gateway to knowledge - Ньингмаnying.ma/bka'.ma/mi.pham.rin.po.che/mipham rinpoche -...

GATEWAY TO KNOWLEDGE

VOL I

mkhas pa'i tshulla jug pa'i sgo zhes bya ba'i bstan beos bzhugs so.

Gateway toKnowledge

Vol. I

,

RANGJUNG YESHE BOOKS

PADMASAMBHAVA

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The Precious GarlandoJthe Sublime Path

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ClarifYing theNatural State

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TheHeart ojtheMatter •Mirror ojMindfUlnessEmpowerment. Lamp of.Mahamudra

CHOKGYUR LINGPA

Ocean ojAmnta, Ngakso Drubcben

JAMGON MIPHAM RINPOCHE

Gatewayto Knowledge, Vol. I. Vol II • Vol ill

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Rainbow Painting. As It Is, VolI. VolIIVajra Speech. Repeatingthe Words oJtheBuddha

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Present Fresh WakefUlness. Indisputable Truth. Bardo GuidebookThe Union oj'Mabamudra & Dzogchen • Songof.Karmapa

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Fearless Simplicity. Carefree Dignity

COMPILATIONS

Dzogchen Primer.A Tibetan BuddhistCompanion (both Shambhala Puhl)

Gateway toKnowledge

The treatise entitledThe Gate for Entering the Way of a

Panditaby

.ramgon Mipham Rinpoche

Foreword byCHOKYI NYIMA RINPOCHE

Translatedfrom the Tibetan byERIK PEMA KUNSANG

RANGJUNG YESHE PUBLICATIONS

Hong Kong, Boudhanath & Esby

1997

RANG]UNG YESHE PUBLICATIONS

[25 ROBINSON ROAD, FLAT 6A

HONG KONG

Rangjung Yeshe PublicationsFlat sa, Greenview Garden,

125 Robinson Road,Hong Kong

Address letters to:

Rangjung Yeshe PublicationsP.O. Box 1200,

Kathmandu, Nepal

Copyright © 1997Erik Hein Schmidt

3579 8 64 2

First edition 1984First published edition 1997

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced withoutwritten permission from the publisher

Special discount is given for classroom use. Write to the above address.

Printed in the United States ofAmericaon recycled acid-free paper

Publication Data:

JamgOn Mipham Rinpoche(Mi pham 'Jam dbyangs rNam rgysl rGya mtsho 1846-1912).

Translated from the Tibetan by Erik Perna Kunsang (Erik HeinSchmidt). Edited by Marcia Binder Schmidt, with Kerry Moran.

1st edition.Tide: Gateway to Knowledge,

The treatise entitled The Gate for Entering the Way of a Pandita.Tibetan tide: rnkhas pa'i tshulla jug pa'i sgo zhes byaba'i bstan bcos

bzhugs so.ISBN 962-7341-29-0 (pbk.)

I. Gateway to Knowledge; Vol. I. 2. Eastern philosophy - Buddhism.3. Abhidhacma - Tibet. I. Tide.

The Tibetan is typeset in Sambhota fontby Ugyen Shenphen and Gerry Wiener.

Table of Contents

Foreword

7

Acknowledgements

11

Prologue

The aggregates

The elements

The sense-sources

Interdependence

The correct and the incorrect

The faculties

Time

Contents of the following volumes:

8. The truth of suffering.

9. The truth of origin - Karma.

10. The truth of origin - Disturb-

ing emotions.

11. The truth of cessation.

12. The truth of path - The five

paths.

13. The truth of path - Additional

points.

14. The two truths.

15. The mundane vehicles.

16. Hinayana.

17. The superiority of Mahayana.

18. The Mahayana path.

19. Buddha-nature.

20. The journey of Mahayana.

21. Buddhahood.

22. The conditioned and the

unconditioned.

The four seals of the Dharma:

23. All conditioned things are

impermanent.

24. Everything defiling is suffering.

25. Nirvana is peace.

26. All phenomena are empty and

devoid of self-entity.

The four right discriminations:

27. Right discrimination of meaning

and Dharma.

28. Right discrimination of defini

tive words.

Right discrimination of ready

speech:

29. The four reasonings.

30. The four reliances.

Epilogue

Index of subjects, English-Tibetan

Glossary, Tibetan-English

FOREWORD

Our teacher Buddha Shakyamuni is known as the Fourth Guide. Heis the great loving kinsman of all sentient beings, who works for theirwelfare without being requested. Endowed with perfect wisdom, love, andability, this truly and completely awakened one turned for us, his disciples,the profound and extensive Dharma Wheels. These teachings are thesource for both temporary and ultimate happiness and well-being. In briefBuddha Shakyamuni presented the three vehicles. All that he gave is inharmony with how things are, with factual reasoning.

Especially in these times when the five degenerations are rampant, weneed the very heart of the Buddha's teachings - loving kindness, compassion, and the knowledge that realizes egolessness. We are not only inneed of his words; we need their meaning. However, merely byt hearingthe words we still derive some benefit in that we feel joy and inspiration.There are numerous such reasons why the Buddha's teachings are spreading allover the world and gaining popularity in various countries, amongmany different races of people.

The Buddha's words are both profound and extensive, and to understand them fully we use the three stages of knowledge that result fromlearning, from reflection and from training.

The knowledge that results from learning is the understanding wegain when studying with a true master. We do this by listening to explanations from a qualified spiritual teacher of what the Buddha taught andthe commentaries that clarify his teachings. Reading through the Buddha'ssublime words and treatises also is included under learning.

7

FOREWORD

The knowledge from reflection is the understanding we arrive atthrough our personal questioning and examination of the meaning. Wecan check for ourselves whether or not a statement agrees with factuallogic. We can question what the immediate benefit and the ultimate resultof training is and how we can personally apply it. By thoroughly scrutinizing the reason and purpose we gain a certain comprehension that is calledthe knowledge that results from reflection.

These two - learning and reflection - give us an intellectualunderstanding. The process of assimilating this within our experiencebrings another type of understanding known as the knowledge resultingfrom training. This personalized knowledge, when recognized and stabilized, is the source for the same realization reached by the Buddha. In theusual terminology it is called sugata-garbba, in the extraordinary teachingsof Vajrayana we call it intrinsic wakefulness, self-existing awareness, theultimate real condition. This is what we must recognize.

Through recognizing this real condition in an authentic way, we can,within a very short time, gather the accumulations and purify the obscurations. Moreover we can reduce all our disturbing emotions, naturally andautomatically. In this way we are able to experience the original wakefulness that is realization. In short, by following this path we remove veryquickly all shortcomings and manifest all qualities, effortlessly and spontaneously.

This is possible because the basis for realization, the very essence ofwhat the Buddha taught, is within ourselves. The buddha is within; all thequalities of enlightenment are present within our own nature. This is theprincipal point in which we must exert ourselves, in which we must train.

OUf real condition, our natural state, is most precious and wonderful.To gain an intimate knowledge of this for ourselves and to make it knownto others is why we must study the Buddha's sublime teachings and thetreatises that clarify them.

This need for learning provides the context in which we now presentthe treatise entitled The Gatefor Entering the Way of a Pandita. jamgonMipham Rinpoche (1846-1912), was likewise known as Ju Mipham, (hisfamily name was Ju), Mipham Jampal Yang, or as Mipham JamyangNamgyal Gyamtso. He studied with many great masters from all tradi-

8

FOREWORD

tions. Furthermore he received teachings on the traditional topics ofknowledge as well as a vast number of empowerments, transmissions, andinstructions. Gifted with a natural intelligence, Jamgon Mipham Rinpoche became extremely learned. He was accomplished in all five fields ofknowledge and remains the example of perfect scholarship. When wereflect on him as a practitioner, it seems that he spent his entire life inretreat. Ifwe contemplate his writings, it seems that he spent his entire lifecomposing treatises. If we consider his work as a Dharma teacher, it seemsthat he spent his entire life giving teachings. By reading his life story wecan ascertain that his accomplishments are incredible. In short, how hestudied, reflected, practiced; how he taught, discussed and composed; hisdeeds in learning and teaching the treatises are immense and unprejudiced.

Among the extensive literature he authored, The Gateway to Knowledge, has a vital importance for followers of Buddhism. Why is that? It isnot because it is vast and detailed; because it isn't. However by studyingthis text and learning it well, you ensure that you have gained a roughcomprehension of what the Buddha taught in general. In particular TheGateway to Knowledge will form the circumstance for more easily understanding all the sublime words and treatises, such as the works of N agarjuna. It is for these many reasons that Ju Mipham's Gateway to Knowledgeis extremely important.

What are the substance and contents of The Gateway to Knowledge?

As I just mentioned, it functions as a key for gaining a preliminary understanding of the sublime words and the treatises. Specifically the student ofthis text can begin to comprehend the meaning of the major works onBuddhist philosophy and of the traditional sciences to a lesser degree.

The sublime words and the treatises of the Sutra and T antra systemsare a very vast and profound topic to study. When you want to extract thismeaning you need an "expert system," a key. The Gateway to Knowledge islike that key, a magical key - it opens up the treasury of precious gemstones in the expansive collection of Buddhist scriptures.

Once you have scrutinized The Gateway to Knowledge, those of youwho wish to proceed to the major works of Buddhist philosophy will findit quite easy to understand them. The Gateway to Knowledge is in itself an

9

FOREWORD

excellent Buddhist study text. In particular, it is helpful for your furtherstudies.

Over the years, for these and many other reasons, I have insistentlyand repeatedly asked Erik Perna Kunsang to translate this work. Since hehas both affection and respect for me, he took my request seriously andundertook many difficulties to do so. The result is shown is this publication, the first volume, and in the volumes to come.

You, the readers, please study it carefully, and take the meaning toheart. May this be a flawless cause for you to uphold the precious teachings of the Buddha through correct learning, reflection and meditationtraining. May it benefit you individually and assist you in benefiting othersthrough teaching, composition, and discussion. This is my intention, myhope, and my aspiration. Tashi Delek.

-ChOkyi Nyima Rinpoche

IO

Acknowledgments

Teachers consulted for transmission and clarifications:

Khenchen Thrangu RinpocheChokyi Nyima RinpocheKhenpo Tsultrim Gyatso RinpocheDzogchen Ponlop RinpocheKhenpo NgedonKhenpo Chokyi GochaKhenpo Konchok MonlamKhenpo Chodrak Tenpel

Assistant translators and editors:Marcia Binder Schmidt, Kerry Moran and Judith AmtzisThe present translation is thanks to Chokyi Nyima Rinpoche's con

stant guidance, encouragement and prodding; to the compassion andwisdom of the teachers mentioned above; to the generous sponsorship ofGeorge MacDonald; and to the kindness of all my Dharma friends whohelped at various stages of this project. Special thanks to Scott Wellenbachfor providing notes from Ponlop Rinpoche's teachings on the first chapter.

Since this edition is meant for classroom use, we decided to includethe original Tibetan text. To help the readers, the words within squarebrackets that have been included are from Lekshey Nangwey Ozer, thecbendrel (filling-in) commentary written down by Mipham Rinpoche'sstudent Khenpo Nuden. This commentary, which incorporates the oralexplanations of Shechen Gyaltsab Perna Namgyal, was also consulted tosupply the end notes.

Lastly, we would like to express our gratitude to Kyabje DilgoKhyentse Rinpoche, who in the early days after leaving Tibet, personallysponsored the woodblocks that were the source of our Tibetan manuscript.

II

mkhas pa'i tshulla jug pa'i sgo zhes bya ba'i bstan beos bzhugs so.

Gateway toKnowledge

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Prologue

Sanskrit title: Pandita Syanayam Avataramukha Nama Shastrasti.

Tibetan title: mkhas pa'i tshulla jug pa'i sgo zhes bya ba'i bstanbcos bzhugs so.

English title: The treatise entitled The Gate for Entering theWay of a Pandita.

Homage to the Three Jewels.

Comprehending perfectly the ten topics/

You teach beings the meaning of the Four Seals.'

Treasure who fully illuminates the teachings of flawless wordd . 3

an meanmg,

Sun of Speech, may you enter our hearts.'

If you desire to attain the discriminating knowledge that unmistakenly ascertains what should be known, you should study theseten topics which cause learnedness, as is taught in the great sutrasand treatises. What are they? They are the ten topics of beinglearned in: 1) the aggregates; 2) the elements; 3) the sources; 4)dependent origination; 5) the correct and the incorrect; 6) thefaculties; 7) time; 8) the truths; 9) the vehicles; 10) conditionedthings and unconditioned things.

By the power of gaining certainty in these ten topics, you will befreed from the delusions of unwholesome views that should be

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PROLOGUE

abandoned, such as banishing the ten types of self-oriented viewsand so forth, and you will increase the wisdom of things as theyare and of all that exists.

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1THE AGGREGATES

SKANDHA

[1,1] There are five aggregates: the aggregate of forms, the aggregateof sensations, the aggregate of perceptions, the aggregates of formations, and the aggregate of consciousnesses.

[1,2] All possible forms, in whichever of the three times, in a near ordistant place, or of a good or bad type, are, when grouped together, defined as the aggregate of forms. It should here be understood that the same applies to [the aggregates of] sensations,[perceptions] and so forth. Thus, aggregate is so called because ofbeing an aggregation of many parts.

The Aggregate of Forms

[1,3] The aggregate of what is defined as [physical] forms can besubdivided into the four causal forms and the eleven resultantforms.

[1,4] Causal [forms] are the four primary elements. The earth elementis solidity and its function is to support. The water element isfluidity and cohesion. The fire element is heat and ripening. Thewind element is motion and expansion.

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AGGREGATES - SKANDHAS

[1,5] The eleven resultant forms are the five sense faculties and thefive sense objects, together totaling ten. According to the Abhidharma Kosha the eleventh type is imperceptible forms. Accordingto the Abhidharma Samucchaya the eleventh type is the forms thatare mental objects.

