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FUEL ECONOMY NEWS

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Fuel Economy News – September 2014 © Ricardo plc 2014

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RICARDO INFORMATION SERVICES

FUEL ECONOMY NEWS

SEPTEMBER 2014

A monthly bulletin dedicated to

fuel consumption and economy across

vehicles and powertrains common issues, components,

marketing and industry news



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Notes Fuel Economy News is a monthly newsletter, published by the Ricardo Information Services Department. It summarizes the literature on fuel consumption issues in vehicles, powertrains, engines and transmissions or drivelines, mainly for automotive applications. Items included in this publication are based on literature received by the Ricardo Library in mid-August to mid-September. Entries may contain additional information on products covered in earlier editions. Copies of the source documents may be obtained by quoting the Library reference, which appears in bold at the bottom of each article. An additional charge is made for this service. Other products offered by Ricardo Information Services include: Powerlink - An online database containing over 250,000 abstracts of engine and vehicle literature EMLEG - Worldwide exhaust emissions legislation summaries online

New Engine News Contents - summaries of main technical features of new engines of all types and applications

Fuels & Lubricants News Contents - Developments in fuel and lubricants technology as applied in engines and vehicles

Control & Electronics News Contents - control, electrical and electronic engineering. Practical applications and research & technology

Transmissions News Contents - New and modified transmissions, and driveline technology

Components News Contents - Internal combustion engine components, materials, research and design.

Vehicle Engineering News Contents - All aspects of vehicle engineering including chassis, brakes, electrical, Powertrain and transmissions, including a review of new vehicles.

Alternative Powertrain News Contents – Fuel cell, hybrid and electric powertrains as well as alternative combustion systems

Gas Engine News Contents - Natural gas, LPG and biogas technologies and applications. Published quarterly.

Contact details - Roland Christopher, Information Manager, Ricardo UK Ltd Tel. +44 (0) 1273 794230, email: [email protected].

Ricardo has used reasonable endeavours to ensure that the information supplied in this service is correct. However, no responsibility or liability can be accepted for any errors or omissions. Entries in this publication do not imply endorsement of any product or service by Ricardo

mailto:[email protected]



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Contents RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ...................................................................................... 5

CAE ............................................................................................................................ 6

DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES ..................................................................................... 7

LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS ................................................................................................ 8

MEASUREMENT, ESTIMATION AND TESTING ........................................................... 9

VEHICLES ...........................................................................................................................10

COMMERCIAL ..............................................................................................................10

CONCEPT, PROTOTYPE AND DEMONSTRATION ....................................................11

PASSENGER CARS .....................................................................................................12

FUNCTIONS .................................................................................................................13

Aerodynamics ..............................................................................................................13

Stop-start .....................................................................................................................13

COMPONENTS .............................................................................................................14

Electrics and electronics ............................................................................................14

Tyres ...........................................................................................................................14

ENGINES .............................................................................................................................15

DIESEL .........................................................................................................................15

HDD ...........................................................................................................................18

DOWNSIZED ................................................................................................................19

FLEXIBLE FUEL ...........................................................................................................20

GASOLINE ....................................................................................................................21

SPARK IGNITED ..........................................................................................................22

APPLICATIONS ............................................................................................................23

Marine ...........................................................................................................................23

FUNCTIONS .................................................................................................................24

Combustion .................................................................................................................24

COMPONENTS .............................................................................................................25

Aftertreatment systems ...............................................................................................25

Combustion systems ..................................................................................................26

Cooling systems ..........................................................................................................26

Cranktrains ..................................................................................................................27

Cylinder deactivation ..................................................................................................27

EGR ...........................................................................................................................27

Fuel injection systems ................................................................................................28

Pistons .........................................................................................................................29

Valve trains ..................................................................................................................30

TRANSMISSIONS AND DRIVELINES .................................................................................31

ALTERNATIVE POWERTRAINS .........................................................................................34

HYBRID ........................................................................................................................34

COMPONENTS .............................................................................................................36



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Batteries .......................................................................................................................36

APPLICATIONS ............................................................................................................37

Buses ...........................................................................................................................37

FUELS AND LUBRICANTS .................................................................................................38

OTHER APPLICATIONS .....................................................................................................42

AEROSPACE ................................................................................................................42

MARINE ........................................................................................................................43

POWER GENERATION ................................................................................................44

COMMON ISSUES ..............................................................................................................45

FRICTION REDUCTION ...............................................................................................45

OPERATING STRATEGIES AND CONTROL ..............................................................49

THERMAL MANAGEMENT ..........................................................................................50

WASTE HEAT AND ENERGY RECOVERY .................................................................52

LITERATURE ......................................................................................................................53

NATIONAL NEWS ...............................................................................................................55



