dancing and singing at the funerals. Sometimes there are masquerades. Pottery, carved boxes, brass containers and baskets are used to keep the relies of the dead. Fig. 3.5 Female ancestor figure ( back arid from views; Baluba, Zaire; wood; height 46 cm; British Museum)

47. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Figure 3.7 is an example of pottery for relics from Ashanti (Ghana). Terracotta statues or carved posts are placed on the graves of the dead. All forms of art are needed in various ways in the ancestor worship. Therefore we can say that this worship encourages the creation and the use of the arts. Fig. 3.6 A sketch of a Dogon ancestral temple Fig. 3.7 A pot for relics: abusua kuruwa (Ashanti. Ghana: clay. National Museum of Ghana)

48. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Belief in Spirits It is believed God has given power to spirits or lesser gods. Some of these spirits were once human beings. But they became spirits through the help of other spirits. An example is Shango the god of thunder of the Yoruba Nigeria. Shango is always either represented as an armed rider on horseback or by the symbol of the thunderbolt used to invoke him. Thunderbolts are stone axes of prehistoric culture. Many African believe that the stones dropped from the sky, and the stones are therefore charged with magic. Shango staffs keep off evil and work miracles. The staff often portrays a kneeling woman who represents fertility, as in Figure 3.8. Other spirits control the rivers, mountains, fire, rain, thunder and fertility of women, animals and crops. They supervise fishing, hunting, the arts, agriculture, justice, war, peace, medicine, Figure 3.8 Shango sacred staff: a symbol of the thunderbolt, (Yoruba, Nigeria)

49. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS travelling and all human activities. For instance, Chi- wara is a spirit. It taught the Bambara of Mali to grow com. So the Bambara carved antelope masks to remember the spirit Chi-wara. These masks are used in agricultural activities and rituals, that Is, clearing the land, planting, reaping the first fruits, harvesting and storing food. The masks are used with special costumes in a dance during the agricultural activities. Figure 3.9 shows Chi-wara dancers dancing before the clearing of the land for farming. There are also female spirits or goddesses like Mother Earth Odudua of the Yoruba (Nigeria) and Asaase Yaa of the Akan (Ghana). Images of the goddesses are modelled in clay or carved in wood. The images are decorated with hairstyles, scarifications and paintings of symbolic patterns. The goddesses are shown with children because they stand for fertility. Women give offerings and prayers to these goddesses for a successful marriage and many children. Several art forms arc used during the performance of rituals, rites and ceremonies for the goddesses. These include songs, drums, clothes, dances, body paintings, jewels and others. Figure 3.10 shows an image of Odudua. She has a beautiful hairstyle and two children with her. The child on her left is holding a hen. Fig. 3.9 Chi-wara mask dancers (Mali)

50. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Fig. 3.10 Odudua (Yoruba. Nigeria; painted wood; height 76.1 cm; British Museum) Animism This is the belief that God has given special powers to animals, plants and objects like stones and metals. These powers can be used by man through rituals, rites and ceremonies. For instance, one can use the power of a plant to heal a sick person through rituals. Animals are greatly respected for their powers. Snakes, crocodiles and birds ate often linked with fertility of women and the soil. Because animals have powers, their skins are used for amulets, charms and belts. Their images are made in brass, iron, silver, gold, ivory or bones for rings, necklaces, pendants, wristlets and anklets. These objects may be used to decorate oneself. Animals are also depicted in carvings, designs and paintings to decorate other art objects. Such objects include houses, brass and wooden bowls, calabashes, drums, combs, stools and clothes. Figure 3.11shows a wooden bowl decorated with a snake and human figures. Animals are also used to represent clans, families and societies. Artists give great respect to their materials and tools because the materials and tools possess powers of their own. The artists make prayers and sacrifices to the tools and the materials they use from time to time.

51. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS The practice of magic is an important aspect of religion in almost all African societies. People believe that they can protect themselves against accidents, drought and diseases through using certain substances and objects in particular ways. Charms are prepared through rituals for success in hunting, justice, love, healing, harvesting, protection and so on. Some of the artefacts used during magical rituals include statues, masks, leatherwork, pots and drums. Special recitations, appellations, incantations or poems and songs are learned and used for the rituals. Figure 3.12 shows an example of a magic figure in wood with pieces of metal. Sorcery and witchcraft These are practices based on magic but used for evil purposes. People fear these practices so they go to medicine-men to seek protection against the sorcerers and witches. Many art objects arc used in the rituals for protection. Figure 3.13 shows a cloth from the Republic of Benin. It is decorated with an applique pattern representing rituals for repelling evil spirits and witches. In some African societies special costumes and masks are worn and dances performed to drive away the witches. Figure 3.11 Wooden bowl with snake, and human figures (Yoruba, Nigeria; painted wood, height 38.1 cm; British Museum) South Sahara African Art

52. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Fig. 3.12 A magic figure (Bakongo, Zaire; wood, iron and fibre; Ghana National Museum) Fig. 3.13 Applique cloth (Republic of Benin)

53. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Rites of Passage These comprise various rituals, rites and ceremonies to mark the passage from one stage of life to another. The passages are birth, puberty, marriage and death and the person passes through them to, respectively, the stages of childhood, adolescence, adulthood and ancestorship. At birth the newly born child is believed to come from the gods or ancestors. Naming and outdooring ceremonies are performed. The child is given names. Prayers are said, libations are poured with water, wine, or milk. These are to thank the gods, ancestors and Mother Earth. The child is then accepted as a member of the family. Art forms used at these times include cloth, pots, calabashes, brass bowls, music, dance and others. Women who find it difficult to have Fig. 3.14 Twin figures (Yoruba, Nigeria) children often consult the ancestors through the priests. Wooden dolls are carved for such women to carry like a child. In Ashanti such a doll is called akuaba. Twins are feared and greatly respected in many African societies. When a twin baby dies a wooden figure is carved to replace the dead one. When both twins die two figures are carved for the mother to keep for some time. Among the Yoruba of Nigeria the wooden figures are called ibeji. Among the Ewe of Ghana they are called amelikpakpt. The figures can be bought in the market places. Figure 3.14 shows an example of twin figures. South Sahara African Art

54. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Puberty is the passage from childhood into adolescence and adulthood. It is accompanied by rites, rituals and initiation (i.e. introduction into adult societies or communities). During this time young men and women arc taught many things concerning life the customs of the people, law and justice, the dignity of labour, home management, personal hygiene, civic rights, fighting skills and the arts (pottery, music, dance, drama and others). During marriages, gifts of artefacts are given to dear ones. Among the Bawonga (Zaire), women are presented with carved wooden bowls. The lids portray proverbs, symbols of hope, wishes or scenes. In Ghana the women are given stools, jewels, cloths, beads and some household articles. Marriages are often accompanied by drumming, dancing and merrymaking. The ancestors are called through prayers to bless the marriage with peace, joy, prosperity and many healthy children. At adulthood men and women work hard to acquire properties lawfully. Thenextpassageaftermarriageisdeath.Thedeadmansorwomanssoul goes to the ancestors. He or she may become an ancestor depending on how good she or he was in life. Some art objects are not used directly for religious purposes. They are owned and used by people because they are beautiful. They show the social and economic status of their owners because they are expensive. Such objects are also used at festivals and ceremonies linked with ancestor worship. They include household utensils like wooden spoons, ladles, bowls, jewels and snuff boxes, insignia (symbols of authority) and regalia (royal objects). External influences like Islam and Christianity later affected the uses and creation of indigenous arts. The two religions have not completely displaced the indigenous arts. Because of this the indigenous arts still exist side by side with art forms introduced by Islam and Christianity. For example, although Islam docs not allow the representation of animal and human figures in the arts, the Nupe people, who are influenced by Islam, sometimes make animal and human figures in their arts. South Sahara African Art

55. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS The Dogon in Mali and several other people do the same. Christianity. Islam and the indigenous beliefs exist side by side peacefully in some countries like Ghana, Nigeria and Uganda. However, the uses of indigenous arts are declining. Summary Today efforts are being made to retain the indigenous arts. Efforts are also made to relate the arts to present ways of living. Our concern as art students today is to learn how we too can use these arts to help us in our daily lives; for instance, how we can use our kerne, pots, carvings and others in the social and economic development of our nation. Questions and exercises 1 What does the indigenous sub-Saharan religion comprise? 2 On what belief is ancestor worship based? 3 What forms of art are used in ancestor worship? 4 Make a chart of religious beliefs showing the art forms and objects used according to the beliefs. Here is an example; Beliefs Art Forms and Objects 1 Magic Leather, amulets, charms, statues, songs, incantations. 5 Of what use (economic or social) arc these art forms to us today? References GARDNER, Helen. Art through the Ages. Harcourt. Brace and World Inc., New York. 1959 edn. LAUDE, Jean, The Arts of Black Africa (translated by Jean Dccock). University of California Press. Berkeley. 1971. pp. 23-4 WINGERT. Paul. Primitive Art: Its Traditions and Styles. Oxford University Press. New York. 1962. pp 13-73 VANSINA, Jan. An History in Africa. Longman Group Limited. Harlow. 1984 South Sahara African Art

56. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS

57. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Design Objectives The student should be able to: identify and describe elements of design; give examples of elements of design from nature and the man-made environment; explain the role of elements of design in art; derive ideas from the environment and use them to create elements of design; organize basic elements of art into designs according to principles of organization. The word design in this book refers to a plan within a work of art. It is the organization, arrangement or composition of a work. This means that design can be considered as a process or as the result of a process. We can think of the design of a picture, poster, collage, carving or basket in both these senses. When a designer plans his work, he puts together certain qualities such as dot, line, shape, texture and colour. These qualities may be called elements. It is the relationship of the elements that the viewer sees. Elements of design are basic parts or qualities of a design. They are sometimes referred to as elements of art when they are used to describe a work of art. Basic elements that are commonly used in art are: dot, line, shape, texture, space, plane, volume, mass, colour (value, tone, and pattern). For purposes of easy identification, we will describe the major elements.

58. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Major Elements of Art Dot A dot () is a point or small round spot. Dots may appear in nature as rounded sand or rock particles, pebbles, fruits, seeds or human heads in a crowd. Dots may be created by drawing, priming or spraying. Practical work 1 1 Collect some objects which look like dots, place them on a suitable surface. Draw their outlines and shade them to create dots. 2 Select some of the objects fruits, seeds and pebbles. Place them on a clean sheet of paper and spray paint or ink over them and the paper. Remove the objects. The clear spaces are dots. 3 On a clean piece of paper, draw dots with a pen, pencil, stick or brush and ink. 4 Get drawing ink ready or mix some paint. Dip a brush in the ink or paint and hold it above a clean sheet of paper. Shake or tap the brush gently so that drops of the ink or paint fall on the paper as dots. Dots created by the various methods may be used in pattern work. Line A line may be considered as the path made by a moving point of a tool such as a pencil, pen or other tool. Various types of lines can be identified: vertical, horizontal, diagonal, curved, zigzag, broken, undulating, straight, converging, diverging, thin, thick, narrow, wide, short, long, dark, light, solid, dotted and parallel. In the natural environment, line appears in several forms: footpaths, animal trails, rivers, cracks in objects, tree branches, lines on tree barks, stems of climbing plants, veins of leaves, blades of grass, cobwebs and so on. In the man-made world, line may be seen in the form of roads, telegraph lines, electric grids, construction lines, gutters and drains, drawn lines and printed lines. In art, lines are used largely in drawing and in designs of various kinds.

59. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS 1. Vertical 2. Diagonal 3. Horizontal 4. Curved 5. Zigzag 6. Undulating 7. Spiral 8. Converging 9. Diverging 10. Parallel 11. Broken 12. Wide 13. Narrow 14. Solid 15. Dotted 16. Straight Observe examples of lines in your natural and man made environment. Practical work 2 1 On a clean sheet of paper, draw examples of the lines illustrated in Figure 4.1. 2 On another sheet, draw long parallel lines in free-hand style. Try to keep the space between the lines even. Begin slowly but increase your speed as you draw. Figure 4.1 Types of lines

60. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Fig. 4.2 Shapes 3 Draw long meandering lines and keep the spaces between them even. 4 Drop coloured ink or paint on a sheet of paper and control ii to run all over the paper to create lines. 5 Dip a brush in a watery paint and splash the paint across a sheet of paper to create lines. 6 Put paint on a linear surface such as thread, string, rope or grass stalk and make prints from them on clean paper.7 Tear a piece of paper in half. The torn edges create lines. Shape A shape may be described as an enclosed area. It may be circular, cylindrical, regular or irregular. Examples in nature are shapes of fruits, seeds, flowers, leaves, stems, stones, insects and animals. Some man-made shapes are triangles, squares, rectangles, hexagons, circles, spheres, cones, pyramids and ovals. Observe examples of shapes in your environment.

61. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Fig. 4.2 Shapes Practical work 3 1 Draw shapes of leaves, fruits, seeds, insects and rocks. 2 Place a group of objects on a low, flat surface and draw their shapes. Shade the shapes with dots or lines. 3 Using the circle as a unit, draw as many different shapes as possible from it. Shade the shapes with dots or lines. 4 Select a heap of stones, scrap material or garbage. Draw the shapes of the objects and the empty spaces between them. Shade some of the shapes with dots and lines.

62. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Fig. 4.5 Some Textures Texture Texture is the nature of a surface. There are two kinds: actual texture that can be felt as rough or smooth; and texture that appears to be rough or smooth, but cannot be felt. For example, a terrazzo surface appears rough, but it is smooth; its roughness is said to be visual. The surface of sandpaper is rough and can be felt. This is known as actual texture (tactile).

63. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Practical work 4 1 Collect objects with varied surfaces from plants, rocks or animals. Group them according to their roughness or smoothness. 2 Place pieces of paper on the surfaces and rub them with pencil, charcoal or crayon to show the textures of the objects. 3 Put paint or printing paste on some of the surfaces. Place a clean paper over the painted surface. Rub the back of the paper to make a print. 4 Arrange a variety of leaf shapes on paper and spray paint over them. Rearrange the leaves over the sprayed areas. Repeal the process till suitable textures are formed. 5 Cut out some of the printed or sprayed textures and organize them into patterns. What can the patterns be used for? 6 Texture may be created through drawing (see Figure 4.5). Practise drawing your own examples of textures using lines, alphabets and numbers. 7 Cut out pieces of an old newspaper or magazine and paste them to overlap one another. Some may be upside down. This creates textures. 8 Dip a piece of sponge, foam, crumpled paper or fabric in paint Stamp it several times to cover the entire surface of a clean sheet of paper to form textures. 9 Collect flat textured surfaces such as fabric, paper, banana or plantain tree bark and corn shuck. Cut them into a variety of shapes and paste them with a strong adhesive on a hard surface. Fig. 4.4 Some textures

64. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Colour Colour is a fascinating element of design. You need to learn how it works and the different ways in which it may be applied. It is fruitless to learn about colour theory separately from practice. You will understand colour belter where there is a clear link between making colour and using it. Begin your study by observing colour in nature the colour of flowers, seeds, fruits, leaves, rocks, animals and insects. Observe and practise how to match the actual colour of objects. Use just a few colours at first. Exploration of colour should be directly linked with specific assignments, so that as you mix colours, you also learn how to use them. Colour studies may be made from direct observation of natural and man-made forms. It is helpful to draw and paint with colour. Draw with paint and add colour to it. Your teacher will demonstrate colour mixing and colour application to you. Practical work 5 With the assistance of a teacher, go through the following exorcises: 1 Observe objects through transparent coloured polythene sheets. You will notice that the colour of the polythene appears to mix with the colour of the objects. 2 Select some natural objects. Observe their appearance and mix colours to match them. 3 Observe the colour of an object. Put it away and match its colour from memory. Design

65. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS 4 Cut out a variety of coloured materials - paper, fabric, bark of soft stems, animal skin or polythene covers. Make a collage with the materials on a suitable surface to form colour patterns. 5 Place coloured objects - fruit, shells, seeds, flowers or leave against a coloured background and paint them in their actual colours. Space Space refers to an open area with no boundary at least in one direction. In art, we think of space in many ways. For example, in a picture, we see positive and negative space. It is also seen between shapes or objects. Space appears in terms of scale or size. We think of space in perspective. We space the alphabets in writing. We observe space around solid objects. These concepts of space are illustrated in Figure 4.6. In Figure4.6 (a) the shaded or empty area may be considered positive or negative space. In (b) the shaded areas represent positive objects while the empty background represents negative space. In (c) the object is very small in relation to the large space around it Figure 4.6(d) shows how graded tones can suggest the concept of space (depth). In (e) the shaded shapes do not touch due to the large space between them. The shapes in (f) are almost touching because the space between them is very narrow. In Figure 4.6(g) the shapes are touching because there is no space between them. In (h) the shapes overlap and there is no concept of space at all. Figure 4.6(i) shows spacing in alphabets. In design, it is important to consider the concept of space in relation to other elements of art. Design

66. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS (i) Spacing Alphabets Fig. 4.6 Some concepts of space Practical work 6 1 Cut shapes out of coloured paper, and arrange them in groups on clean white paper. Some shapes should be: (a) not touching; (b) not quite touching; (c) touching; (d) overlapping. 2 Cut a piece of coloured paper and paste it on a large piece of white paper leaving a large space around it. 3 Make a structure by nailing, tying or gluing pieces of a suitable material together - wood, metal, plastic, cane, bamboo, raffia, mashed paper or foam. Your structure should show a variety of shapes, textures, colour and spaces.

67. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Fig. 4.7 Proportion, scale and size Proportion, scale and size These other elements of design play an important role in making a work of art. In a picture, the appearance of an image is influenced by the shape and size of its background. We can arrange objects in a picture to indicate dial some are near, others are far away. We can determine relative sizes of objects in a picture by comparing them. In a given area for a picture, it is important to place your images in such a way that they are not too large or too small for the picture space. In Figure 4.7(a) the size of the object is too small in rclation.to the picture space. In (b) the objects are too large for the available space. In (c) the objects do not occupy the full size of the picture space. In (d) the sizes of the objects are in proportion to one another and the size of the picture space. Figure 4.7(d) is a better design than the others.

68. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Practical work 7 1 Select some objects and arrange them on a table. Draw and shade them in pencil, charcoal, chalk or any suitable medium. Pay attention to their shapes, texture, space between and around them, lines on them and the effect of light and shade on them. 2 Arrange another group of objects and paint them. Note the sizes of the objects in your picture in relation to the size of your paper. The major elements or qualities of design described can be considered as vocabulary in the language of art. It is their arrangement and organization that makes the design of the work pleasing or unpleasing. Organization of a Design The structure of a work of art, be it a drawing, painting, carving or basket is based on the organization of elements of Resign according to certain principles. Some of the principles are: variety, unity, harmony, rhythm, balance, contrast, repetition, opposition and dominance. Thus, elements of design may be organized in various combinations to create art. Sometimes, it is useful to study these visual qualities (principles) in the environment. Table 1 provides some examples of visual qualities in nature and the man-made environment. Design

69. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Visual Quality Examples in the Environment Variety of plants: fruits, seeds, flowers, leaves of animals: reptiles, winged animals, four-footed animals in music, dance and drama of rocks, pebbles, sand particles of goods in a market Harmony of colour, shape, line, texture, unrelated objects, human beings and sound Rhythm in arrangement of tree branches, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, pattern on animals, movement of animals, human beings and water in music, dance and drama Balance of colour, shape, line, texture, space in plants, animals in music, dance and drama Contrast in size, colour, shape, texture of objects, construction in sound, music and dance Repetition of shapes, colour, texture, space, lines in plants, animals, human beings and construction in sound, music and drama Opposition of things rounded shapes against angular shapes; male and female; hot and cold; loud and soft; high and low; good and bad: narrow and wide and so on Dominance green colour in nature, blue in the sky. brown in soil, brown, red. black clothes at funerals and so on Table 1 Some visual qualities in the environment

70. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS In nature, we observe order in the structure of tree branches, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds. Similarly, die arrangement of patterns, colours, textures and tones on plants, objects and animals shows evidence of variety, harmony, unity, balance and other principles of organizing a design. For example, when you observe a compound leaf, you would notice the order, rhythm and balance in its organization. Table 2 shows examples of organizing elements of design into art. Visual Qualities A Dot B Line C Shape D Space E Texture F Colour 1. Variety 2. Harmony 3. Rhythm 4. Balance 5. Contrast 6. Repetition 7. Opposition 8. Dominance Table 2: Organising elements of design On a large sheet of paper, make a copy of Table 2. In each column under A, B, C, D, E and F organize the element of design according to each principle of organization listed under Visual Quality (1-8) to fill each box. Design

71. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Figure 4.8 Designs by Dorothy Agbo, S.B. 1986 (a) Two-dimensional design (b) Three-dimensional design We do not expect to see all the elements of design or the principles by which they are organized in one work of art. When a work is designed, it is important to show as many of the visual qualities as is appropriate. In Figure 4.8 some elements and principles of design can be identified. In Figure 4.8(a) the design suggests a flat two-dimensional appearance. In (b), solid three-dimensional form is suggested. In (a) we can identify line, shape, texture, contrast, balance, variety, rhythm, unity and opposition. In (b) we find line, shape, texture, rhythm, balance and repetition. Thus we need to understand that in any design some elements of design can be identified and we should look at the principles or rules by which they have been organized. Other features about organization of a picture are described in the next chapter.

72. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Design References CHAPMAN. Laura H., Approaches to Art in Education, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc.. New York. 1978. pp. 34-9 CLEMENT. Robert. The Art Teachers Handbook. Century Hutchinson Ltd. London. 1987. pp. 144-51 DE SAUSMAREZ, Maurico, Basic Design: tho Dynamics of Visual Form. Studio Vista Ltd. London. 1970, pp. 20-21, 28-9. 31.41 STERNBERG. Harry. Composition. Grossctand Dunlop. New York. 1958. pp. 6-9 WANKELMAN. Willard F.. WIGG. Philip and MARIETT; Arts and Crafts. Win. C. Brown Company. Dubuque. 1974. pp. 93, 102, 1G8-7

73. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Franz Xavier Messerschmidt

74. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Terms in Art Objectives Students should be able to: understand and explain general terms in art; understand and explain terms used in various art disciplines; increase the scope of their vocabulary for effective verbalization about works of art. This chapter is not a glossary. It explains basic terms in basketry, ceramics, picture- making, leatherwork, textiles, graphic design and sculpture. Knowledge of the terms will help students to understand the processes and concepts in their chosen fields of study as well as other disciplines. By studying the selected terms, students will increase the scope of their vocabulary and be able to talk about works of art using the appropriate language. They will acquire a general background knowledge in visual arts and be able to demonstrate basic skills in all the disciplinesinthevisualartsprogramme.Studentsshould,inadditiontothe terms explained in this chapter, compile a list of terms used in art locally and their equivalents in the Ghanaian languages. Basketry This is the art of making containers by plaiting, weaving, coiling and so on with pliable materials. The term now covers die making of articles such as furniture, plant holders and mats made by the same methods. Some of the materials suitable for basketry are cane, palm rachis and leaves, bamboo, rachis, raffia, grass stalks and rushes. The basic tools used in basketry are knives, bodkins, shears, pliers and measuring tape. Base: The flat bottom of a basket. Border: A way of binding the edge of a basket or mat with a weaver as a finishing.

75. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Eye stakes: Extra stakes places on the side of each upright pole to strengthenthe body of the basket. Fitching: The weavers are lightly worked alternately one under the other. It is employed for skeleton work such as cages and waste paper baskets. Foot-trac: Container with a flat wooden base. It is also the method of securing or fastening the stakes after they have been fitted into the wooden base. Macrame: A kind of lace or ornamental work made by knotting thread or cord in patterns. The knotting process is employed for making articles in basketry. Pairing: Weaving with two weavers alternately. Randing: Weaving with only one weaver. Rim: The edge of a basket. Stakes: The thick upright poles or spokes of a basket around which the finerstrips (weavers) are woven. Upsetting: Another kind of weave whereby three weavers are used. It is used to weave the bend of a basket. It is also used to strengthen, decorate and finish the bend and rim of a basket. Fig. 5.2 Fitching Fig. 5.1 Stakes

76. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Waling: Weaving the body of a basket at the same time to decorate and strengthen the basket. Weavers: The finer strips which are woven round the stakes. Pottery and Ceramics These are the arts of fashioning objects in clay and hardening them by firing. Ceramic wares such as water closets, basins, pipes and insulators are fired to higher temperatures. Pottery wares such as pots, bowls, plates, cups, roofing tiles, flower pots and water coolers are fired at a lower temperature. Air bubbles: Small pockets of air trapped in clay. These, if not removed, willcause the ware to expand and break during firing. Batt: Thin slabs of fired clay, plaster or asbestos on which pots are dried. Biscuit or bisque: First firing of pottery and ceramic wares without glaze; for example, a water cooler. Body: A mixture of pottery and ceramics materials. For example, kaolin, ordinary clay and sawdust mixed together. Burnishing: The process of polishing or rubbing the surface of pots with a tool to make it smooth and shiny. Centring: The act of placing a lump of clay in the centre of the revolving disc of the potters wheel for throwing. Clay: The type of earth which is sticky when wet and hardens when dry and fired. Coiling: The technique of building clay objects using clay in a rope- like form. Terms in Art

77. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS Cones: Small cone-shaped clays specially treated and used to determine temperature in a kiln when firing. They melt at a given temperature. Dunting: The cracking of fired pots in a kiln due to rapid or uneven cooling. Earthenware: Articles made in clay. Firing: This is a process by which pottery wares are baked in a kiln or in the open over a period of time to effect both physical and chemical changes. This makes them hard and durable. Glazing: The process of covering a pot with a layer of glaze. The glaze isapplied in a liquid form and allowed to dry. Then the pot is fired in a kiln. The glaze melts and seals the pores in the wares. Glost firing: Firing of a glaze on a bisque ware. Green ware: Pottery ware which is bone-dry but not yet fired. Grog: Hard fired clay ground to powder. It is mixed with clay which is too sticky in order to facilitate drying and reduce shrinkage. Sand, charcoal and sawdust may also be used as grog. Kiln: Furnace or oven for baking or drying pottery or ceramic wares. Kneading: Technique used in working clay to remove air pockets. Lawns: Meshes specially prepared to sieve clay. Leather-hard: Clay that is hard, but not dry. Clay in this sta