[1,6] These form aggregates are defined as having form by means ofcontact or inference. The first case refers to the fact they can betouched by a hand, a stick, the wind or by other things. The second case [of inference] implies a certain form can be clearly perceived as being such-and-such by either the composed [meditative] frame of mind, or by the conceptual frame of mind notcomposed in meditation.

[1,7] The five sense faculties are the eye faculty and likewise the ear,nose, tongue, and body faculties. The five faculties are theparticular ruling factors for their respective cognitions. They areinner subtle forms [based on the physical sense organ]'

[1,8] The [shape of the] eye faculty is similar to [the round and blueshape of] the umaka [sesame/cumin] flower; the ear faculty issimilar to [the shape of] a twisted roll of birch bark; the nosefaculty is similar to [the shape of] parallel copper needles; thetongue faculty is similar to [the shape of] a crescent moon disc;and the body faculty is [all-covering] similar to the skin of thesmooth-to-the-touch bird.

[1,9] The five sense objects are visible forms, sounds, odors, tastes,and textures.

[1,10] Visible forms are the sense objects of the eye. They can be divided into two types: color-forms and shape-forms.

[1,11] Concerning the first [color-form], the four primary colors areblue, yellow, white, and red. The secondary colors are cloudy andsmoky, dusty and misty, sunny and shady, light and dark.

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81


Spatial [form] is a visible form, for example, pure, clear space,free from something tangible that impedes other things. Reflections and so forth belong to this type.

Perceptible [forms] such as the act of prostrating and the uniformly colored blue sky are also said to be included under visibleforms.

Many different secondary colors come about by mixing theprimary colors.

[1,12] Shape-forms are, in general, said to be long or short, square orround, concave or convex, fine or gross, even or uneven. There aremany subdivisions such as triangular, crescent-shaped, oblong,and so forth.

These shapes and colors can be classed as attractive, repulsive, orneutral.

[1,13] Sounds are the sense objects of the ear. There are differentkinds: sounds that originate from conscious elemental causes suchas the voice of a sentient being or a finger snap; sounds thatoriginate from unconscious elemental causes such as the sounds ofa river, the wind and so forth; sounds that originate from both[conscious and unconscious elements] such as a drum beat; animate sounds that express meaning; and inanimate sounds thatdon't express meaning. Sounds that express meaning can be eitherspoken by a mundane person or by a noble person.

Sounds can also be divided into pleasant, unpleasant and neutraL

[1,14] Odors are the sense objects of the nose. There are odors that arefragrant, non-fragrant, or neutral, and those that are natural ormanufactured.

[1,15] Tastes are the sense objects of the tongue. There are six kinds:sweet, sour, salty, bitter, pungent, and astringent. Many subsidiary types come about from mixing them. Tastes also have thedivisions of being pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral, as well as beingnatural or manufactured.

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[1,16] Textures are the sense objects of the body. There are the texturesof the four causal forms' and the seven [textures of] the resultantones, which are smoothness, roughness, heaviness, lightness, and[the inner physical sensations of] hunger, thirst and cold. Thereare also the textures of being supple, yielding or rigid, and [theinner physical sensations of feeling] sated, ill, aged, dying, rested,and bold. Bold means feeling fearless, not shying away due to[one's own] bodily strength.

As indicated by these, please understand that there are numerousways of experiencing external and internal bodily textures.

[1,17] There are five types of forms that are mental objects:

1) Deduced forms are the forms of the smallest particles, which,although physical, can only be known mentally.

2) Spatial forms or clear forms are forms that cannot impedeother things, as explained above.

3) Forms resulting from a taken promise are imperceptibleforms."

4) Imagined forms are such things as a [mental] image or dreamtforms.

5) Mastered forms are forms appearing through the power ofmastery in meditation, such as the totality of blue.

[1,18] Mastered forms, it is taught, appear solely due to the power ofmind and are not a conglomeration of particles. Their substance istherefore not the elements but is said to be substance in the senseof a physical form different from them [from the four elements].

[1,19] How can something imperceptible be a physical form? Imperceptible form is defined as physical form because of these [three]reasons.

1. Imperceptible form is an action of body or speech after havingobtained a [virtuous] vow, a unvirtuous vow, or a vow with limited time span. It does, however, not consist of cognition because

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it is continuously present even at times of distraction or the absence of cognizance.

2. Imperceptible form first arises from elements embraced byone's stream-of-being. Based on these embraced elements, itcontinues until its support degenerates or a cause for abandoningit occurs.

3. Imperceptible form is a certain kind of physical or verbalaction. Its identity is determined as being either virtuous or unvirtuous.

For instance, the substance of the act of prostrating out of faith,chanting a sutra, beating others or speaking harshly out of anger,is nothing other than the material body and speech. It is, nonetheless, a particular physical movement or verbal expression andshould therefore be defined as a [karmic] action.

By means of such an action, the gathering of physical or verbalparticles activated by oneself is made perceptible to others. Howis that? When seeing a number of pebbles arranged in the shapeof a horse, for instance, one sees all the pebbles and there is indeed nothing else to see other than them. Yet, by means of seeingthe pebbles one also understands the shape in which the pebblesare arranged.

[1,20] Imperceptible forms are also a particular feature of physical orverbal actions. Though similar to perceptible forms, throughthem alone it is not perceptible to others that the physical or verbal aspects [of an action] activated by oneself are one's own substance. For instance, a particular vow taken by a person is not[readily] perceived merely by seeing his body. [These kind offorms] are therefore called imperceptible forms, undemonstratable forms, or unobstructing forms.

[1,21] Because of being a conglomeration of particles, the ten facultiesand objects are composites made of the ultimately smallest form,that is to say, gatherings of the most subtle and partless atoms.

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[1,22] Seven most subtle atoms [joined together] are called one particle. Multiplying it by seven results in a measure called the ironparticle. [Seven iron particles are one] water [particle, and so onupwards to] the rabbit [particle], the sheep [particle], the cow[particle], the sunbeam [particle], the [size of a] louse egg, alouse, a barley grain, and a finger width. Twenty-four fingerwidths are one cubit. Four cubits are one fathom. Five hundredfathoms are one mile, and eight miles are one league. The size ofMount Sumeru and the continents is measured in leagues.

[1,23] In the Desire Realms the eight types of particles consisting ofthe four [primary] elements and [the four properties] of form,odor, taste, and textures are always present. The particles of thesense faculties and of sound are not counted [because they are notalways present]. When a sound is present, then the presence ofthe sound particle makes nine. If the body is present, then thepresence of the particle of its [faculty] makes ten [particles]. If anyof the other faculties are present, then there are eleven differenttypes of particles due to that [faculty] being coexistent with thebody faculty.

SENSATIONS

[1,24] Sensations are defined as impressions.

[1,25] The aggregate of sensations can be divided into three: pleasant,painful, and neutral. Alternately, there are five: pleasure and mental pleasure, pain and mental pain, and neutral sensation.

[1,26] In terms of the support, there are the six sensations resultingfrom contact, involving the meeting of [sense object, faculty andconsciousness of] either eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, or mind.When divided [dividing those six in terms of pleasure, pain, andindifference], there are eighteen types of sensation accompanyinga cognitive act.

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[1,27] Moreover, there are various types such as physical sensationsconcurrent with the cognitions of the five sense doors; mentalsensations concurrent with mental cognitions; turbulent sensations concurrent with physical craving; sensations free from turbulence which are not concurrent with craving; sensations thatsupport clinging and are concurrent with craving for the five sensepleasures; and sensations that support deliverance and are freefrom clinging.

PERCEPTION

[1,28] Perceptions consist of the grasping of distinguishing features.

[1,29] In terms of support, they can be divided into six types: perceptions resulting from contact, the meeting of the eye and so forth,up until the mind.

Furthermore, there are the perceiving distinguishing features inregard to sense objects, such as perceiving an appearance as beingblue, yellow and so forth; and perceiving distinguishing featuresin regard to names, such as perceiving man, woman and so forthas being such.

[1,30] There are as many subdivisions as there are knowable things.Moreover, perceptions can be divided into these six types:

1) Perceptions with characteristics are all the perceptions exceptfor A) the perception of someone unskilled in conventionalnames, which means being unable, even when seeing a form, toname it because of not having learned its name; B) the perceptionof space without characteristics; and C) the perception of serenityat the summit of existence.

2) Perceptions without characteristics involve these [three]exceptions.

3) Lesser perceptions are perceptions that cause something to beperceived in the Desire Realms.

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4) Vast perceptions cause something to be perceived in the FormRealms.

5) Immeasurable perceptions cause [the spheres of] infinite spaceand of infinite consciousness to be perceived.

6) The perception of nothing whatsoever causes the sphere ofnothing whatsoever to be perceived.

FORMATIONS

[1,31] The aggregate of formations is defined as the act of thoroughlycreating. It is defined as all conditioned things other than the fouraggregates [of form, sensation, perception and consciousness].

[1,32] This aggregate includes the formations concurrent with mind [acognitive act] such as the [fifty-one] mental states, and the formations that are not concurrent with a cognitive act, the so-callednonconcurrent formations such as acquisition and so forth.

[1,33] There are fifty-one mental states, or fifty-five when the [five]views are counted individually:

[1,34] The five ever-present mental states are attraction, sensation,perception, attention, and contact. Among these, sensation andperception have been explained above. Although they are mentalstates, they are not included within the aggregate of formationbecause they have been taught separately.

[1,35] Attraction describes the process of mind [attention] movingtowards and becoming involved with an object. In terms of support, there are six such as attraction upon the meeting of the eye[i.e. between object, sense faculty and consciousness], and soforth.

[1,36] Attention describes the process of the mind fixating upon theobject concerned.

[1,37] Contact is the meeting together of the three [object, sense faculty and consciousness] and the cognition of the faculty's [particular] event. It supports sensation.

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[1,38] Since these five accompany all cognitive acts, they are calledever-present.

[1,39] The five object-determining [mental states] are intention,interest, recollection, concentration, and discrimination.

[1,40] Intention is to try to possess a desired object. It supports application of exertion.

[1,41] Interest means holding on to the certain form of a determinedobject. Its function is to not lose the object.

[1,42] Recollection means not forgetting a known object. Its function isto inhibit distraction.

[1,43] Concentration means to have one-pointed mind with regard tothe examined object. Its function is to support [right] cognition.

[1,44] Discrimination means fully discerning the examined object. Itsfunction is to cast away uncertainty.

[1,45] The above ten [mental states] are called the ten general mindbases.

[1,46] The eleven virtuous mental states:

[1,47] Faith is admiration of, longing towards, and trust in that whichis true. It supports determination.

[1,48] Conscientiousness is the earnest application of care concerningwhat should be adopted and what should be abandoned. Itsfunction is to accomplish the excellence of existence andquiescence [samsara and nirvana].

[1,49] Pliancy is the ability to apply body and mind to virtue. Itsfunction is to overcome negative tendencies.

[1,50] Equanimity is the mind resting naturally, free from attachment,anger and delusion. Its function is to avoid giving occasion for thedisturbing emotions [to occur in one's stream-of-being].

[1,51] Conscience means shunning misdeeds either because of oneselfor the Dharma. Its function is to support one in refraining fromnegative actions.

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[1,52] Shame has the function of causing one to shun misdeeds, eitherbecause of being reproached by other [noble] people or by theworld.

[1,53] Non-attachment is the absence of desire towards [samsaric]existence or worldly things. It makes one not engage in negativeactions.

[1,54] Non-aggression is the absence of a hostile attitude towards asentient being or an object that causes pain. It makes one not become involved in negative actions.

[1,55] Non-delusion means being without delusion concerning what istrue due to discrimination. It makes one not engage in evil deeds.

[I,56J Non-violence is a compassionate attitude belonging to nonaggression. Its function is to avoid causing harm to others

[1,57] Diligence is the attitude of gladly engaging in what is virtuous.It makes one fully accomplish what is virtuous.

[1,58] Within the non-virtuous mental states there are six rootdisturbing emotions and twenty subsidiary disturbing emotions.

[1,59] First, the six root disturbing emotions:

[1,60] Ignorance means not knowing the [law of] actions and theireffects, the [four] truths, and the [virtues of the] Precious Ones.It causes all affliction to occur.

[1,6~] Attachment is to be attached to the defiling aggregates of thethree realms. It produces the pain of [samsaric] existence. It istaught that there are two [types of attachment]; the attachment ofa person in the Desire Realms, called attachment of desire, andthe attachment of the two Upper Realms, called attachment ofexistence.

[1,62] Anger is the hostile attitude towards a sentient being, a painfulobject, or pain [itself]. It makes one not abide in peace and createsthe basis for negative action.

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[1,63] Arrogance is the conceited attitude of superiority based on thebelief in the [transitory] collection. It creates the basis for disrespecting others and for the occurrence of suffering. It can bedivided into seven types."

[1,64] Doubt means to be of two minds about the meaning of the[four] truths. Its function is to make one not engage in what isvirtuous.

[1,65] Belief is the view of all kinds of disturbed discrimination. Itforms the support for all unwholesome beliefs.

These were the six root disturbing emotions.

[1,66] When belief is subdivided, there are five types:

[1,67] The belief in the transitory collection is the belief in an "I" and a"my" within the five perpetuating aggregates. It forms the basisfor the other [unwholesome] beliefs.

[1,68] The belief of holding extremes means regarding the self or thefive aggregates to be permanent or discontinuous. Its function isto hinder emancipation by means of the Middle Path.

[1,69] Perverted belief means regarding an existing fact as beingnonexistent: for instance, to disregard the cause and effect ofactions. Its function is to cut the virtuous roots.

[1,70] Holding a belief to be paramount means regarding the abovethree unwholesome beliefs as well as the basis for these beliefs,the five perpetuating aggregates, as being paramount and sacred.It causes complete clinging to an unwholesome belief.