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RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT INCREASED CONSUMPTION IN OVERSATURATED CITY TRAFFIC BASED ON EMPIRICAL VEHICLE DATA Daimler, IT-Designers GmbH and Universitat Duisburg Essen Congestion of urban roads causes extra travel time as well as additional fuel consumption. We present an approach to determine this additional fuel consumption on the basis of empirical vehicle data. We study probe vehicle data provided by TomTom to find the various traffic patterns of urban congestion. We use simulations of these urban traffic patterns based on a stochastic Kerner-Klenov model as input for an empirical fuel consumption matrix compiled from empirical CAN bus signals from vehicles. Our results confirm that in certain congested city traffic patterns vehicles consume more than twice as much fuel as in free city traffic. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp71-79 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.) A REVIEW OF DATA AND METHODS TO CALCULATE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM ALTERNATIVE FUEL TRANSPORT - FINAL REPORT Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) Alternative fuelled vehicles (AFVs) are increasing in number in the UK and therefore it is important that this source is considered for inclusion in the National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory. The aims of this project were to: 1. Identify sources of information on the numbers and activity of the different Alternative Fuel Vehicles (AFVs) both historically and projected to 2030. 2. Review the fuel consumption and emission factors available for AFVs (primarily the basket of GHGs but other regulated air quality pollutants such as NOx and PM10 where possible). 3. Combine activity and emission factor data to estimate fuel consumption and emissions from the different classes of AFVs. 4. Review how other Member States estimate emissions from AFVs, and make recommendations as to whether the UK could benefit from following similar approaches. The following vehicle fuel and technology types have been included in the project: LPG, CNG, Hybrid electric vehicles (petrol), Hybrid electric vehicles (diesel), Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (petrol), Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (diesel), Range extender electric vehicles, Battery electric vehicles, Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, Biofuels (B100, B85 and biomethane). The key findings of the project were: 1. Little work is being undertaken across Europe on the emissions arising from AFVs and only a few countries reviewed included these vehicle types in their inventories. 2. There is uncertainty in the emission factor data available for AFVs – In some cases few measurements have been undertaken and there can also be large variations in the engineering design for the same technology. 3. Accounting for AFVs is likely to have little impact on the UK’s total greenhouse gas emissions for the historic inventory. 4. Whilst there is uncertainty in the emission factor and historic activity data available, this project has shown that it is possible to include the historic emissions arising from AFVs in the UK inventory and that it would be valuable to do so. 5. Going forward the emission estimates from this sector will become more important as a result of potentially large increases in numbers of AFVs. However, future estimates of AFV uptake are highly variable. 6. Estimates for CO2 are based on the quantity of fuels consumed and therefore significant alterations to methods will not be required. Methods and emission factors for CH4 and N2O, which depend on engine load and speed as well as types of energy management processes, will need careful consideration and analysis to take account of different drive cycles. CH4 and N2O however make up a small fraction of total transport GHG emissions. See Electronic Document 7038 (London, UK; Department of Energy and Climate Change, Jan 2014, 42pp.)



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CAE

EARLY STAGE VEHICLE CONCEPT DESIGN USING ONE-DIMENSIONAL SIMULATION Honda Vehicle conceptual investigation at early stage of development has played significant role in accordance with increasingly complicated powertrain system and stricter regulation of fuel economy. This study presents a practical methodology for designing vehicle concept at earlier stage of development. This methodology consists of simulation tool chain that can predict vehicle acceleration and fuel consumption. In this paper, we demonstrate specific results of series-parallel-type plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) as an example. Then it’s proved that the vehicle simulation can define engine and motor power distribution according to vehicle target and requirement. See vCD 212 F2014-MVC-028.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.)



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DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES

ENGINE, TRANSMISSION AND DAMPER SYSTEMS FOR DOWNSPEEDING, DOWNSIZING, AND CYLINDER DEACTIVATION Schaeffler Besides hybridizing the powertrain, which is especially advantageous in city traffic, efforts must be made to improve the efficiency of conventional powertrains in order to reduce traffic-based CO2 emissions. This will first require measures to directly reduce friction losses in internal combustion engines, transmissions, and chassis systems, such as the use of friction-optimised bearing supports and seals as well as coatings to lower the friction coefficient. Furthermore, slippage losses in startup elements need to be reduced. Hydrodynamic torque converters with lock-up clutches are a notable example of this, as they can be engaged even at very low engine speeds by means of optimised damper systems. Double clutch systems with reduced passive clutch drag torque losses of wet or – even better – dry running design are important contributions as well. The aim of this paper is also to report on improvements to the system as a whole, in which changes on the transmission side lead to an efficiency increase in the internal combustion engine. Examples of this include transmissions with an increased spread of gear ratios, resulting in lower engine speeds even at higher travel speeds. Optimised damper systems serve to further reduce and/or insulate torsional vibration excitation introduced into the entire powertrain by cyclical combustion in the engine and facilitate downspeeding of drive systems in order to reduce fuel consumption. At the same time, advanced damper systems permit the design of downsizing systems that reduce engine friction with a lower number of cylinders and substantially increased torsional vibration excitation without having strong NVH issues in the entire powertrain. Finally, a rolling cylinder deactivation system is introduced that enables engines with three cylinders to run effectively on 1.5 cylinders (“RCD 1.5”). The measures taken on the engine and transmission system side to prevent excessive torsional vibrations along the entire powertrain are described in detail. Covers - planetary automatic transmissions, CVT, hydrodynamic torque converters, double clutch systems and their actuators, new electrically operated hydrostatic clutch actuator (HCA), centrifugal pendulum-type absorber. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquium_2014_02_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 9pp.)



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LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS

COMPARISON OF LIFE CYCLE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS OF CONVENTIONAL, CNG-HYBRID AND ELECTRIC POWERTRAINS FOR LONG MILEAGE APPLICATION IN A TAXI FOR SINGAPORE Technische Universitat Munchen and TUM Create In this analysis we assess the life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of four types of vehicles which might play a role in achieving future emission reductions: vehicles using compressed natural gas (CNG), battery electric vehicles (BEVs), mild hybrid CNG vehicles and range extended BEVs. Our analysis covers the manufacturing processes of these vehicles and their use as a city taxi in Singapore. We also consider upstream emissions from fuel and electricity production. All necessary parameters are derived from an intensive literature review and the model for calculating the life cycle emissions is presented. The influence of data uncertainties is analysed by parameter variations within different scenarios. The calculation results are found to be quite robust: The BEV and the mild hybrid CNG vehicle similarly show very low GHG emissions within all scenarios whereas the pure CNG vehicle always ranks the worst. In an additional scenario we also assessed the influence of an improved electricity generation with lower emissions in the future. In this the results of the BEV and the range extended BEV were significantly improved compared to the previous baseline calculations. We conclude that the introduction of BEVs is an effective measure to reduce GHG emissions in the transport sector of the future. However, mild hybrid CNG vehicles seem to be a very practicable solution for mobility with less GHG emissions today and in the nearer future. Covers - Battery Lifetime and Necessary Replacements. See SAE 2014-01-1616 (2014, 11pp, 47 refs.)



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MEASUREMENT, ESTIMATION AND TESTING

EVALUATION OF THE CONSTANT VOLUME SAMPLER ON PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE COLD START EMISSION TESTING University of California, Irvine Previous study shows that the constant volume sampler incorrectly measures some of the exhaust gas when testing a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle in the cold start condition when comparing the CO2 results from constant volume sampler and fuel flow meter. The main reason is likely associated with the exhaust left in the vehicle tailpipe and constant volume sampler sampling line. Other factors, such as fuel line expansion and water condensation in the exhaust system, are also considered to have contributions. This article evaluates these issues quantitatively by testing a Toyota Prius hybrid electric vehicle on the industry standard constant volume sampler system combined with both a fuel flow meter measurement and an electronic control unit record for fuel consumption. Cold start test cycles and test cycles with a system pre-purge event show that the constant volume sampler has a significant delay in measuring the exhaust, and the estimated exhaust losses for the test car are 15g CO2. Tests with a purge event at the end of the driving cycle show that there are approximately 7g of CO2 trapped in the exhaust system and the constant volume sampler sampling line, and the possible reasons for the discrepancy of the above two points (15 and 7g) are evaluated. The expansion and air bubble influence the fuel flow meter, and the impact of water condensation on CO2 and CO appears to be negligible. See Doc.145966 (International Journal of Engine Research, Sep 2014, pp706-718.) EFFECT OF DRIVING CONDITIONS AND AUXILIARIES ON MILEAGE AND CO2 EMISSIONS OF A GASOLINE AND AN ELECTRIC CITY CAR Universita Del Salento This investigation describes the results of an experimental and numerical research project aimed at comparing mileage and CO2 emissions from two different commercial versions of Daimler AG Smart ForTwo car: conventional (gasoline) and electric (ED). The investigation includes numerical simulations with the AVL CRUISE software package and on-board acquisitions. A data acquisition system has been designed for this purpose and assembled on board of the Smart ED. The system is composed by a GPS antenna with USB interface, two current transducers, a NI-DAQ device and a netbook computer with a LabView-VI. This system provided on-board information about driving cycle and current flows, gathered simultaneously by GPS, transducers and NI-DAQ. The system was also used to evaluate the losses of energy during the recharge of the electric car. The two cars have been tested over a wide range of driving conditions related to different routes, traffic conditions and use of on-board accessories (i.e. Air Conditioning and radio). The CO2 emissions have been evaluated with a Well-to-Wheel approach. See SAE 2014-01-1812 (2014, 13pp.)



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VEHICLES

COMMERCIAL TRANSPORTATION AND FUELS: LOOKING AHEAD AT HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLES Volvo Looking back on developments in heavy-duty vehicle (HDV) technology over the past 20-25 years, one could rightly describe them as a ‘total makeover’. The improvements are particularly obvious for exhaust emissions but also for fuel consumption, durability and safety, where progress has been substantial. Improvements in diesel fuel quality have also been an important enabler for making these steps in engine technology possible. The parallel development of engine technology and fuel quality will have to continue into the future, not only in Europe and other developed countries but also, and perhaps even more importantly, in the developing countries around the world. For commercial transportation activities in general — and for heavy duty vehicles in particular — fuel efficiency has always been a key criterion. Even before CO2 emissions became a global concern, customer demands and the competition between vehicle manufacturers have kept fuel consumption at lowest possible levels for each type of application. Therefore, and without any specific regulatory requirements, the HDV industry has been able to significantly lower average fuel consumption over the years. As already noted, it is important that market fuel quality goes hand in hand with the emissions regulatory steps. This link became mandatory when EATS were introduced by Euro IV. Thanks to the well-established EN590 standard and legal fuel requirements, EU diesel fuel quality is reasonably well under control today. The main quality items that still need to be worked on in CEN are related to: - Fuel stability (mainly FAME-related): for biodiesel blending components, HVO (hydrotreated vegetable oils) are preferred due to their good combustion and handling properties. - Cold flow performance and fuel filterability: today’s methods and limits are not enough to ensure good cold operability, and efforts are ongoing in CEN to establish better tests. - Injector deposits: modern common rail systems are more sensitive to internal diesel-injector deposits (often abbreviated to ‘IDID’). Covers - fuel economy labelling requirement. See Electronic Document 7017 (Concawe Review, Spring 2014, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp13-16.)



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CONCEPT, PROTOTYPE AND DEMONSTRATION

SCHAEFFLER DEMONSTRATOR VEHICLES: CONCEPT VEHICLES FOR SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY - BOTH TODAY AND TOMORROW Schaeffler An overview of Schaeffler concept vehicles including the CO2ncept-10% car, Schaeffler Hybrid, ACTIVeDRIVE concept car with eDifferential. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquim_2014_35_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 6pp.)



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PASSENGER CARS

ROAD TEST: NISSAN X-TRAIL Nissan Road test of the Nissan X-Trail 1.6 dCi 130 n-Tec passenger car covering acceleration, aerodynamics, boot, brakes, cab, dimensions, engine, fuel consumption, handling, interior, noise, performance, power, price, ride, rivals, safety, steering, suspension, torque, 7-speed manual transmission, tyres, visibility, wheels. For cars of this size, a 2.0-litre, four-cylinder diesel engine has tended to be the default option, although Mazda, Kia and Hyundai continue to persevere with larger 2.2-litre units. The previous X-Trail was no exception, but this new model takes a different route, ditching its predecessor’s 2.0-litre engine in favour of the R9M 1.6 dCi already introduced in the new Qashqai. The 1.6 dCi is, in fact, a comprehensive evolution of the F9Q 1.9 dCi previously used elsewhere by Nissan and Renault, its 1598cc capacity achieved by shortening its stroke. As well as running a higher boost pressure, the engineers employed a much more sophisticated form of thermal management and reduced emissions with the introduction of a cold-loop exhaust recirculation system. Along with redesigned ancillaries and friction reductions, the smaller motor delivers improved CO2 emissions of 129 g/km in two-wheel-drive form and 139 g/km when taken with four-wheel drive. See Doc.145987 (Autocar, 13 Aug 2014, pp62-69.) ROAD TEST: MCLAREN 650S McLaren Road test of the McLaren 650S Spider supercar covering acceleration, aerodynamics, boot, brakes, cab, dimensions, engine, fuel consumption, handling, interior, noise, performance, power, price, ride, rivals, safety, steering, suspension, torque, 7-speed DCT transmission, tyres, visibility, wheels. The M383T-designated twin-turbocharged V8 engine in the 650S is ostensibly the same one we know well from all of McLaren’s cars. The Woking firm takes great pride in the fact that, depending on where you find it, the engine will make anything from around 500 bhp (or thereabouts, in the forthcoming P13) all the way to 737 bhp in the P1. Here in the 650S it makes 641 bhp. The hardware differs from that used in the 616 bhp 12C thanks to new pistons and a redesigned cylinder head. There are also new exhaust valves and the cooling circuits have been redesigned to better deal with the inevitable extra heat that comes with such a power increase. Camshaft timings are different, too. These are said to improve both economy and throttle response, while a new exhaust system is lighter than before. McLaren’s intention was to improve the perceived response of the engine. As such, torque now builds from 3000 rpm to 7000 rpm rather than plateauing, so the more revs you have, the faster it feels. See Doc.145986 (Autocar, 30 Jul 2014, pp58-65.)