[1,71] Holding a discipline or ritual to be paramount is to believe that anon-purifying or non-liberating discipline or ritual as well as itsbasis, the five aggregates, is purifying, liberating or capable ofcausing emancipation. Its function is to cause pointless hardship.

[1,72] These two types of holding to be paramount illustrate allunwholesome beliefs of erroneously viewing the way things are, as

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[1,73] Among these ten [root] disturbing emotions, the beliefs and thefive non-beliefs, four are imputations: the two types of holding tobe paramount, perverted belief, and doubt. The remaining six canbe both innate and imputed.

[1,74] The twenty subsidiary disturbing emotions:

[1,75] Fury is the increase of anger. It causes one to prepare to harmothers, such as by hitting them.

[1,76] Resentment belongs to the category of anger. It causes one tocling to an intention to cause harm, and to refrain from forgiving.

[1,77] Spite causes one to be unforgiving and utter harsh words out offury or resentment.

[1,78] Hostility belongs to the category of anger. Its function is to beuncompassionate and cause harm.

[1,79] Envy belongs to the category of anger. It is a mental state that isdeeply disturbed by the desire to obtain honor and gain foroneself, and by the inability to bear the excellence of others. Itforms the support for unhappiness, for the mind's inability to restin naturalness, and for negative actions.

[1,80] Hypocrisy is the deceitful attitude which perpetuates negativity,concealing one's own faults because of the desire for such thingsas honor and gain. It belongs to the categories of attachment,anger and delusion and obstructs obtaining true instructions.

[1,81] Pretense is to deceive others through what is untrue, pretendingto possess virtuous qualities which one is not endowed with forthe sake of such things as honor and gain. It belongs to the category of delusion and attachment, and forms the support for disturbing emotions and subsidiary disturbing emotions, as well asfor leading a perverted life.

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[1,82] Lack of conscience means not shunning evil deeds on account ofoneself. It belongs to the category of the three poisons and assiststhe disturbing emotions and subsidiary disturbing emotions.

[1,83] Shamelessness means to personally engage in what is unvirtuouswithout inhibition on account of others. It belongs to thecategories of the three poisons and helps all the disturbingemotions.

[1,84] Concealment belongs to the categories of delusion and attachment. It means not to engage in what has been fully warned aboutand to desire to cover up for one's faults. It forms the support fornot feeling regret.

[1,85] Stinginess is to hold tightly onto possessed objects such asutensils and so forth because of attachment. It causes the inabilityto part with one's possessions.

[1,86] Self-infatuation is to have excessive pride and vanity due tofascination with or attachment towards any kind of conditionedprosperity possessed by oneself, such as good health oryouthfulness. It forms the support for the disturbing emotionsand subsidiary disturbing emotions.

[1,87] Lack of faith belongs in the category of delusion. It is to not beinterested in what is true and virtuous. It forms the support forlaziness.

[1,88] Laziness is to cling to unwholesome activities such as lyingdown, resting, or stretching out, and to procrastinate, withouttaking delight in and engaging in what is virtuous. It is theopponent of diligence.

[1,89] Heedlessness is not to apply oneself earnestly and carefully toadopting virtue and abandoning evil deeds, and is due to the threepoisons along with laziness. It is the opponent of conscientiousness, and its function is to increase nonvirtue and to diminishvirtue.

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[1,90] Forgetfulness is to be unclear and forget a virtuous objective. Itis the erroneous mindfulness which accompanies a disturbingemotion, and is the opponent of being mindful. It forms the support for distraction of mind.

[1,91] Non-alertness [inattention] is the distracted discriminationaccompanying a disturbing emotion. It results in hasty andmindless engagement in the actions of the three doors withoutalertness, and so forms the support for downfalls to occur.

[1,92] Lethargy belongs to the category of delusion. It means to bewithdrawn, mentally incapable, and unable to focus on an objectbecause of heaviness of body and mind. It forms the support forthe disturbing emotions.

[1,93] Excitement is the fascination with an attractive object andbelongs to the category of desire. It is a mental incapacity due tothe mind moving towards an object, and it causes restlessness. Itis a hindrance to calm abiding.

[1,94] Distraction belongs to the categories of the three poisons. It isthe mental motion or wandering towards an object which causesthe inability to remain one-pointedly on a virtuous objective. Itcan be defined as distraction towards the outer, the inner, andtowards status.

[1,95] These twenty belong to the categories of the root disturbingemotions; because of being associated with them, they are calledsubsidiary disturbing emotions.

[1,96] The four variables:

[1,97] Sleep causes the consciousnesses of the five sense doors to bewithdrawn inwardly without any discrimination as to what isvirtuous or unvirtuous, appropriate or inappropriate, or timely oruntimely. It belongs to the category of delusion and forms thesupport for losing activities.

[1,98] Regret involves sadness because of mental displeasure with aformer action. It obstructs resting the mind.

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[1,99] Conception is a mental expression created by the mind'sinvestigation of an observed object by means of apprehension anddiscrimination. It is merely grasping a rough meaning and it has acoarse form, just like perceiving a distant form without distinguishing whether it is a clay bowl or a vase.

[1,100] Discernment is the action of the mind examining and takinghold of an object, and is capable of distinguishing the attributes ofan object by means of apprehension and discrimination. It has afine form, like distinguishing whether the vase is new or not.

[1,101] Since these can be changed into any kind of virtuous, negative orneutral form by the different attitudes or intents, they are calledthe four variables.

[1,102] With these mental states are mainly stated the distinctions ofthe general mind bases and the virtuous and negative mentalstates. It should be understood, however, that there are atremendous number of different kinds, such as sadness and elation, difficulty and ease, patience and impatience, and so forth,which result from the different kinds of grasping patterns ofapprehension, perception and so on.

All of these are formations concurrent with mind.

[1,103] Although it is not a formation like a mental state, a dharmawhich must belong to the category of formation and is notsuitable for inclusion within either matter or mind is called aformation not concurrent with mind.

[1,104] It should thus be understood that all conditioned things are included within matter, mind and the nonconcurrent [formations].Matter is what is made of particles. Mind is what is conscious andcognizant. Nonconcurrent formations are all the conditionedthings which are neither of these.

[1,105] What is a nonconcurrent formation? [For example,] if a qualityor attribute in one's being, whether virtuous, unvirtuous orneutral, is obtained anew without being there formerly, this

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possession being [now] continuously present is called acquisition.So, that which is an attribute belonging to one's being and whichalso is a conditioned thing is called a nonconcurrent formation.

[1,106] In the same way, something such as a virtue which is diminishedor degenerated from being an acquisition in one's being is called adispossession.

[1,107] For those born in one of the different classes of sentient beings,the quality of belonging to the same kind of species is called samestatus or similar class.

[1,108] Perceptionless serenity is that which, being free from attachmentto the abode of Full Beauty but not free from the attachment ofthe realms above, is not a steady continuance of mind and mentalstates. It is the temporary bringing to cessation of all the six kindsof engaged cognitions. Such a period where mind and mentalstates are blocked is a new acquisition through the power ofserenity which was not formerly present. Since it will again ceasewhen emerging from that serenity, it has an arising and a ceasing,yet it is a quality which is neither mind nor matter and istherefore defined as a nonconcurrent formation.

[1,109] In this way, having been impelled by this serenity, one is bornamong the perceptionless gods. That is called [a state of] nonperception.

[1,110] The serenity of cessation is, preceded by the perception of nonself and calm abiding, to move upward from the state of mind ofthe summit of existence. Therefore it involves the blocking of allinconstant mental states and, among the constant ones, all thatconsists ofdisturbed mental cognition.

[1,111] When defining these three as being nonconcurrent formations itshould be understood that they have the power to endure as longas mind and mental states have ceased.

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[1,112] The ongoing all-ground is not blocked by the [state of] non-perception and the two types of serenity, and because of this, acognitive act is again liable to occur.

[1,113] The life faculty is what is called life span for a similar class ofsentient beings: the particular length of time they can remainthrough the power of former karma.

[1,114] Birth is the present occurrence of all formations which did notoccur previously.

[1,115] Subsistence is the remaining of that continuity.

[1,116] Aging is the change of that continuity into something else.

[1,117] Impermanence is the destruction of that continuity.

[1,118] These four are called the four characteristics that indicate aconditioned thing.

[1,119] The category of names consists of the indications that simplyexpress the identity of an object such as 'pillar' or 'vase'.

[1,120] The category of words are the names that show the identity ofan object joined with its particularities.

[1,121] The category of letters are the syllables such as 'A' which are thebasis for composing both names and words.

[1,122] When these three are combined by a voice, mere sounds andtheir particularities can be mentally labeled and thus have thecapacity to state or express things. They belong to the dharmas offormations.

This number [of fourteen nonconcurrent formations] is what ismentioned in the Abhidharma Kosha.

[1,123] According to the Abhidharma Samucchaya, there are in additionto the above fourteen [nonconcurrent formations] also:

[1.124] Ordinary person is the [state of] not having acquired thequalities of a noble being. It is a particular type of person, alabeling on the possession of mind and matter.

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[1,125] Regular sequence is the uninterrupted continuance of cause andeffect.

[1,126] Definitive distinctiveness is the difference between causes andeffects.

[1,127] Connected link is the relatedness between cause and effects.

[1,128] Speed is the rapid occurrence of cause and effect.

[1,129] Sequence is the gradual occurrence of individual causes andeffects.

[1,130] Time is the duration of occurrence of a continuity of a cause andeffect.

[1,131] Location is the name of the ten directions from the existence ofcause and effect in any of them.

[I,m] Number is the system of enumerating all the individual anddifferent formations.

[1,133] Gathering is the time when the conditions for cause and effecthave come together.

[1,134] As shown by these twenty-four [nonconcurrent formations],dharmas labeled at the occasion of mind and matter should begrouped under conditioned things, and it should be understoodthat there are many that belong to neither mind nor matter.

THE AGGREGATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS

[1,135] The aggregate of consciousness is that which individuallycognizes the object-identity of all phenomena.

[1,136] This aggregate can be divided into the six collections from visualcognition to mental cognition. They are [the six] from thecognition of form by a cognitive act that has occurred by means ofthe ruling condition of the eye faculty up until the cognition of itsown special object, the element of mental objects as well as theother objects, by a cognitive act that has occurred by means of theruling condition of the mind faculty.

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[1,137] In the sutras and treatises of Mind Only it is held that there areeight collections [of cognitions]:

[1,138] The disturbed mental cognition is the aspect of the mind consciousness which is constantly conceited [with the idea "I am"]and which inwardly uses as reference the all-ground consciousness. It is the [aspect of] mind concurrent with the four disturbing emotions of belief in a self, the arrogance of thinking "I am,"attachment to a self, and ignorance. Apart from the actualizationof the path of noble beings, the serenity of cessation, and the stateof no-learning, it accompanies all cognitive acts whether they bevirtuous, unvirtuous or neutral.

[1,139] The all-ground consciousness is the holder of all the seeds implanted by the aggregates, elements, and sources. It is the basis forcognitive acts and, without bias, it is merely cognizant and conserous,

Due to the fact of being merely the seed for environment, senseobjects, and a body to appear, it is also called all-ground and perpetuating consciousness. Since whatever is experienced as environment, sense objects and a body is merely the all-groundconsciousness appearing as that, just like a dream experience, it isalso called all-ground of maturation or the all-ground consciousness of maturation.

[1,140] One viewpoint maintains that cognitive act, mental faculty[mind] and consciousness are merely synonyms for the samemeaning. Yet, it is held that cognitive act is the term for the allground consciousness, mental faculty for the disturbed mentalcognition, and consciousness for the six collections.

[1,141] In this way, all phenomena which are conditioned things areincluded within these five aggregates. They are the basis fromwhich many systems come about, such as time and so forth. Thefive aggregates are therefore called the basis for discourse and

34

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time, the basis for renunciation and the basis for the causes. Theyare also called the world, the ground of beliefs, and existence.

[1,142] By means of intention and desire the [five aggregates] are perpetuating causes. So, these aggregates that perpetuate defilementsare also named basis for strife, suffering, and origin [of suffering].

[1,143] This was the chapter on the presentation of the aggregates.

35

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2THE ELEMENTS

DHATU

[2,1] There are ten elements taken from the aggregate of forms. Whatare they? 1)-10) They are the five [elements of the sense faculties]from the eye element to the body element and the five [elementsof the sense objects] from the element of visible form to theelement of textures, thus totaling ten."

[2,2] There are seven elements from the [aggregate of] consciousness:11)-17) the six from the eye consciousness element to the mindconsciousness element, and the mind element, thus totalingseven.

[2,3] The mind element is the mental faculty which is what immediately follows the cessation of [any of] the six [collections of]cognitions. It is the faculty which produces a mental cognition.

[2,4] 18) The element of mental objects are the three aggregates ofsensations, perceptions and formations in addition toimperceptible forms and all unconditioned things.

l2,5] Concerning unconditioned things, the three explained in theAbhidharma Kosha are cessation due to discrimination, cessationnot due to discrimination, and space. In this way there are sevenelements of mental objects.

Alternately, the adherents of the Mind Only School hold thatthere are four [unconditioned things] by adding suchness.

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According to the Abhidharma Sammucchaya it is held that thereare:

a) The three [unconditioned things] of the suchness of virtue,[the suchness] of nonvirtue, and [the suchness] of the neutral.

b) The two [unconditioned things] of the occasion of blockedcognition at the time of the serenity of non-perception and of[the serenity of] cessation. Adding these together with the abovethree, it is held that there are eight unconditioned things.

[2,6] Cessation due to discrimination is the unconditioned quality ofbeing permanently free from what should be relinquished, such asthe disturbing emotions, by means of the power of the path, suchas discriminating knowledge.