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FUNCTIONS

Aerodynamics

FUEL ECONOMY AND EMISSIONS EFFECTS OF LOW TIRE PRESSURE, OPEN WINDOWS, ROOF TOP AND HITCH-MOUNTED CARGO, AND TRAILER Oak Ridge National Laboratory To quantify the fuel economy effect of some common vehicle accessories or alterations, a compact passenger sedan and a SUV were subjected to SAE J2263 coast-down procedures. Coast-downs were conducted with low tyre pressure, all windows open, with a roof top or hitch-mounted cargo carrier, and with the SUV pulling an enclosed cargo trailer. From these coast-downs, vehicle dynamometer coefficients were developed which enabled the execution of vehicle dynamometer experiments to determine the effect of these changes on vehicle FE and emissions over standard drive cycles and at steady highway speeds. In addition, two minivans were subjected to coast-downs to examine the similarity in derived coefficients for two vehicles of the same model. The FE penalty associated with the rooftop cargo box mounted on the compact sedan was as high as 25-27% at higher speeds, where the aerodynamic drag is most pronounced. For both vehicles, use of a hitch mounted cargo tray carrying a similar load resulted in very small FE penalties, unlike the rooftop cargo box. The results for the SUV pulling a 3500 pound enclosed cargo trailer were rather dramatic, resulting in FE penalties ranging from 30%, for the city cycle, to 50% at 80 mph, at which point significant CO generation indicated protective enrichment due to high load. Low tyre pressure cases resulted in negligible to 10% FE penalty depending on the specific case and test point. Driving with all four windows open decreased FE by 4-8.5% for the compact sedan, and 1-4% for the SUV. See SAE 2014-01-1614 (2014, 11pp.)

Stop-start START-STOP: YESTERDAY, TODAY AND TOMORROW Schaeffler Engine start-stop systems mark the entry into the electrified powertrain and from a cost-benefit point of view they are one of the best ways to reduce CO2 emissions. Savings measured under the NEDC amount to between 4 and 5%. In heavy urban traffic, the reduction in fuel consumption can be larger. Applying the current WLTP driving cycle it can be expected that the savings measured for basic start-stop systems will be lower than with the NEDC. This is due to the fact that the proportion of time during which the vehicle is stationary is estimated to be 13% – significantly lower compared to the NEDC which assumes 23%. By contrast, stop-start systems with sailing function will benefit since according to the new test procedure the vehicle is driven more dynamically and is accelerated to higher speeds. However, considering the reduced consumption under real driving conditions, basic start-stop systems still remain an affordable option. Surveys initiated by Schaeffler – even if they are not fully representative – show that many motorists would like to permanently switch off the start-stop system despite the proven benefits in fuel economy. This is due to discomfort associated with restarting. Here the currently used technologies, for example starter pinions, meet their functional limitations. A systemic approach to this task opens up promising options and potentials, for example when additionally taking into account the belt drives of accessory units as well as the second on-board electric system with 48V. This allows, for instance, comfortable air conditioning even with the engine switched off – to culminate in an initial mild hybridisation without the need for a high-voltage on-board system in the vehicle. Covers - the OEM view, market aspects, technical aspects, start-stop systems as judged by the customer, restart, change of mind, acoustics, technology roadmap, market development of start-stop systems, provisions of hydraulic pressure, gear detection, starter pinion with two-speed transmission, two-speed planetary gear, electrified drive for the air-conditioning compressor. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquim_2014_24_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 7pp.)



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COMPONENTS

Electrics and electronics

ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS: GREATER EFFICIENCY WITHIN THE 12 V VEHICLE ELECTRIC SYSTEM Hella and Intedis With energy storage systems – an added lithium-ion storage and power electronic components – hybrid functions such as engine-off coasting and recuperation can be implemented in vehicles with conventional drives. Hella and Intedis show, that the configuration of these new system components in terms of energy and efficiency should be evaluated and optimised by weighing the CO2 savings versus the cost of the components. Lead acid batteries, double layer capacitors and different designs of lithium-ion accumulators are considered for choosing new energy storage systems. Covers - dimensioning and cost/benefit comparison. See Doc.146016 (ATZ Elektronik Worldwide, 2014, No. 3, pp4-8.)

Tyres EVALUATION OF TIRES INFLUENCE TO VEHICLES ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND A REVIEW ON EUROPE UNION’S TIRE LABELLING REGULATION 1222/2009 TEST METHODS VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland European Union Regulatory Framework on tyres has produced regulations for tyres sold within EU to help achieve the CO2 emission objectives set in EU for year 2020. Regulations EC 661/2009 and EC 1222/2009 aim to encourage consumers to acquire better tyres by fuel-efficiency labelling. The fuel-efficiency labelling of tyres is determined by EC regulation 1222/2009 and the measurement method by UNECE Regulation 117 measured rolling resistance. This test is performed on a freely rolling tyre, which doesn’t take into consideration transient driving situations and the differences of tyres’ efficiency to deliver traction power to road. Therefore, currently tyres’ fuel-efficiency label depicts mainly tyres’ rolling resistance on vehicles freely rolling axle. This study was aimed to get a better understanding of tyres’ influence to overall energy efficiency of a vehicle. In this study VTT has performed measurements on a chassis dynamometer in laboratory conditions with different tyres in a given vehicle. Initial measurements were made with eight tyres in 205/55R16 size, which is the most common tyre size in modern passenger cars. After the initial study two tyres were selected for additional measurements. The second tier study included alternations of the tyre pressure, the weight of the rim, the width of the tyre and the diameter of the tyre. These alternations were made one by one, while other variables were kept constant. See vCD 212 F2014-MVC-047.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 6pp.)



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ENGINES

DIESEL PASSCAR-DIESELS GO WEST – ROADMAP TO CLEAN DIESEL APPLICATIONS COMPLYING WITH FUTURE REQUIREMENTS Robert Bosch After its success in Western Europe, there is a rising interest in Diesel-powered Passenger Cars in other regions of the world. Besides well-established Diesel markets like India, consumers in mainly Gasoline dominated markets like Japan or the US have no longer prejudices against an outdated generation of Diesel engines. Triggered by numerous attractive applications, they begin to appreciate the classical advantages of Clean Diesels, such as high low-end torque meaning convincing towing capacity or outstanding fuel economy translating into attractive cruising range. To serve these changing needs specifically in the US market, a couple of domestic carmakers and several OEM from overseas have been preparing to enter the segment of PassCar- and Light-Duty Clean Diesels. First examples like GM's Chevrolet Cruze or the Chrysler's Grand Cherokee Diesel are already in dealer's showrooms of course accompanied by next generation applications of a whole bunch of Clean Diesel models from German OEM. When entering into a new market with Diesel-powered vehicles, the question pops up if the future requirements in these markets could be met concerning both emission requirements as well as Green-House-Gas (GHG) or Fuel Economy requirements. This article will show a roadmap to comply with future requirements such as CARB's LEV III, EPA's CO2/GHG or NHTSA's CAFE. As some of these requirements are really long-term or not even finally fixed, the article will not define a final solution, but reveal different approaches how these future requirements could be met. Covers – NSC, SCR, SCR-on-DPF, deNOx, OND Requirements. See vCD 222 01_Gerhardt_Bosch.pdf and 01_Gerhardt_Robert Bosch.pdf (SIA Powertrain Conference - The Clean Compression Ignition Engine of the Future, Rouen, France, 21-22 May 2014, Paper - 10pp, Slides - 28pp.) THE NEW BLUE HDI 2L ENGINE PSA Peugeot Citroen Describes the PSA Blue HDi 2.0-litre engine (DW10F). Covers - Stop Start by Alternator Gen II, variable displacement oil pump (VDOP), cooling management actuator (GHEM), combustion system, air management, fuel injection system, SCR, fuel economy, CO2 reduction. See vCD 222 03_Bertrand_PSA.pdf (SIA Powertrain Conference - The Clean Compression Ignition Engine of the Future, Rouen, France, 21-22 May 2014, 14pp.) THE NEW RENAULT ENERGY DCI 140KW 2,3L DIESEL ENGINE Renault Nissan Renault knows that radically curbing fuel consumption and CO2 emissions is vital in today’s world. Renault will remain among the leading companies for CO2 emissions by combining a wide offer low-emission/zero-emissions vehicles with new technologies for conventional powertrains such as a new generation of twin-turbocharged engines, developed in synergy. This paper will describe how the 2.3-litre Energy dCi engine is evolving in part of this trend, taking advantage of new CO2 technologies without giving up its core genetics: affordability and versatility. This new generation covers a large range of applications in the Renault-Nissan Alliance (LCV including HDV and others). The development was focused on CO2 and TCO (total cost of ownership) reduction, as well as preparing next regulation evolution. Its CO2 emission is 10%~15% lower than those of the previous generation and the engine is Euro 6/Euro VI ready. Besides the introduction of state-of-the-art technologies such as high injection pressure, twin turbocharger, main challenge was to make versatile engine to cover all applications with maximum commonality to keep it affordable and preserve existing facilities.



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Covers - cylinder head, camshaft, intake manifold, high pressure injection system, twin turbocharger, balance shaft. See vCD 222 41_Ambrosi_Renault.pdf and 41_Ambrosi_Renault slides.pdf (SIA Powertrain Conference - The Clean Compression Ignition Engine of the Future, Rouen, France, 21-22 May 2014, Paper - 7pp, Slides - 23pp.) TECHNOLOGIES FOR AN INCREASINGLY ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY DIESEL ENGINE PSA Peugeot Citroen Conclusion on PSA Peugeot Citroen powertrain strategy - Diesel powertrains are getting cleaner and cleaner while keeping a CO2 benefit of 15% compared to an equivalent gasoline powertrain, mandatory to fulfil European CO2 targets (95g of CO2 per kilometre) - Particulate emissions of modern Diesel equipped with DPF are lower than those of the best gasoline engine - Thanks to new DeNOx technologies, Euro6 Diesel NOx emissions are comparable to those of gasoline engines. SCR can already fulfil WLTP and RDE new requirements - The future of Diesel depends on the development of a dense and structured AdBlue distribution network: this is the priority for all the profession Even if challenges are numerous, we are confident that Diesel will remain an engine for the future thanks to a rational emissions/fuel economy optimisation under cost stress. Covers – particle number emissions, Blue HDi. See vCD 222 Opening_Macaudiere_PSA.pdf (SIA Powertrain Conference - The Clean Compression Ignition Engine of the Future, Rouen, France, 21-22 May 2014, 30pp.) ADVANCED ENGINEERING TOOLS AND METHODOLOGIES FOR REFINED THERMODYNAMIC PERFORMANCE OF ADVANCED DIESEL ENGINES FEV In view of tightened legislative demands concerning a clean environment with good air quality and global strategies to minimise CO2 emissions from individual mobility and transportation, further improvement of the thermo-dynamical behaviour of modern Diesel engines is mandatory. The centre of the operational behaviour is despite highly sophisticated components in the exhaust aftertreatment system still the combustion system, defining the dominating base for the engine behaviour in terms of efficiency and pollutant emissions. In order to design a superior starting point for the safe compliance with upcoming requirements, a fully- integrated and aligned chain of advanced development tools and methodologies is absolutely mandatory to define the optimal description regarding fuel introduction and mixture formation to ensure a proper burning behaviour for all kind of combustion modes. The usage of precise and validated frontloading processes offers the potential to determine the proper parameters already early in the conceptual phase and to reduce the loop of hardware iteration steps to finalise the nominal description of the engine hardware. Within the paper, an overview of advanced computational and experimental tools and methodologies is presented in conjunction with upcoming technologies, offering the fast and direct path to a high-performing Diesel combustion system for future demands, covering main aspects like air utilisation, EGR acceptance, and overall emission prediction – engine-out as well as tailpipe. The implemented examples describe the achievements, which were observed and validated by the usage of the process and tools on an advanced mono-cylinder engine, but further on also transferred to describe the potential of multi-cylinder application. Covers - FIE Enhancement, HiFORS (High Pressure/Fast Opening/Rate Shaping) fuel injector, VVT, VCR, DeNOx Systems – LNT, SCR. See vCD 222 31_Koerfer_FEV.pdf and 31_Koerfer_FEV Slides.pdf (SIA Powertrain Conference - The Clean Compression Ignition Engine of the Future, Rouen, France, 21-22 May 2014, Paper - 10pp, Slides - 34pp.)