[2,7] Cessation not due to discrimination is not a blocking by meansof discrimination. Because of insufficient causes and conditions, itis a nonexistence of something at a certain place, as, for example,horns on the head of a horse. As in the instance of the absence ofa vase at a certain location, all kinds of nonexistence are includedwithin this.

[2,8] Space is not capable of being a physical form. It accommodatesall activities and it does not obstruct.

[2,9] Suchness of all phenomena such as virtue and so forth isdharmadhatu, the realm of phenomena.

[2,10] The serenity of non-perception is non-transference.

[2,11] The serenity of cessation is the cessation of both perceptions andsensations.

[2,12] The five types of forms that are mental objects, the three aggregates of sensations, perceptions, and formations, and the eightunconditioned things, totaling sixteen, are called elements ofmental objects.

[2,13] The three times six elements - from the eye element, [visible]form element, and eye consciousness element to the mind con-

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sciousness element - altogether total eighteen. Among these, thesix [elements] from eye to mind have the function of being causes,potentials, or seeds for apprehending an object. Likewise, the six[elements] from [visible] form to mental object have the functionof being [causes, potentials or seeds for] the apprehended[object]. And the six [elements] from eye consciousness to mindconsciousness have the function of being causes, potentials, orseeds for actual apprehension of an object. Thus element [dhatu]means being a cause, a potential, or a seed.

[2,14] Furthermore, the six elements of a person are taught to be thesix elements of earth, water, fire, wind, space, and consciousness.These are the four elements of the body and the vacuity of theinner vessels as the space element in addition to the consciousnesselement.

As indicated by these [six elements], other divisions with thename elements are also essentially all included within the [above]eighteen elements.

[2,15] Among the presentation of eighteen elements, the ones that belong to the category of [elements] having physical form are theten elements of the five sense faculties and the five sense objects,as well as the one subcategory of the element of mental objects[which is imperceptible forms]. The remaining ones are allwithout physical form.

[2,16] The [element] that can be demonstrated in the visual field isonly the element of [visual] form. The remaining ones cannot bedemonstrated.

[2,17] The mutually obstructive [elements] are the ten having physicalform: the five sense faculties and the five sense objects. Theremaining ones are not obstructible.

[2,18] The undefiling [elements] are the [three] last elements: themind element, the mind consciousness element, and the mentalstates of the element of mental objects belonging to the true

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paths, in addition to the unconditioned things. The otherelements not belonging to these categories are defiling becausethey are the direct cause for the disturbing emotions to arise.

[2,19] In the Desire Realms, all the [eighteen] elements are present. Inthe Form Realms there are fourteen [elements], excluding theelements of odor and taste and of the nose and tongueconsciousnesses. In the Formless Realms there are the [defiling]aspects of the last three elements."

[2,20] The seven mental elements, visible form and sound, and the elements of mental objects, altogether totaling ten, have the threeaspects of being virtuous, unvirtuous, or neutral. All theremaining elements are neutral.

[2,21] Outer elements are the six elements of visible form, sound, odor,taste, texture, and mental object. The remaining twelve are innerelements.

[2,22] The [elements] with focus are the seven mental elements andthe part of the element of mental objects which consists of all themental states. All the remaining ones are without focus.

[2,23] The [elements] with concepts are the subcategory of the mentalfaculty and the mind consciousness as well as the one aspect ofthe element of mental objects which is the subcategory of mentalstates.

[2,24] The nine elements embraced by personal sensation are the fivesense faculties and inner form, odor, taste, and textures.

[2,25] One part of the element of mental objects, the unconditionedthings, is permanent. All the others are conditioned things andimpermanent.

[2,26] The five sense faculties, the consciousnesses [cognitions], andthe mental states are what apprehends, whereas all the others arewhat is apprehended.

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[2,27] The elements that have both conception and discernment arethe five consciousness elements. The elements of the mentalfaculty and of the mind consciousness as well as all the mentalstates have three modes: with both conception and discernment,without either, and without conception but with discernment. Allthe remaining ones have neither conception nor discernment.

[2,28] The ten elements with physical form are agglomerations ofparticles. The remaining ones are not agglomerations.

[2,29] It is only the four [elements] of form, odor, taste, and texturethat can be something that cuts or is cut. The same applies tobeing burned or weighed.

[2,30] The ten [elements] with form and the five beginning with theeye consciousness are to be discarded by the [path of] cultivation.The three last elements have both aspects [of disturbing emotions] to be discarded and [the undefiling truth of the path] not tobe discarded by the [paths] of seeing and cultivation. Thus thereare these three modes.

When defining the differences of the [following] three occurrences, the five inner faculties belong to ripening and development. The elements produced from causal resemblance of theirown type and from ripening are the seven mental elements, andthe one part of the element of mental objects which is the mentalstates. The [above mentioned] eight [elements] that are notobstructive belong to this subcategory.

Since sound is discontinuous, it is not produced from [karmic]ripening. But, the causes for creating pleasant and unpleasanttones, such as the shape of the throat, are produced fromripening. The remaining ones that are present when the facultieshave come together can belong to the three occurrences fromcausal resemblance, development, or ripening. All the outerelements occur only from causal resemblance.

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[2,32] As for development, the four causes for bodily development are1) food, 2) wholesome activities such as massage, rolling, rubbingetc., 3) sleep, and 4) samadhi.

[2,33] The sense faculties may function as the actual support for theirrespective consciousnesses: for instance, the occasion of the eyefaculty being awake and conceiving a form. This is called facultywith support. On occasion they do not act as supports, as, forexample, when the eye faculty has fallen asleep. This is called[faculty] resemblance.

[2,34] The body of the Upper Realms is not a support for the eye of thelower ones because it has the superior eye belonging to its ownleveL The eye faculty of the realms below does not see the formsof the levels above because they are more subtle. It is in the sameway with the ear.

[2,35] A person in the Desire Realms, through the power ofmeditation, may obtain the divine eye or ear, which consist ofsubtle faculties made of elements comprised of [the stability in]dhyana that will occur accompanying one's eyes or ears. Thesefaculties are always have a supporting [sense organ] and arewithout imperfections such as blindness or deafness. The personalso sees and hears distant and subtle forms, even those that arecovered or obstructed.

[2,36] Moreover, the faculties of the first dhyana perceive the field ofexperience of their own domain and that of the Desire Realms. Itis in the same way with the following [dhyanas].

[2,37] Since, for instance, arhats possess the divine eye, they perceivethe secondary thousandfold [universe]. The rhinoceros-likepratyekabuddhas" perceive the third thousandfold [universe], andthe buddhas perceive countless [universes]. It is taught that thiskind of divine eye is not obtained through the power of havingpracticed the dhyanas within a single lifetime, but occurs from

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birth and is produced from the ripening of past practice. Thisdivine eye does not perceive the intermediate existence.

[2,38) In this way, it should be understood that there are various kindsof ways in which the faculties and cognitions of the higher andlower realms occur.

[2,39) That was the chapter on the elements.

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AYATANA

[3,1] The eye element and the eye source have the same nature, andare thus merely different systems in different contexts. It islikewise with the sources of each of the ten elements withphysical form. The element of mental objects is the mental objectsource. The seven consciousness elements are included within themind source. Thus in total there are twelve, from the eye sourceand [visible] form source to the mind source and mental objectsource.

[3,2] The inner six [sources] from eye to mind are what apprehend,and the outer six from form to mental object are what isapprehended. They are called sources because they are themedium for a cognition to occur and unfold by means of apprehender and apprehended.

l3,3] Although all conditioned things are included within the fiveaggregates, the unconditioned things are not included. Since theelements are included within the sources, all objects of knowledgecan be included within the categories of these two.

[3,4] As the presentation of elements has been dealt with above,understand that the sources are similarly arranged.

[3,5] At this point I will present some of lists of conventions byfurther explaining the mind source and the mental object source.

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[3,6] Mind cognizes the object of the eye and as well as of the otherfaculties, which are visible form and the other [sense-objects].Because it perceives in the manner of engagement [in] and disengagement [from sense-objects] together with the cognitions of[each of] the five sense faculties, it is the perceiver-subject of allknowable things.

[3,7] Moreover, mind consists of a single continuity of cognitive actswithin and is individually self-knowing. Mental cognitionwithout concepts therefore has as object the five sense consciousnesses as well as mind itself. Hence mind is the perceiver-subjectof all phenomena. Mind with concepts is therefore able to nameall outer and inner phenomena, through which it becomesundeluded concerning these objects of knowledge.

[3,8] For this reason, mind is the perceiver-subject of all phenomena.It is also that which makes known the identity of all phenomena,and that which makes the engagement in and the disengagementfrom [an object or an act]. When the [primary] mind is virtuous,the other cognitions [or consciousnesses] will also be virtuous.Through the power of the activities of this [primary] mind, theother consciousnesses will engage in or disengage from theirobjects. Mind is therefore the chief factor.

[3,9] This is stated by the Bhagavan [Shakyamuni] in a sutra:

Mind goes before phenomena, mind is swift, mind is the chief.

[3,10] For this reason, all cognitive acts are included within mind andall objects of knowledge within phenomena.

[3,11] Concerning cognition [blo], the cognitions of the five sensedoors are always nonconceptual, while mental cognition has thetwo modes of being conceptual and nonconceptual.

[3,12] The object of nonconceptual [mental] cognition is not associatedwith place, time, and kind. It is never liable to be associated withthe sound of its name as the individual characteristic of [theobject at] its specific moment.

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[3,13] The object of conceptual [mental] cognition is the appearance inthe mental field of a mere general object-image or of its attributes, such as a round vase for instance. This [object-image] is[always] liable to be associated with the sound of its name, so it iscalled object-image or sound-object.

[3,14] Someone accustomed to a name associates [the mental image]with the sound [of its name] and apprehends it. Through themanner of associating place, time, and kind, such a person createsall kinds of categories of phenomena, such as 'vase', for instance.

[3,15] There are names of categories, such as knowables and itssubdivisions: [concrete, functional] things and [inconcrete, nonfunctional] non-things. [Functional] things have three subdivisions: matter, mind, and nonconcurrent formations. Each of these[three] are included within the [category] above.

[3,16] Knowables and things are generalities of matter and so forth.Matter and so forth are instances of the [ones above].

[3,17] There are [phenomena with individual characteristics] whichhave substantial existence without relying on imputation, such as[the color] blue, and [phenomena] which exist merely byimputation, such as a generality.

[3,18] A nonconceptual cognition perceives a substantial thing bymeans of an appearance. A conceptual [cognition perceives]through excluding other things which are not that [object]. So itis a perception through exclusion of all imputations by means ofother-exclusion or elimination, or through being opposed to otherthings. Because of such [exclusion], imputations are calledoppositions [isolates].

[3,19] Other-exclusion has two types. The aspect of the specificallydefined object present as the identity which is different fromother things is called the other-exclusion of the specificallydefined object. Apprehension in accordance with that otherexclusion is called mental other-exclusion.

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[3,20] By the power of this other-exclusion or elimination, other thingswhich are not a vase are eliminated and the vase itself isexclusivelyestablished [selected].

[3,21] There are numerous categories of distinguishing qualities ofoppositions such as "made" from the aspect of the vase itself beingopposite of "unmade", and "impermanent" from its being oppositeof"permanent."

[3,22] The subject, cognition [blo] , has four types: lack ofunderstanding, misunderstanding, doubting, and correct understanding.

[3,23] Lack of understanding is of two kinds: direct perception withoutascertainment, and assumption not supported by valid inference.These two are defined as [lack of understanding] because they areunable to bring certainty to a mental cognition.

Misunderstanding is to apprehend incorrectly. Doubting is to beof two minds, to be indecisive. Correct understanding has twotypes of cause: valid direct perception and valid inference. Theireffect is decisiveness, certain knowledge.

[3,24] Objects are of the following types:

1) An apparent object is an object of nonconceptual cognition,such as a visible form.

2) A taken [determined] object is the conceptual cognitiontaking hold of the object-image as being an object.

3) In the case of both of these, the term "engaged object" meansthe object engaged in and disengaged from by a person.

4) The aspect of being an object apprehended by a [conceptual]cognition is called the apprehended object.

[3,25] These were the presentations of subject and object.

[3,26] For the presentations of opposed and related things, there are,[first], two types of opposition.

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1) Non-coexistent opposinon means that continuity andfunction do not accompany each other. It has two kinds: mentalopposition, such as holding [the notion of] a self and of no self,and factual opposition, such as hot and cold sensations.

2) Mutually exclusive opposition has two kinds: directopposition, as, for instance, being permanent and impermanent;and indirect opposition, such as being permanent and made.

[3,27] There are two types of relationship. The [first] is same entityrelationship, as, for instance, made and impermanent, whichalthough they have different opposites, don't have a differentnature in regard to the qualities of a pot, for example. [Secondly]there is resultant relationship, such as fire and smoke.

[3,28] There is, moreover, the triple system of definition, the defined,and the basis for defining. When defining a vase, the definition isa spherical central portion, which is the attribute for labeling itvase. The defined is the name of the vase. And the basis fordefining is the basis for establishing the above two, on which isretained the specific attribute of what is characterized: thespherical hollow form [made] ofgold.

[3,29] There is also the system, as in the instance of a vase, of the basisof specifics possessing the attributes. These include the so-calledspecific attributes, all the existing attributes such as snout, belly,petals, being made, and being impermanent.

[3,30] There is, furthermore, the system of the described [meaning]and the describing [word.].

[3,31] All names are associates with their objects by mingling theexamined, the external object, with its object-image, the perception appearing to the mind, as one single label. When examiningthis, the object-image directly described by means of the sound ofits name is, by apprehending it, the actual described object, andthe sound-image directly describing it, is, by apprehending it, theactual describing sound. However, the conceptual mind appre-

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hends the combined sound and sound-image as the description,and, apprehends the combined object and object-image as beingthe described [object]. Described objects are then understoodfrom the describing words.