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NEW GENERATION OF THE AUDI V6 TDI ENGINE – PART 1: DESIGN AND MECHANICS Audi The newly developed Audi's next generation 3.0-litre V6 TDI engine combines extremely low fuel consumption and emissions with outstanding performance, backed by the systematic application of lightweight construction techniques. Efficiency has been improved by optimising the thermal management system, internal friction and the combustion process. The integration of a close-coupled exhaust gas aftertreatment system was a key design requirement, resulting in further comprehensive modifications to the basic engine. The development of the new-generation engine is presented in two reports. This first part describes design and mechanics, while the second part deals with thermodynamics, application and exhaust gas aftertreatment. Gives engine specification, cutaway and component photographs. Covers - description of the engine block and powertrain, crankcase, water jackets, plate-honed cylinder bores, friction losses, crankshaft, aluminium pistons, chain drive, cylinder head and valve gear, air intake, exhaust manifolds and turbocharger, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), oil circuits, oil pumps, coolant circuit and thermal management, cylinder head circuit, engine block circuit. See Doc.145946 (MTZ Worldwide, Sep 2014, pp18-25.)



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HDD

PRAGMATIC POWER MAN Describes the new MAN Euro 6 15.2-litre D38 diesel engine. With its new Euro 6 D38 Diesel, MAN wants to provide TGX operators with a big engine that offers fuel efficiency as well as power. The D38 takes over from the D28 16.2-litre V8 as MAN's big engine in its TGX flagship range. Swapping to an inline six has yielded several benefits - not least a 160 kg weight saving on D38, thanks to an aluminium flywheel housing, incorporating the rear engine mounts, and a GRP sump and rocker cover, which also reduces noise. Covers - two-stage turbocharging, top-down cooling system, domed inlet and exhaust valves, forged steel pistons, Bosch electronically-controlled high-pressure common rail fuel injection system, cooled high-pressure EGR with SCR and a DPF, fuel consumption, GPS-based predictive cruise control - EfficientCruise, air pressure management (APM), exhaust valve brake (EVB). See Doc.145953 (Transport Engineer, Aug 2014, pp20-22.)



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DOWNSIZED EVALUATION OF DOWNSIZING AND DOWNSPEEDING CONCEPTS TO REDUCE FUEL CONSUMPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES IPF Energies nouvelles The objective of this study is to evaluate the potential of downsizing vs downspeeding concepts towards reducing fuel consumption of a given vehicle on an NEDC cycle. A dedicated methodology has been set up in order to compare the two concepts, assess the results in terms of emissions, performances and fuel consumption, and finally, to evaluate the impact on the technological requirements on a multi-cylinder application. The aim of downsizing was to reduce the unit displacement from 0.5-litre to 0.3-litre, whereas for downspeeding there were two objectives in terms of maximum engine speed over the NEDC cycle: 2250 rpm (medium-downspeeding) and 1750 rpm (high-downspeeding). Starting from a 2.0-litre, 4 cylinders reference, 7 operating points (OP) were chosen to be as representative as possible over the NEDC cycle. To ensure engine-out raw emissions fulfil Euro 5 regulation, pollutant (HC, CO, NOx and smoke) and noise limits were assigned to each of these 7 OP. The 7-OP reference was used in order to define a new set of OPs corresponding to an iso-power application for both the downspeeded- and the downsized-concept. Then the OPs were optimised at the test bench on a single-cylinder engine. A specific methodology was developed for the estimation of the fuel consumption over an NEDC cycle by using both measurements at the test bench on 7 steady-state OPs and a fuel consumption reference map. Final results and analysis show that fuel consumption on the NEDC cycle can be reduced by ~15% by downsizing, by ~12% by medium- downspeeding and by ~19% by high-downspeeding. Uncertainty of these estimations being +/-2%, it can be concluded that downsizing and downspeeding could have similar potential for fuel consumption reduction. However, for downsizing, smoke emission did not meet the given limit on 2 high-load OPs, and low-end torque target not achieved. In addition, the downsizing concept requires more advanced (and costly) technology such as two-stage turbocharging, 2500 bar fuel-rail pressure and 180 bar in-cylinder maximum pressure, whereas to achieve the targets for downspeeding only a single turbocharger, 1800 bar fuel pressure and 145 bar in-cylinder maximum pressure are required. See vCD 222 13_de-Francqueville_IFPEN.pdf and 13_de Francqueville_IFPEN slides.pdf (SIA Powertrain Conference - The Clean Compression Ignition Engine of the Future, Rouen, France, 21-22 May 2014, Paper - 11pp, Slides - 24pp.) COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH FOR OPTIMAL DIESEL ENGINE DOWNSIZING COMBINING THERMODYNAMICS AND DESIGN ASSISTANCE Czech Technical University in Prague The current uncertainty in the best solution of future vehicle powertrains calls for the advanced method for the fast assessment of impact of intended innovations. Thermodynamic parameters of downsized and/or downspeeded engine for very high bmep (up to 35 bar) influence engine mass and overall dimension of engine concept design and configuration and they cannot be estimated by scaling of designs already available. The thermodynamic substance of the cycle may be simulated without too detailed assumption of the certain partial phenomena realisation, if sensitivity analysis is done before. Simulation methods coupling different level of method depth, as 1D methods with in-house codes for engine mechanical efficiency assessment and preliminary design of a virtual compressor and a turbine, have been used together with optimisation codes based on genetic algorithms. Simultaneously, the impacts of optimum cycle on components dimensions, mass and inertia force loads were estimated since the results were systematically stored and analysed in Design Assistance System DASY, developed by the authors for purposes of early-stage conceptual design. Operation fuel consumption has been simulated using updated powertrain and vehicle mass data. NEDC and ARTEMIS tests were applied. See vCD 222 15_Dolecek_CTU Prague.pdf and 15_Dolecek_CTU Prague slides.pdf (SIA Powertrain Conference - The Clean Compression Ignition Engine of the Future, Rouen, France, 21-22 May 2014, Paper - 10pp, Slides - 33pp.)



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FLEXIBLE FUEL

INTEGRATION OF AN E85 REFORMING SYSTEM INTO A VEHICLE-READY PACKAGE AND PROJECT RESULTS AVL Monsanto Ethanol can be converted into a 1:1:1 mixture of H2, CO, and CH4 at 300°C using a copper-nickel catalyst, a process known as “low-temperature ethanol reforming.” The hydrogen content of this mixture enables an engine to operate lean or with high levels of EGR, improving fuel economy and emissions. An onboard ethanol reformer - a catalyst module providing heat exchange with exhaust - was recently reported and shown to exhibit stable high conversion of ethanol driven by exhaust heat. This paper describes the successful integration and operation of a Ford 3.5-litre 3 TiVCT flex-fuel engine with a compact reformer and auxiliary hardware, fuelled by E85. The system constitutes an integrated power system suitable for vehicle integration. The engine was operated on a mixture of E85 and reformate using a stoichiometric air-fuel ratio with internal EGR at a 12:1 compression ratio. At the worldwide mapping point, 1500 rpm/2.6 bar BMEP, use of 25% reformate in the fuel enabled stable engine operation with extreme valve overlap (50° EVO/40° IVC) and delivered efficiency improvement of about 10% over E85 alone. At idle (600 rpm/0.7 bar BMEP) using 40% reformate in E85 with 30° EVO provided a 12.3% efficiency improvement. A lightweight “shoebox” reformer design provided stable operation while producing only minor exhaust backpressure. The system also included an exhaust diverter valve to control reformer temperature and a buffer tank with automated drain to provide a reserve of dry reformate for cold start and engine transients. See SAE 2014-01-1191 (2014, 12pp.)



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GASOLINE

HYUNDAI'S PETROL ENGINE WITH A DIESEL'S BENEFITS Hyundai Hyundai is about to start road testing a radical new petrol engine, said to combine diesel levels of low-end torque and fuel economy, without the high NOx and particulate matter emissions that plague oil burners. The 1.8-litre Gasoline Direct Injection Compression-Ignition concept could cut fuel consumption by 37% on Europe's test cycle, compared with the regular 1.8 four. GDCI is a low-temperature concept employing compression ignition under lean to stoichiometric (i.e. air-fuel ratio of about 15:1) conditions over the engine's complete operating range. Critical is a unique, central injector, developed by Delphi, that injects three pulses of petrol into the cylinder at 500 bar. Covers - Eaton supercharger, variable geometry turbocharger. See Doc.145954 (Car Magazine, Sep 2014, p30.) WITH 3.5L V-6, HONDA PROVES LESS IS MORE Honda Looks at the development of the Honda 3.5-litre SOHC V6 engine, a winner at Ward’s 10 Best Engines. Previous versions of Honda’s SOHC all-aluminium 60-degree V6 were Ward’s 10 Best Engines winners in 2005, 2008 and 2009, and this new one already is a two-time awardee for 2013 and 2014. Tested by WardsAuto editors in a 2014 Accord sedan equipped with a 6-speed automatic, it pumps out 278 horsepower and 252 lb-ft (342 Nm) of torque while delivering segment-leading EPA-rated fuel economy of 21/34 mpg (11.2-6.9 L/100 km) city/highway. The most significant difference between this V6 and previous versions is the first-ever marriage of Honda’s intelligent variable-valve timing and lift electronic control (i-VTEC) to variable cylinder management (VCM), which is Honda's clever cylinder-deactivation system. General Motors and Chrysler deactivate intake pushrods to shut down cylinders in their cam-in-block engines during light-load conditions, but Honda was first to use its (patented) zero-lift cam lobe technique to accomplish that in an overhead-cam layout. Honda's i-VTEC hydraulically shifts the camshafts back and forth between two intake valve lobes. The first one optimizes valve timing and lift for low-rpm torque; the second is a high-lift, longer-duration profile for increased power above 5150 rpm. Then this engine's VCM adds a third lobe with a zero-lift profile to the rear-bank cylinders only, which deactivates those three cylinders by keeping their intake valves closed. While Honda's previous-generation VCM shut down two and sometimes three cylinders to save fuel, depending on driving conditions, this new system transitions between 6- and 3-cylinder modes only. And that simplification enables the addition of i-VTEC. Not surprisingly, the top two priorities for the V6 redesign were efficiency and performance, both helped by friction-reduction measures (including molycoating pistons, a new method of cylinder honing), along with integrated exhaust manifolds and a new “tumble-port” cylinder-head design. Perhaps most remarkably, Honda's 3.5-litre V6 engineers have achieved impressive fuel efficiency and output without dual-overhead camshafts or direct fuel injection, which add substantial cost, complexity, mass and package size. See Doc.146020 (Ward's Auto, 28 Aug 2014, 3pp.)