[3,32] By means of such similar systems of names, one becomes unmistaken about the meaning of knowable objects.

[3,33] Names are defined as known, described or enacted in terms ofmind, speech, and body.

[3,34] In terms of the cause for making names, to make a name fromthe direct perception by means of a sense consciousness is callednames made of things seen.

[3,35] Similarly, there are names made of things heard about throughtrustworthy words, names made of things discerned by examiningwith one's own mind, and names made of things by means ofexperiencing through self-knowing. Thus there are four ways [ofmaking names].

[3,36] Moreover, there are the names of the ways of establishing: thefour aspects of refuting and establishing, establishing as an identity or as a presence, and refuting as an identity or as an absence.

[3,37] As represented by these, one can understand the various kinds ofnames.

[3,38] Concerning these presentations of the aggregates, elements, andsources, the form aggregate consists of the ten elements andsources and the one subcategory of the mental object element andsource [of mental objects]. The forms that are mental objects aretherefore said to belong under the form [aggregate] among thefive aggregates, and not only under the [visible] forms among thefive [sense] objects.

[3,38] There is no conflict in provisionally claiming that a reflection oran echo is merely the object of the eye or ear consciousness. Butsince these [phenomena] do not have any intrinsically existentvisible form or sound, they are merely a nonexistent vivid

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presence, and are thus included under forms that are mentalobjects rather than under the visible form and sound sources.

[3,39] Form, which is one subcategory of the five aggregates, can be ofthree types:

a) Visible and obstructive, as, for instance, the form of a pillar ora vase.

b) Invisible and obstructive, such as the sense faculties which arefound in very subtle form, similar to sunlight, within the visiblesense organs, the eyes and so forth. They cannot be perceived bythe sense faculties of ordinary people, yet they are considered tobe obstructive.

c) Invisible and non-obstructive [forms] are the imperceptibleforms.

While only these three have been traditionally taught, it isevident that a reflected image can be named as visible and nonobstructive form.

[3,40] The consciousness aggregate consists of seven categories: themind source and the [six] consciousness elements.

[3,41] The other three aggregates and the one subcategory of the formaggregate, the [five] forms that are mental objects, as well as theunconditioned things, are all included under the mental objectsources and mental object elements.

[3,42] All of these [above] are included within three [categories]: theform aggregate, the mind source, and the mental object element.

[3,43] Also, they can be contained within the five bases of knowabies:

a) The form base of appearance is exactly what was previouslyexplained as the form aggregate.

b) The chief mind base is the six or eight collections ofconsciousnesses [cognitions].

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c) The accompanying base of mental states is all the mentalstates; the fifty-one mental states including sensation and perception.

d) The nonconcurrent formation [base] is as previouslyexplained.

e) The base of unconditioned things should be understood aswas previously explained under the mental object elements.

[3,44] This was the chapter on the sources.

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4DEPENDENT ORIGINATION

[4,1] What is meant by dependent origination? It means that nothingincluded under inner or outer phenomena has arisen without acause. They have also not originated from an independent cause,an uncaused and permanent creator such as the Self, Time, or theAlmighty. The fact that phenomena are produced based on theinterdependence of their respective causes and conditions comingtogether is called dependent origination. To proclaim this is theunique approach of the Buddha's teaching.

[4,2] All outer phenomena arise in interdependence, in the manner of,for instance, a sprout growing from a seed. Inner phenomena, theaggregates of higher, medium, and lower beings, originate in themanner of the twelve links of interdependence.

[4,3] How is this? The outer interdependence can be illustrated by theexample of such things as a sprout growing from a seed, by meansof seven related causes and six related conditions.

[4,4] The [seven] related causes are taught to be seed, sprout, stamen,stalk, bud, flower, and fruit, which sequentially are the causes thatperpetuate the consecutive origination.

[4,5] The [six] related conditions are earth, water, fire, wind, space,and time, which respectively stabilizes, causes to adhere, matures,expands, accommodates, and gradually changes.

These co-operating conditions assist in the origination of theseven [steps] from sprout to fruit.

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[4,6] As to inner interdependence, the related causes are the twelvelinks. What are they? A sutra describes them:

"Dependent origination is as follows: Because this exists, suchand-such will arise. Because that has arisen, such-and-such arises.Hence, because of ignorance the formations arise, because of theformations the consciousnesses will arise, and so forth. The sameholds true for name-and-form, the six sense-sources, contact,sensation, craving, grasping, becoming, and birth down to old ageand death. Sorrow, lamentation, misery, unhappiness and distresswill then arise. Thus this great mass of total suffering arises."

[4,7] "Similarly, the formations will cease because of ignorance havingceased and so forth, down to the point where, because of birth,old age and death having ceased, sorrow and so forth, this greatmass of total suffering will also cease." Thus it has been taught.

[4,8] 1) IGNORANCE: Ignorance means not to know the meaning ofthe [four noble] truths, as well as the delusion of perceivingincorrectly and in disharmony with the nature of things, such asregarding the respective aggregates of the various levels in thethree realms as being permanent, pleasant, a self-entity, whole,singular, a sentient being, and 'my,' all of which are conceptualizations that obscure the correct meaning.

[4,9] 2) FORMATION: As long as this ignorance which apprehends aself is present, it results in the power of actions [karmic formations] created by attachment, anger and delusion, the meritoriousactions of virtue, the non-meritorious actions of nonvirtue, andthe non-transferring actions. Formation therefore means thatseeds of reincarnation are being planted in the consciousness.Thus, virtue forms the [bodily] support and pleasures of thehigher realms, nonvirtue forms the support and sufferings of thelower realms, and the non-transferring [karma] forms the rebirthsin the two upper realms [of form and formlessness].

52

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[4,10] 3) CONSCIOUSNESS: These formations give rise to theconsciousness which goes to the birthplace of the next existence.The seed placed in the [all-ground] consciousness which propelsone to the [next] rebirth is called impelling consciousness, andthat which leads to the birthplace of that life once the conditionshave come together is called the consciousness of the impelledresult. Both of these are in fact one, in terms of being the linkconsciousness that establishes a rebirth.

[4,11] 4) NAME-AND-FORM: When by the power of this consciousnessone is connected to a womb, the link of name-and-form consistsof the four 'names' of consciousness, sensation, perception, andformation, and together with them the form which is the ovalfetal form and so forth, These constitute the body of thatexistence by means of mutually supporting each other, as in thecase of the roofbeams of a house.

[4,12] 5) THE SIX SOURCES: Following that, when the period of nameand-form has been fully completed, the inner six sources of theeye and so forth arise.

[4,13] 6) CONTACT: Thereafter the objects, sense faculties and consciousnesses will meet together and the six contacts will arise,such as perception through the contact of the form of an objectmeeting with the eye. This is the link of contact.

[4,14] 7) SENSATION: From this contact arises the experience of thethree aspects of pleasant, painful, and indifferent sensations. Thatis the link of sensation.

[4,15] 8) CRAVING: Based on sensation arises the eager craving ofdesiring not to be separated from a pleasant sensation, the fearfulcraving of desiring to cast away an unpleasant sensation, and aself-sufficient abiding in regards to indifferent sensations. Thusarises a craving towards the six objects, from forms to mentalobjects. In short, the link of craving is to experience the taste ofthe objects caused by sensation, and to draw in these objects

53

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because of taking delight in clinging to them. It is divided intothe three cravings of the realms of Desire, Form and Formlessness.

[4,16] 9) GRASPING: From this craving greatly increases the eagercraving of [thinking] "May I not be separated from what isbeautiful and pleasant!" Hence the actual involvement in ferventlygrasping for objects is the link of grasping. When subdivided, it istaught that there are the four types of grasping: of desire, of[wrong] beliefs, of holding discipline and ritual to be paramount,and of adhering to a self.

[4,17] 10) BECOMING: This grasping fully creates the actions throughbody, speech, and mind that establish the following existence.This is the link of becoming. It can be subdivided into the threetypes of becoming of the three realms and so forth.

[4,18] 11) REBIRTH: By the power of this becoming, once theconditions have assembled, the link of rebirth is to first actualizethe rebirth in the birth place of that reincarnation, to fully developa body and to remain as one's similar class. It is the basis forexperiencing all kinds of suffering through that [bodily] support.

[4,19] 12) OLD AGE AND DEATH: From rebirth comes aging, which isthe change in the continuity of the aggregates, and death, whichis the ceasing of that continuity. Illustrated thereby, from thisarises the sorrow which is inner anguish, the lamentation utteredtherefrom, the misery which accompanies the five sense consciousnesses, and the unhappiness which accompanies the mindconsciousness. In addition arises distress caused by the unpleasantsubsidiary disturbing emotions. In short, this great mass of totalsuffering results from rebirth within samsara.

[4,20] This rebirth results from becoming and its accompanying[links]. Since the former links exist, there is the convention thatthe following ones will arise. The former ones, having arisen, willperform the function of making the following links arise. When

54

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the former links are absent or have not arisen, the following oneswill not originate or arise, and so the mass of suffering will cease.

[4,21] As for the related conditions, the disturbing emotions such asignorance arise with the cooperation of the inner faculties and theobjects focused upon. It is the same way with actions [karmas].

[4,22] The seven [links] such as name-and-form which are the basis forsuffering arise from the cooperating conditions of the sixelements: the inner solid element of earth, the liquid element ofwater, the warmth of fire through which food is digested, thewind element such as the inhalation and exhalation of breath, thespace element which is all the accommodating cavities, and theconsciousness element.

[4,23] A visual cognition [eye consciousness] arises when five thingsoperate together: the support which is the eye faculty, the objectwhich is a visible form, its actual presence, unobscured space andan apprehending frame of mind. It should be understood that thisis likewise to be combined with any of the other cognitions[consciousnesses].

[4,24] In this way, the arising of all outer and inner phenomena requirethat their respective causes and conditions come together in theappropriate manner. When these [factors] are incomplete,phenomena do not arise, while when complete, they willdefinitely arise. That is the nature of dependent origination.

[4,25] Since beginningless time there has been no creator of thiscontinual involvement, such as the Self, the Almighty or others.Also, the causes do not conceive of the thought, "I will producethis effect" and the effects do not conceive the thought, "I wasproduced from that." Yet, they arise possessing the five specialfeatures of interdependence of cause and effect. What are they?

1. [Phenomena are] not permanent, because a sprout arises afterthe seed has ceased and not while the seed is unceasingly present.

55

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2. [Phenomena are] not interrupted, because a sprout does notarise from the discontinuance, the seed having ceased; it arisesuninterruptedly. The cessation of the seed and the arising of thesprout are like the up-and-down movement of the two sides of aset of balances.

3. The former link is not transformed into the following one,because a seed and a sprout are not one, either in terms of identityor of function.

4. A small cause can produce a big effect, just as a tiny seed canyield a big fruit.

5. Cause and effect have similar continuity or basis, since, forinstance, a wheat sprout comes from a wheat seed and pleasureresults from virtue.

One should understand that all outer and inner causes andeffects are characterized by these five [special features].

[4,26] What is an example for this? Here is how it should beunderstood:

Like a recitation, a butter lamp, a mirror, a stamp,A magnifying glass, a seed, sourness, or a sound,So also with the continuation of the aggregates [reincarnation]Should the wise realize that they do not transmigrate.

[4,27] Realizing this, you understand that all things are merely anunfailing manifestation of interdependence. Because they havenot occurred either through themselves, through somethingother, through both, or without causes, they are therefore unoriginated [nonarising]. They are not made by a creator such asTime or the Almighty. They are devoid of a life principle or apersonality, a doer or a self, or the identity of things. They arehollow and false, and are devoid of a self-nature. The one whounderstands that this is so, is unaffected by [the 360 unwholesome beliefs], such as conceptualizing a self in the past, present orfuture.

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[4,28] Thus, the one who possesses the acceptance that these [beliefs]will not arise in the future, will be confirmed in unexcelledenlightenment by all the buddhas.

[4,29] In this way, these twelve aspects of interdependence will continuously evolve for as long as ignorance has not been relinquished.The past causes, ignorance and formation, make the presentconsciousness that is the impelled result appear, and the followinglinks, down to the disturbing emotions craving and grasping,gather the karma that produces a rebirth. Thus, up to becoming,eight evolve. Continuing therefrom, there is the taking of birth inthe realm corresponding to one's karma and through that [bodily]support one will undergo the samsaric suffering of aging, dyingand so forth.

[4,30] Concerning this support, for all the beings with form [the links]from consciousness until becoming will occur. If one is born inthe Formless Realms, consciousness until becoming consisting ofthe four name aggregates will occur.

[4,31] Whenever or as whatever one has taken rebirth, there will occurthe processes of being born, aging and dying. And again, havingbeen forced by karmas and disturbing emotions to take anotherbirth, one circles and wanders again and again through theexistences of the three realms, like a swirling fire brand or the rimof a water wheel.

[4,32] After having understood in general this way of a continualoccurrence, if one examines how many lives it takes to complete[one cycle of twelve links], it is taught how they are completedwithin the three lifetimes of the previous, the present, and thefollowing [life-time].

[4,33] Due to the power of the ignorance, craving and grasping comprised of the aggregates in one's former lifetime, one takes thefollowing birth propelled by the formations of karma. Since inthat [life] consciousness until the [links of] becoming, old age and

57

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death evolve, [the twelve links] are also completed within twolifetimes.

[4,34] Whichever is the case, since there is a continual occurrence, onedependent upon the other, the process is called continuousinterdependence.

[4,35] Moreover, there is also the manner in which the twelve [links]are contained within the moment of completing an act. Whenillustrating this with, for instance, the act of killing, to engagetherein through lack of understanding is ignorance. Likewise, theaction [karma] is formation. The cognition at that time is consciousness. The contact of the weapon piercing [the body] is thename-and-form and of the six sources present at that time. Theexperience or sensation at the time is the pleasure of oneself andpain of the other. There is enthusiastic engagement and craving,and from that comes the grasping of the following part. Theaggregates at the time of committing the act is becoming, resulting in the birth of the present and following part. Their changeand cessation are regarded as being the links of old age and death.Thus this is the continuous interdependence of a moment [ofcompleting an act].

[4,36] When the twelve links of interdependence are condensed, thethree [links] consisting of ignorance, formation and consciousnessare the propelling links. The four from name-and-form tosensation are the links of the propelled result. The three [links] ofcraving, grasping and becoming are the fully establishing links,and the two of birth and old age and death are the fully established links. Thus there are four [subdivisions].

[4,37] They can also be divided into three: The three of ignorance,craving and grasping are disturbing emotions. The two offormation and becoming are karma. The remaining seven are theseven bases of suffering. These three categories are respectivelycalled affliction of disturbing emotion, affliction of karma, and

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affliction of life or rebirth, because they afflict all sentient beings.Again, they are also respectively called dependency of disturbingemotion, dependency of karma, and dependency of suffering.

[4,38] From the three disturbing emotions come the two karmas, andfrom these arise the seven bases of suffering. From these sevenagain arise the disturbing emotions and karmas. Thus onecontinuously circles around [within samsara].

[4,39] Among the twelve links, the five disturbing emotions andkarmas and the consciousness are the causes which form all theother links. Thus there can be said to be four links: ignorance,karma, craving, and consciousness. Here both craving and grasping are [defined as] craving, and both formation and becoming askarma.

[4,40] To explain this further, understand consciousness to be like aseed, karma like a field, craving like moisture, and ignorance likeplanting and manure. These four produce the sprouts of nameand-form in all the birthplaces of becoming.

[4,41] When these interdependent links, in progressive order, are condensed, the five karmas and disturbing emotions are includedunder the truth of origin and the remaining seven fall under thetruth of suffering.

[4,42] In terms of reverse order, having relinquished ignorance throughthe wisdom that realizes the nature of the truths, the reversal ofthe five that are karmas and disturbing emotions is the truth ofpath. Likewise, the ceasing of the seven bases of suffering is thetruth of cessation. Thus they are the nature of the twelvefoldpoints of truth.

[4,43] In that way, dependent origination ranks as an essential and profound teaching among the treasuries of the Buddha's Words. Theone who perceives dependent origination with the eyes ofdiscriminating knowledge will come to see the dharmas possessing the natures of the eightfold noble path, and with the wisdom

59

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gaze which comprehends all objects of knowledge will perceivethe dharmakaya of buddhahood. Thus it has been taught.

[4,44] This was the chapter on interdependence.

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19

5THE CORRECT AND THE INCORRECT

[5,1] The categories of what is correct and incorrect encompass allobjects of knowledge. They are the difference between whatresults and what does not result from a certain cause. For instance, it is correct that pleasure results from a virtuous action andnot pain; and that from a grain of rice grows a rice sprout, ratherthan a barley sprout. It is correct that the person who realizes theabsence of a self attains liberation, while it is incorrect thatsomeone who holds the existence of a self attains liberation.

[5,2] It is correct that fire is hot, and incorrect that it is cold. As inthese examples, all objects of knowledge by nature encompassvarious categories ofwhat is correct and incorrect.

[5,3] To roughly outline this, seven dependencies are taught:

1) Dependency of the undesired is, for example, to go to thelower realms due to unvirtuous actions."

2) Dependency of the desired is, for example, to be reborn in thehappy states through virtuous actions.

3) Dependency of purity is, for example, that one will not attaintotal purity without relinquishing the obscurations.

4) Dependency of co-occurrence is, for example, that by havingaccumulated matchless karma, a buddha and a world ruler onlyappear individually and not together at the same time.

5) Dependency of control is, for example, that through thephysical body of a woman, one is unable to take possession of the

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THE CORRECT AND THE INCORRECT

precious wheel and the other of the seven precious possessions [ofa universal monarch].

6) Dependency of attainment is, for example, that one does notattain the state of a pratyekabuddha in the physical body of awoman.

7) Dependency of behavior is, for example, that a noble beingdoes not engage in [negative] acts such as killing.

(5,4] It is the nature of things that these take place through thedependency of what is correct and incorrect, rather than as onedesires or feels like. Understand hereby that all phenomena,whatever they may be, possess aspects of what is correct and whatis not.

(5,5] It is correct that suffering results from the cause of the [truth of]origin, and that cessation results from the path. It is incorrect thatsuffering results from the path and that cessation results fromorigin [of suffering]. Thus, everything comprised of the progression and reversal of the four truths through dependent originationis included herein.

(5,6] In short, all the sciences of knowledge are meant for understanding what is correct and what is incorrect.

(5,7] By the science of craftsmanship one understands the situation inwhich a created object is excellent or not excellent.

(5,8] By the science of healing and diagnosis one comes to know theremedy which cures or does not cure an illness.

(5,9] By the science of language one understands what is correct andincorrect for the character of words, the conditions for combiningthem, and how they form their inflections.

(5,10] By the science of logic one comes to know the manner in whicha certain predicate is established or not established from a certain

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[5,11] By the inner science one understands the nature of things" andcomes to perfectly know the main object of pursuit, the path andcessation.

[5,12] Likewise, by the science of synonyms, one understands howvarious words will or will not apply to a certain meaning; by thescience of mathematics, the correctness of how various numbersand so on are; by the science of performance, the different tonesof voice; by the science of poetry, whether an expression isbeautiful or not; and by the science of composition one will cometo understand what is correct or is incorrect concerning thesketchiness or verbosity of a sentence.

[5,13] Here I shall only briefly explain the philosophical schoolsaccording to the inner science. Understanding of them will causeone to be learned in the meaning of what is correct or incorrect.

[5,14] There are two kinds of philosophical schools: those of theoutsiders, which are to be abandoned, and those of the insiders[Buddhists]' which are to be adopted. The difference betweenoutsiders and insiders lies in whether or not the Three Jewels areaccepted as being perfect objects of refuge.16

[5,15] Among these philosophical schools, there are numerous divisions of outsiders such as the sixty-two views. There are manyways of classifying them, but they can be condensed into the FiveTarka Groups."

[5,16] Although these again have many different beliefs, whencondensing the root of all of them, there are two: proponents ofeternalism and proponents of nihilism.

[5,17] The proponents of eternalism believe that either the Self, Time,the Almighty, Brahma, or Vishnu is the creator of the entireworld. They hold that this creator is permanent." In order toachieve this state of permanence they have the paths of pleasingthe godhead, practicing meditation and so forth.

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[5,18] The proponents of nihilism claim that the present world originated by itself without causes, such as past karma; that consciousness occurred suddenly from the four elements; and thatsince it is discontinued at the time of death, it is pointless to exertoneself on the path in order to achieve liberation. All of these[nihilists] are, however, proponents of the existence of a self."

[5,19] When these beliefs are scrutinized by a Buddhist, [it is seenthat] such a permanent cause cannot perform the function ofcreating the world. This is because you cannot find that the wholeworld was created simultaneously, but only gradually. Consequently its cause is not permanent/"

Or, if its creator were itself to have another cause, there wouldbe no end to creators, and again the creator would not be permanent. If the creator were to be causeless, on the other hand, itwould be impossible to establish a reason for its existence.

Moreover, if it [the godhead, etc.] creates intentionally, it isdependent upon intention and consequently is not permanent. Itis also unreasonable that it would create suffering sentient beings.If the creator were not to create intentionally, it would lackindependent control, and consequently there would be no benefiteven if one were to worship it. In these and other ways, theconcept of a creator is refuted by means of correct reasoning.

[5,20] Origination without a cause is impossible. If it were possible,something should be able to originate in the same way in allplaces and at all times without any difference. The reason shouldfollow the claim that all phenomena, even without having causes,exist by virtue of their own nature."

Or, a sprout, for instance, will not be able to exist at a certaintime and place. This should follow the claim that a seed andwater and so forth are not causes [of the sprout], since they do not[necessarily] produce anything even if they come together.

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l5,21] This being so, all things exist in a certain place and time whereand when their causes and condition have come together. Theydo not exist without these [causes and conditions] coming together. Since this [presence and absence] alternates, it is established that [all things] originate from causes.

[5,22] Maintaining that consciousness originates as something newfrom the four elements counteracts the [nihilistic] claim that allphenomena are without causes.

Since the present consciousness is seen to occur and continuefrom the previous [instant of] consciousness, its own perpetuatingcause, it is impossible that it should originate from [dead] matter,without its own former perpetuating cause. This would be as[impossible as] a sprout [growing] from stone or light [appearing]from darkness.

[5,23] It is seen that the aware and cognizant continuity of consciousness originates and occurs without interruption, the next momentresulting from the previous, just as one progresses steadily whentraining in reading and other things. How, then, can it be discontinued at the time of death, while its own [perpetuating] causesare still present? This is like [the example of] a flawless seedpossessing the conditions such as earth and water, or like thecontinuous flow of a great river."

[5,24] When examining in this way one sees, through factual reasoning, that phenomena originate in dependent connection whentheir individual causes are present, and do not arise when theircauses are absent. Consequently, they do not arise from a causesuch as the Almighty; neither do they arise without a cause.

[5,25] For these reasons, the five aggregates which are dependentarising are devoid of a self and a creator, because neither of theseattributes are found to be identical with or different from theaggregates.

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[5,26] There are four Buddhist schools: Vaibhashika, Sautrantika,Mind Only, and Madhyamaka.

[5,27] The Vaibhashika proponents assert that the five bases ofknowables and the three times have substantial existence. Theestablished bases [of smallest atom and instant] are all held toexist because they possess their own attributes.

When a vase, for instance, is demolished or intellectually dissected, such a thing which can be broken into pieces has conventional existence. That which cannot be broken asunder, the twotypes of partless entities - the [partless] smallest particle and thepartless instant [of consciousness] - have ultimate existencebecause they are the basic components for all things.

[5,28] Both conventional and ultimate existence are claimed not to beempty, because the identity of each phenomenon has a substantialexistence.

The Vaibhashika proponents also maintain that the self of theindividual has no substantial existence because it is neitheridentical with nor different from the aggregates. They accept thatthe consciousness supported by the eye faculty or the other[faculties] directly apprehends the object which is simultaneouswith itself without a [mental] image [of that object]; that there isno self-knowing; and that all attributes such as arising [dwelling,and ceasing] are separate from the things themselves.

[5,29] In similar ways, they have numerous systems of accepted conventions.

[5,30] The way in which the Sautrantikas view the two types ofpartlessness and absence of the self [of the individual person] isthe same as the above.

They, however, maintain that the nonconcurrent formations andthe unconditioned things are merely imputations, having no substantial existence.

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[5,31] The nonconcurrent [formations] are mere imputations madewhen mind and matter [are together], and have no independentindividual identity apart from that. The unconditioned things areonly imputations resulting from an elimination of somethingnegated.

[5,32] The present eye consciousness, for instance, occurs from thecause of the previous object, the faculty of sight and consciousnesshaving come together. This consciousness then takes hold of the r;

image of its object appearing in the mind, and not the actualobject itself. Hence, the object, the cause that presents the image,has a hidden existence.

[5,33] They also accept that all the consciousnesses are self-knowing,and that all things arise from four conditions and have by naturethe quality of ceasing instantly.

[5,34] Hence, a thing itself and its attributes such as arising [dwelling,and ceasing] are not separate, but merely imputations through opposition.

[5,35] The Sautrantikas have several ways of correctly evaluating theidentity of things: by means of factual reasoning when evaluatingouter objects, and by means of understanding that all imputationsare devoid of an identity which has substantial existence. Hence,they are superior to the philosophical system of the Vaibhashikas.

[5,36] A vital point to understand is that although the nonconcurrent[formations] are imputed, since their names resemble their object,[the Sautrantikas] must accept that attributes exist in the thingsthemselves. This is because, as the Vaibhashikas say, if the [attributes] were exclusively imputations, things would be devoid of[attributes such as] impermanence.

[5,37] In the same way, [the Sautrantikas] must also assert that the unconditioned things such as space have conventional existence.

[5,38] The [followers of the] Mind Only School hold that all thesepresent appearances are just habitual tendencies of various kinds

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of conceptual thinking implanted in the all-ground consciousnesssince beginingless time. From the power of these [tendencies], itis merely mind as the all-ground consciousness and nothing otherwhich manifests in the form of the appearances of environment,sense objects, and a body. All [appearances] are therefore only theappearance of mind. This is like the example of appearances in adream.

[5,39] They [the proponents of the Mind Only School] also maintainthat external objects have no existence other than [this allground] consciousness.

The ultimate dissection of coarse things, the basic componentswhich are the two types of partless entities [atoms and instants],consequently cannot be established as having ultimate existence.

[5,40] Take for example the situation when partless atoms form acoarse thing. A single central atom is surrounded by six or tenatoms in the various directions. If those different atoms each havea part where they touch, [the central one] becomes endowed withparts. If they do not [touch the central one], then however manyof the smallest atoms may be grouped together, it will not causeany further increase. An irreducible partless [atom] is thereforenot established [as having ultimate existence]; it is merely animputation.

[5,41] Take also the partless instant of time. If its previous andfollowing partless [time entities] have different sides facingtowards it, [this partless instant] becomes endowed with parts.And if they do not, there will not be any longer durationregardless of how many instants of the ultimately smallest timeare added together, because they would each merely be one singleinstant.

[5,42] All appearances included within space and time are thereforeonly appearances of mind.

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[5,43] Dependent [phenomena] are these interdependent appearances"because they appear through the dependency of connected [causesand conditions] and not through their own nature.

[5,44] Imagined [phenomena] are the two kinds of self-entity, thesuperimpositions on the dependent appearances as having identities of various conditioned and unconditioned phenomena andas having an individual [self-entity].

[5,45] The absolute is the nature of the dependent consciousness, thefact that it is 'empty of the two kinds of self-entity, the domains ofthe imagined.

[5,46] This being so, the proponents of the Mind Only School claimthat the mere self-knowing consciousness - which is not thedomain of [conceptual] constructs and which is devoid of bothperceiver and the perceived - has ultimate existence.

[5,47] The followers of the Madhyamaka School maintain that just asan external object does not exist likewise the mind perceiving italso cannot be established [as truly existent].

[5,48] That is to say, both [object and mind] are alike in appearing dueto [mutual] interdependence while they are devoid of a selfnature. Moreover, a substantially existent consciousness that isnot the domain of constructs is but an imputation.

[5,49] Take a thing that has an individual identity and can be observed.When its identity is examined, it consequently cannot be established as having even the slightest true existence.

[5,50] All phenomena therefore merely occur as unfailing appearancesthrough the power of dependent origination. Besides this, theyare by nature devoid of even the slightest true existence and aretherefore emptiness.

[5,51] Emptiness and dependent origination are merely described separately in terms of their opposites. Nevertheless, they are a unitydevoid of separately existing identities that can be individually

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cognized. This absence of constructs is called dharmadhatu - therealm of phenomena.

This [dharrnadhatu] is devoid of extremes such as being permanent or discontinued, apparent or empty, and is to be realizedthrough the Middle Way, Madhyamaka.

Within the continuity of this [realm] to be realized, emptinessand dependent origination are one single fact, without separateness, united, and equal.

[5,52] Since this [Madhyamaka School] resolves the exact nature ofthings, it is unexcelled among all the schools of philosophy.

[5,53] Vaibhashika and Sautrantika are Hinayana schools. Madhyamaka and Mind Only are Mahayana schools because they arealike in accepting that after having aroused the two kinds ofconventional and ultimate bodhimind, one practices the principlesof the greater vehicle on the five paths and ten bhumis. Therebyone accomplishes the fruition of buddhahood, the non-dwellingnirvana.

[5,54] There are numerous systems of views among the various schoolsof Madhyamaka, Mind Only and the others, but here I havemerely described the general points.

[5,55] Based on the manner in which these philosophical schools aresuccessively more excellent, one realizes correctly the nature ofwhat is conventional or ultimate. Therefrom one will becomelearned in what is correct or incorrect concerning all phenomena.

[5,56] This was the chapter on the correct and the incorrect. [27B:4]

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6THE FACULTIES

INDRIYA

[6,1] There are twenty-two faculties:

[6,2] 1)-6) The six of the eye faculty, ear faculty and so forth until themind faculty." These six control the apprehending of their individual objects.

[6,3] 7) The life faculty controls the remaining in a similar class [ofsentient beings].

[6,4] 8)-9) The male and female faculties form the respective physicalsupports [for being male or female] and control the unbrokencontinuity of births from a womb.

[6,5] 10)-14) The five faculties of the sensations of pleasure, pain,mental pleasure, mental pain, and of neutral sensation control theexperiences of the fully ripened results [of karma].

[6,6] 15)-19) The five faculties of faith, diligence, recollection,concentration, and discrimination control the mundane virtues orthe purity [of detachment].

[6,7] 20)-22) The faculties of 'making all understood', of 'understanding all,' and of 'having understood all' consist of faith and soforth in the stream-of-being of, [respectively, someone on thepaths of] seeing, cultivation, and no-training. They control thesupramundane purities [of noble beings].

[6,8] Faculties are therefore called [controlling] faculties.

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zL

FACULTIES - INDRIYAS

[6,9] The six [sense] faculties of the eye and so forth have alreadybeen defined.

[6,10] The mind faculty taken from among the six [sense] faculties ismerely the support for producing a mental cognition. Understandalso that the mind faculty as mentioned here, also refers to amental cognition produced from that support.

[6,11] Here is the manner in which these six [sense-faculties]apprehend their respective objects:

[6,12] The eye and ear faculties apprehend from a distance withoutmeeting the object and apprehend [their objects] without anyregularity as to whether the object is bigger or smaller than itself.

[6,13] The three faculties of the nose, tongue and body apprehend aftermeeting [with their object] and take hold of the object in a sizeequal to itself.

[6,14] Hence, in terms of these objects and 'object-possessors,' [thesense faculties], being mutually obstructive to touch, one candiscern whether they meet [their object] or not.

[6,15] The mind faculty is not only the object-possessor, [subject], ofjust its own object, the element of mental objects, but [it is theobject-possessor] of all phenomena. It apprehends and makes thenames of contact with every object and is therefore also callednominal contact.

[6,16] It cannot be discerned whether its object is met or not met orwhether the object is bigger or smaller that itself since consciousness has no [physical] form.

The size of a perception is not the size of the form but is theextent encompassed by the consciousness.

[6,17] The male and female faculties are particularities of the body faculty resembling the thumb and the hollow of a drum. They formthe basis for experiencing the pleasure of contact between a maleand a female.

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FACULTIES -!NDRIYAS

[6,18] The five kinds of sensation, the [five faculties of] faith and soforth, and the life [faculty] are as explained above.

[6,19] The [faculty] of 'making all understood' is described as being thenine [faculties] belonging to the stream-of-being of someone onthe path of seeing. These are the five of faith and so forth, thethree of the sensation of pleasure, mental pleasure, and indifference, and the mind faculty.

[6,20] The faculty of 'understanding all' is [comprised of the above]nine belonging to the stream-of-being of someone on the path ofcultivation.

[6,21] The faculty of 'having understood all' is those nine belonging tothe stream-of-being of someone on [the path of] no-training.

[6,22] Seven faculties have [physical] form. One is a 'main mind'[primary cognition]. Ten are mental states. One [the life faculty]belongs to nonconcurrent formations. The three undefilingfaculties are named after the [main] mind and mental events.Thus there are twenty-two altogether.

[6,23] The presentation of the faculties:

[6,24] The three faculties of [the faculty of] 'making all understood'and so forth are undefiling.

[6,25] The seven with physical form, the life [faculty], the [sensations]ofpain and mental pain, totaling ten, are defiling since they are tobe abandoned by the [path of] cultivation.

[6,26] The nine remaining ones: the three [faculties] of the sensations[of pleasure, mental pleasure, and indifference], the five of faithand so forth, and the mind [faculty], have both aspects of beingdefiling [in an ordinary person] and undefiling [in a noble being].

[6,27] The life [faculty] is produced from [karmic] ripening. The five[faculties] of faith and so forth, the three of 'understanding all,'and mental pain," are not produced from [karmic] ripening.

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[6,28] The Vaibhashikas maintain that the [sensation of] mental painamong these [faculties] is not itself the result of ripening becauseof being an involvement through personal desire due to mereconceptualization. Since it can be determined as either virtuous orunvirtuous, it yields its own ripened result. Nevertheless, I think itis evident that there should also be a neutral aspect of the ripening[of past actions]. The details of this will be explained elsewhere.

[6,29] Among the remaining twelve of the above, the seven havingform result from [karmic] ripening. It is also said that development is not a [karmic] ripening.

[6,30] The mind faculty and the other four sensations" have three[aspects] virtuous, unvirtuous, and neutral. Defiling virtue andnonvirtue therefore have [karmic] ripening, while the neutral has

• • 27no npemng.

[6,31] The [defiling] five faculties of faith and so forth have ripening.The undefiling mind faculty, sensations, and [the undefiling] fiveof faith and so forth all have no ripening. Understand that ripening here means samsaric ripening.

[6,32] The five faculties of faith and so forth and the three of'understanding all' and so forth are virtuous.

[6,33] The mind [faculty] and sensation of pleasure and so forth havethe three aspects of being virtuous, unvirtuous, and neutral.

[6,34] The eight faculties consisting of the seven having form and thelife faculty are neutral.

[6,35] Except for the three flawless [faculties], the other nineteen canall be present in the [beings] belonging to the Desire [Realm].

[6,36] Among them, except for the male and female faculties and thetwo kinds of [sensation] of pain [and mental pain], the other[faculties] can be present in the [sentient beings] in the FormRealms.

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[6,37] Except for the seven having form and the four sensations otherthan indifference, the remaining ones can all be present in theFormless [Realms]."

[6,38] Although the three undefiling [faculties] do not belong underthe phenomena of the three realms, that does not mean that theycannot occur within the stream-of-being of someone in the threerealms.

[6,39] The four faculties consisting of the mind faculty, the sensationsof pleasure, mental pleasure and indifference have three [aspects]:to be discarded [through the path of] seeing, to be discarded[through] cultivation, and not to be discarded.

[6,40] Mental pain is to be discarded through both [the paths of]seeing and cultivation.

[6,41] As explained above, the ten faculties consisting of the sevenhaving form and so on [plus life, pain and mental pain] are to bediscarded by [the path of] cultivation. The five defiling facultiesconsisting of faith and so forth are discarded through cultivation,while the undefiling are not to be discarded. The three flawlessfaculties are not to be discarded.

[6,42] The way in which these faculties are obtained:

[6,43] To begin with, the ones who are womb-born in the DesireRealms obtain the two [karmically] ripened faculties of body andlife.

[6,44] The genderless instantaneously-born, as for instance humanbeings in the first aeon, obtain simultaneously the six facultiesconsisting of the five [faculties] of eye and so forth and the life[faculty].

[6,45] The single-gender instantaneously-born, such as the desire gods,obtain in addition to the former six either the male or the femalefaculty, totaling seven.

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[6,46] The double-gender instantaneously-born who are possible in thelower realms thus obtain eight.

[6.47] In the Form Realms one obtains the six faculties consisting ofthe five of eye and so forth and the life [faculty]."

[6,48] In the Formless [Realms] one only obtains anew the life faculty.

[6,49] When dying in the Formless [Realms] the three faculties of life,mind, and indifferent [sensation] cease simultaneously.

[6,50] In the Form Realms, the eight faculties consisting of those threeand the five of eye and so forth cease simultaneously.

[6,51] [In the Desire Realms] the instantaneously-born dies all at once.For the double-gender ten [faculties] cease by adding the twogenders to the previous eight. For the single-gendered nine cease;and for the genderless eight [cease].

[6,52] For the womb-born and so forth [egg or heat-born], who diegradually, the four faculties of body, mind, life, and indifferent[sensation] cease simultaneously.

[6,53] All these cases [of ceasing of faculties] are mentioned in terms ofa dying mind that is not obscuring, undetermined or disturbed.For the beings who die abiding in a virtuous mentality acquiredby birth, eight [faculties] cease for someone in the Formless[Realms] and so on by adding the five [faculties] of faith and soforth.

[6,54] Here follows an examination of which faculties cause the fourresults such as stream-enterer to be obtained.

[6,55] The results of a stream-enterer and arhat:

[6,56] In addition to the six consisting of the mind [faculty] and thefive of faith and so forth, the stream-enterer, because of beingattached to the Desire Realms, obtains the [faculty of] the indifferent [sensation] of the capable stage. He likewise obtains the[faculty of] 'making all understood' in the fifteenth moment of

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the path of seeing, and the [faculty of] 'understanding all' in thesixteenth [moment], totaling nine.

[6,57] The arhat, when adhering to the main part of the first andsecond dhyanas, obtains [the faculty of] the mental pleasure ofthose two. Additionally he obtains the [faculty of] pleasure whenadhering to the third [dhyana]. Adhering to any level that isneither of these three, he obtains the [faculty of] indifferent [sensation]. On either of these three or in the vajra-like samadhi ofthe path without impediment he obtains the 'understanding all,'and on the path of liberation [he obtains] the [faculty of] 'havingunderstood all'. Thus, nine in all.

[6,58] The [results of] the once-returner and the non-returner:

When achieving his result through the mundane path, thegradual once-returner, in addition to the six consisting of [thefaculties of] mind and the five of faith and so forth, obtains sevenby adding the indifferent [sensation of] the capable stage. Whenachieving through the supramundane path, he obtains the nameof 'understanding all' in regard to the five of faith and so forth ofthat path, totaling eight.

[6,59] Through the mundane path, the one who is already detachedobtains, in order to achieve his result of non-returner, the [facultyof] 'making all understood' in addition to the eight, thus nine inall.

[6,60] The dull non-returner gradually achieves through the mundanepath. He has seven faculties when adding the indifference of thecapable stage because of being unable to realize the [sensation of]pleasure of the main part of the first [dhyana] at the time of thenine aspects of liberation."

[6,61] When the dull gradual type achieves through the supramundanepath, he obtains eight faculties with the additional 'understandingall'.

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[6,62] When the sharp [gradual type] through the mundane path isable to realize the mental pleasure of the main part, he alsoobtains eight [faculties].

[6,63] When the sharp type achieves through the supramundane pathhe obtains [the faculties of] both the [sensations of] indifferenceand mental pleasure and of the 'understanding all' at the time ofthe path without impediment, thus nine in alL

[6,64] Moreover, when the already detached type achieves his respective result [of non-return], he obtains it by means of the ninefaculties of either of the three sensations, the 'making all understood' and the 'understanding all.'

[6,65] The way in which someone possesses [the faculties]:

[6,66] When possessing either indifference, mind, or life, one definitelypossesses all three.

[6,67] When possessing the [sensation of] pleasure or body, one possesses four: that one in addition to the former three.

[6,68] When possessing the eye [faculty] etc., one possesses five: that[faculty] itself, the former three, and the body [faculty].

[6,69] When possessing the [faculty of the sensation of] mentalpleasure, one possesses five: three above, the body and [thatfaculty] itself.

[6,70] Those who possess the [faculty of the sensation of] pain, willpossess seven: the above three, the body, pleasure and mentalpleasure, and [that faculty] itself.

[6,71] When possessing either the male or female faculty, one possesseseight: the above seven and itself.

[6,72] When [having] the [faculty of] mental pain, one has eight whenadding the above seven.

[6,73] When having the five of faith and so forth, one has eight whenadding the above three.

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[6,74] When having the faculty of 'having understood all', one possesses eleven: the nine undefiling, the life [faculty] and itself.31

[6,75] The [faculty of] 'making all understood' has a bodily support inthe case of someone in the Desire [Realms]. Therefore, onepossesses thirteen by adding the [faculties of] body and of [thesensation of] pain to the above eleven.

[6,76] The different ways of possessing the most or the fewest:

[6,77] Among the beings without roots ofvirtue, those who possess thefewest faculties possess eight: the body, five sensations, life, andmind.

[6,78] Immature beings of the Formless [Realms] also possess eight:the three of indifference, life, and mind, and the five of faith andso forth.

[6,79] As to those who possess the most, it should be understood that adouble-gendered ordinary person can, excepting the three flawlessones, possess nineteen. Or, a noble single-gendered with attachment can possess nineteen excepting the last two flawless[faculties].

[6,80] This was the chapter on the faculties.

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[7,1] Time has three aspects.

[7,2] The past [of a certain thing] is the completed enacting of bothcause and effect. It is the completion and cessation of what haspreviously happened. Present means that the cause has beenenacted but not the effect. Future is the incompleteness of causes,although a cause may be present, while an effect has not beenenacted.

[7,3] In this way, these three times are imputed by systems in terms ofthe appearance of the cause and effect of things.

[7,4] These three times make one understand that [a thing lasts] forsuch and such [a duration] by means of measures of long andshort durations.

[7,5] Concerning the duration of something, when we explain gradualoccurrence of a string of moments in the manner of past, present,and future, the most subtle and ultimately smallest time whereformer and following parts are indivisible is called the ultimatelysmallest instant of time [according to the Abhidharma].

One hundred and twenty such ultimately smallest instants oftime are one 'moment'. Sixty such moments are 'one minute'.Thirty such minutes are one period. Thirty such periods are oneday [and night]' Thirty days are one month and twelve monthsare one year. So it has been taught.

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l7.6] The root texts of astrology" [and Abhidharma] explain that,counted as one, the pair of a regular inhalation and exhalation ofbreath of an adult in good health is called one breath. Six suchbreaths are one water-measure. Sixty such water-measures are onehalf-period and sixty such half-periods are one day [and night]."

[7,7] When explaining these in an easily understood way by correlating them, there are in one day six million four hundred eightythousand ultimately smallest instants and there are twenty-onethousand six hundred breaths. In the duration of each breaththere are three hundred ultimately smallest instants.

[7,8] In the duration of each inhalation and exhalation of breath, thepulse of an ordinary person in good health beats five times. Oneperiod, that is two half-periods, has one hundred and twelvewater-measures. Each 'minute' is the duration of four watermeasures. The duration of one 'moment' is the time it takes thepulse to beat two times.

[7,9] When calculating in this way, the duration of each pulse beatand a regular finger-snap are of equal length of time.

[7,10] The measure of the ultimately smallest instant of time is knownas the timespan it takes to pierce each leafwhen piercing a needlethrough sixty piled shomang leaves. The petals are all piercedgradually since it is not possible to pierce them simultaneously.The duration it takes to pierce each is therefore understoodthrough inference. If one were to calculate with the sometimesmentioned sixty-four or five [leaves] there comes disagreementwith the root texts, so one should examine the intent of that.

[7,11] There are two kinds of moments: the ultimately smallest instantof time and the 'moment of completing an act'. The first is theshortest, ultimately smallest time explained above. The second isdefined as the duration from the beginning of any action until it isfully completed. So, dependent on the action, it has an infinitenumber of lengths of duration.

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TIME

[7,12] The shortest [moment] earning that term is the completion ofthe act of merely snapping the fingers, The longest one, the timefrom when the Buddha first made the aspiration until he finallyrealized unexcelled enlightenment, can also be considered as onemoment of completing an act,

[7,13] The duration of all things is labeled as time by the power of people's beliefs. It is therefore sometimes said that the present issimply what is present right now in its own time. All that happened previous to that is the past. What will occur later is thefuture. This is stated in terms of the [present] moment.

[7,14] Sometimes the present refers to the time this aeon was formeduntil it becomes void. What happened before that and what willhappen later is considered past and future. It is permissible tomentally summarize the duration of time and give it such a namein terms of the labeled object,

[7,15] For this reason, based on our world there are the four aeons ofcreation, subsistence, destruction, and voidness. There are also themiddle aeons, great aeons, descending [aeons] and ascending[aeons]; the undulating, increasing, and decreasing [aeons]. Finally there are the ages of sickness, warfare, and famine, as well asthe ages of destruction by fire, water, and wind.

[7,16] There are moreover the ages of completeness, possessing three,possessing two, and of strife. In terms of the doctrine there arethe four periods of fruition, of practice, of scriptures, and ofadherence to mere signs. Furthermore, there is the aeon of darkness and the aeon oflight and so forth. It should be understoodthat there are many such categories based on time.

[7,17] Based on the movements of the sun and moon, a system of threekinds of days is made.

[7,18] The duration it takes the sun, by the movement of the 'wind', tocircumambulate the four continents is defined as sixty halfperiods. This is called one solar day.

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TIME

[7,19] In terms of the moon's own course, the duration of each of thefifteen parts of the moon for both the waxing and the waningperiods is known as a lunar day. Although, for the moment, thewaxing and waning are of [varying] lengths, at the end of thelight and dark periods, [the lunar day] is in fact a little shorterthan the length of a solar day.

[7,20] The duration it takes the sun, by its own movement, to circlethrough the zodiacs, each divided into thirty, is called one zodiacal day. It is slightly longer than the duration of a solar day.

[7,21] The time of one year is defined by means of these three kinds ofdays. Correlating the solar and lunar days, there are the omissionsand extra [dates]. A double-month occurs because the monthsreckoned from lunar days and the months reckoned from zodiacaldays are of an uneven length.

[7,22] The four seasons on the four continents occur because the suntravels through the twelve zodiacs. Due to the waxing and waningof the moon there are the light and dark periods.

[7,23] A solar day occurs from the way in which the sun rises becauseof the 'wind movement of the gola.' If these things are notcalculated properly, the light and dark periods and the fourseasons of spring and so forth will become mixed up. Time istherefore to be established minutely in accordance with the roottexts of astrology.

[7,24] Moreover, one year has twelve months or three hundred andsixty days. By counting the times of partaking in early and latemeals as two there are seven hundred and twenty meals and also[such a number of] days and nights.

[7,25] One day can also be classified, when dividing it into dawn,morning and so forth, into four, six, eight, or twelve periods.

[7,26] Each month has a light and a dark part. Each year has the fourseasons of summer and winter, autumn and spring or six seasonssuch as the early and late winter and [spring, sowing time, mid-

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TIME

summer, and fall]. There is, moreover, the system of the twoequInoxes.

[7,27] The numbers ofyears and aeons can be estimated in measures ofduration by means of calculating with the numbers from ten andone hundred and, multiplying by ten, until the 'incalculable'.

[7,28] Based on this definition of time one can understand thestatement "In the former aeon of such and such time, so and sobuddha appeared!" "In such and such future time and aeon thebuddha so and so will appear!" "The respective results through thepaths of the greater and lesser vehicles are attained in such andsuch a time!" Also, "The life span of sentient beings is such andsuch" and so forth.

[7,29] One will also understand that all things are merely a successiveoccurrence as a chain of moments that arise and cease.

[7,30] Furthermore, based on the aggregates of sentient beings, theinner [phenomena], there are the descriptions of the periods ofbirth, childhood, youth, adolescence, middle age, old age,decrepitude, and death. Outer phenomena have the times of seed,sprout, and so forth. In terms of actions there are such as firstaspiring, next gathering the accumulations, and finally attainingbuddhahood. Understand that categories of knowable objects arefor the most part to be comprehended based on time.

[7,31] The things appearing right now are labeled present time andbased thereon one also comprehends the past and future.

[7,32] At present some beings are old, some are young and some arebeing born. There are various situations dependent upon whateverone's own time is. The past is what occurred earlier than that andthe future is what will occur later on. This is merely labeling timeaccording to how things appear to oneself, whereas so-called timehas in fact no substantial existence whatsoever.

Just as there can appear various lengths of time during thedream-state, by the power of one's conceptualization some

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TIME

phenomena are past, some present and some are defined as futureand appear as being such. However, in reality, phenomena haveno cessation in the past, no arising in the present, and no origination in the future.

[7,33] One is said to be perfectly learned in [the topic of] time whenthus realizing the equality of the three times. Considering this,one will then understand four times by adding the inconceivabletime to the three that have been taught. The directions will alsobe understood as mere imputations in that same way and one willrealize the equality of the real condition.

[7,34] This was the chapter on time.

Notes

1. The ten topics (don bcu) are the seven chapters in Gateway to Knowledge

Vol. I as well as the [four] truths, the [three] vehicles, and conditionedthings and unconditioned things. The last three will appear in thecoming volumes.

2. The Four Seals (phyag rgya bzhi) are: All composite things areimpermanent. Everything defiling is suffering. All phenomena are emptyand devoid of a self-entity. Nirvana is peace.

3. This line refers to the fourfold right discrimination of words, meanings,teachings and ready speech, also to be covered in future volumes.

4. Sun of Speech (smra ba'i nyi rna) is Manjushri who dispels the darknessof ignorance.

5. The perception of form by means of the mind placed in meditation is avery expansive way of perceiving, for example through using the concentration of repulsiveness or the divine sight acquired through meditation.The conceptual mind not placed in meditation is the normal and morelimited way ofperceiving by means of combining sound and object. (SG)

6. Words expressed by ordinary people are 'pillar,' Jug,' etc. Wordsexpressed by noble beings are, for example, 'the three gates of emancipation' or 'paramita.' (SG)

7. Earth, water, fire and wind.

s. A vow or an oath, such as taking ordination, is a 'form resulting from ataken promise.'

9. These seven types will be listed in Vol. II under disturbing emotions inthe truth of origin.

10. These ten are the elements of the eye, ear, nose, tongue and body inaddition to the elements ofvisible form, sound, odor, taste, and texture.

11. The elements of mind faculty, mind consciousness, and mental object.12. They are called rhinoceros-like pratyekabuddhas because they live in

solitude and attain enlightenment alone.

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NOTES

13 Although not desired, it will involuntarily result through thedependency of the unvirtuous action. (SG)

14. For instance, "A pot is impermanent because it is a product." (SG)

IS. The nature of things here refers to the four truths and so forth. (SG)

16. Shechen Gyaltsab reiterates this: The difference between outsiders andinsiders lies in whether or not the Three Jewels and the view of the FourSeals Signifying the Buddha's Words are accepted as being perfectobjects of refuge and the perfect view. (SG)

17. The 62 views are taught in the Sutra ofBrabma's Net as 18 based on thepast and 44 on the future. The former are four types of proponents thateverything is permanent, four types of nihilists, four types of claims thatthere is neither existence nor nonexistence, four types of claim that thedivinity should not be abandoned, and two types of proponents ofcauselessness. The 44 latter are 16 types of claims that perception exists,eight types that it doesn't, eight claims that perception is neither absentnor present, seven types of nihilists, and five proponents of the view thatnirvana is this life itself. Sometimes also 360 types of wrong views arementioned. In the Five Tarka Groups, 'tarka' means logic, and they are:Samkhya, Vaibhasha, Mimanisaka, Digambara, and Charvaka. (SG)

18 'P , h ' I . f d nor ari b. ermanent ere means not resu nng rom causes an not ansen ymeans of conditions.' (SG)

19. Since even the nihilists claim that a self exists temporarily. (SG)

20. If it were the case that a permanent creator could perform the functionof creating the world, then, because the cause is permanent all of theworld would necessarily have to be created simultaneously without sequential order. This is evidently not so since we see the seasons graduallychange. Moreover, since everything is appears in gradual sequence, acreator such as the Almighty is therefore not a permanent cause. (SG)

21. Since something devoid of causes for its being does not depend on anyother thing, it must be either permanent or nonexistent. Crops should beable to ripen any time and so forth. This is because a thing would have toexist by virtue of itself independently of the gathering of causes andconditions. (SG)

NOTES

22. It is established as being the nature of things that a flawless sprout willgrow forth and continue to do so when and while its conditions forgrowing are present. (SG)

23. The term 'appearance' (snang ba) here means an instant of con-sciousness (rnam shes). (EPK)

24. Including the nose faculty, tongue faculty and body faculty. (SG)

25. The (SG) here says (yid bde) mental pleasure.

26. The sensations of pleasure, mental pleasure, pain and indifference. (SG)

27. All the defiling virtuous or unvirtuous deeds are in themselves notproduced from karmic ripening, but will yield samsaric ripening as theirindividual results. (SG)

28. Eight faculties: life, mind, indifference and the five of faith and soforth. (SG)

29. This is because there are no other faculties of ripening present. (SG)

30. These nine aspects ofliberation (rnam grol dgu pa) are also known asthe ('dod nyon skor drug: chags pa, khong khro, nga rgyal, rna rig pa,log lta, tshul rtul mchog 'dzin, the tshom, phrag dog, ser sna). (KenpoKonchok).

31 • See [6, 26] for details of the nine.

32. Astrology (rtsi) also covers the system of reckoning dates and makingcalendars. (EPK)

33. When correlating that with the prevailing system of measuring time inthe West, an Abhidharma 'moment' is 1.6 seconds; a 'minute' is 1.6minute or 96 seconds; a 'period' which is 30 Abhidharma 'minutes' is 48of our minutes. One 'breath' is four seconds; a 'water-measure' is 24seconds; and a half-period is 24 ofour minutes. (EPK)

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