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SPARK IGNITED

CUMMINS ETHANOL 2.8L RESEARCH ENGINE DELIVERS 50-80% REDUCTION IN CO2 EMISSIONS Cummins Last month, Cummins Inc announced that together with the California Energy Commission (CEC) and other industry partners, it has developed an E85 (ethanol 85% and petrol 15%) powered experimental engine and powertrain that is able to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by as much as 80% compared with a baseline petrol-powered medium-duty truck. This engine and drivetrain has been developed as part of project ETHOS, an ultra-low carbon powertrain programme that has been funded jointly by Cummins in partnership with the CEC. To realise the potential of the E85 fuel, the engine, says Cummins, operates at diesel-like cylinders pressures (up to 200 bar) and incorporates unit injectors with advanced spark-ignition technology supplied by Bosch to deliver peak power of 250 hp and peak torque of 450 lb-ft (610 Nm); these figures are the equivalent to the performance of gasoline and diesel engines nearly twice its 2.8-litre displacement, says Cummins. The Cummins ETHOS 2.8-litre engine is matched with the 2000 Series (2550 model) fully automatic transmission from Allison Transmission Holdings Inc. The Allison 2550 transmission features a new integrated stop-start system developed by Allison, which offers further emissions reduction as well as increased fuel economy. Other industry partners involved in the project include Valvoline, which provided NextGen engine oils specifically designed for lower CO2 emissions and Freightliner Custom Chassis, which provided a prototype MT45 Class 5 step-van vehicle. This experimental engine has been designed and built for the fulfilment of the grant project with the CEC; at this point, there is no production intent, says Cummins. See Doc.145981 (Truck & Bus Builder, Aug 2014, p14.)



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APPLICATIONS

Marine

NEW GENERATION LOW SPEED TWO-STROKE ENGINES Wartsila With their best-in-class fuel consumption and excellent reliability, low-speed two-stroke engines will remain the workhorses of world maritime trade for medium vessels to the very largest ships. In preparation for an era of ever bigger containerships, ever tighter emissions regulations and new sizes of vessel due to the enlargement of the Panama Canal, Wartsila has launched a new two-stroke engine Generation. This article is based on Paper 267, CIMAC Congress 2013. Covers – W-X62, W-X72, W-X92, W-X40, W-X35, flex common rail injection, times between overhaul, manufacturing optimisation, service friendliness. See Doc.146002 (MTZ Industrial, 2014, No. 2, pp12-18.)



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FUNCTIONS

Combustion

COMPUTATIONAL STUDY OF REACTIVITY CONTROLLED COMPRESSION IGNITION (RCCI) COMBUSTION IN A HEAVY-DUTY DIESEL ENGINE USING NATURAL GAS University of Windsor and Wisconsin Engine Research Consultants Reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI) combustion employs two fuels with a large difference in auto-ignition properties that are injected at different times to generate a spatial gradient of fuel-air mixtures and reactivity. Researchers have shown that RCCI offers improved fuel efficiency and lower NOx and Soot exhaust emissions when compared to conventional diesel diffusion combustion. The majority of previous research work has been focused on premixed gasoline or ethanol for the low reactivity fuel and diesel for the high reactivity fuel. The increased availability of natural gas (NG) in the US has renewed interest in the application of compressed natural gas (CNG) to heavy-duty (HD) diesel engines in order to realise fuel cost savings and reduce pollutant emissions, while increasing fuel economy. Thus, RCCI using CNG and diesel fuel warrants consideration. A computational study was performed on a 15-litre HD diesel engine to examine trade-offs of pollutant emissions, fuel consumption, peak cylinder pressure and maximum cylinder pressure rise rate. The results from the model indicated that an RCCI combustion strategy had the potential of 17.5% NOx reduction, 78% soot reduction and a 24% decrease in fuel consumption when compared to a conventional diesel combustion strategy using the same air-fuel ratio (AFR) and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rate, at the rated power operating condition. This was attained while meeting peak cylinder pressure and maximum cylinder pressure rise rate constraints. Covers - CFD. See SAE 2014-01-1321 (2014, 10pp.) REACTIVITY CONTROLLED COMPRESSION IGNITION DRIVE CYCLE EMISSIONS AND FUEL ECONOMY ESTIMATIONS USING VEHICLE SYSTEMS SIMULATIONS WITH E30 AND ULSD Oak Ridge National Laboratory In-cylinder blending of gasoline and diesel to achieve reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI) has been shown to reduce NOx and PM emissions while maintaining or improving brake thermal efficiency as compared to conventional diesel combustion (CDC). The RCCI concept has an advantage over many advanced combustion strategies in that the fuel reactivity can be tailored to the engine speed and load allowing stable low-temperature combustion to be extended over more of the light-duty drive cycle load range. However, the current range of the experimental RCCI engine map investigated here does not allow for RCCI operation over the entirety of some drive cycles and may require a multi-mode strategy where the engine switches from RCCI to CDC when speed and load fall outside of the RCCI range. The potential for RCCI to reduce drive cycle fuel economy and emissions is explored here by simulating the fuel economy and emissions for a multi-mode RCCI-enabled vehicle operating over a variety of US drive cycles using experimental engine maps for multi-mode RCCI with E30 and ULSD, CDC and a variety of 2009 port-fuel injected (PFI) gasoline engines ranging from 1.8-litre to 4.0-litre. Simulations are completed assuming a conventional mid-size passenger vehicle with an automatic transmission that is optimised for each engine. RCCI fuel economy simulation results are compared to the same vehicle powered by a representative 2009 PFI gasoline engine over multiple drive cycles and showing at least a 20% improvement in fuel economy over a PFI baseline. Engine-out drive cycle emissions are compared to CDC and observations regarding relative gasoline and diesel tank sizes needed for the various drive cycles are also summarised. See SAE 2014-01-1324 (2014, 11pp, 32 refs.)



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COMPONENTS

Aftertreatment systems

SULEV EMISSIONS FOR PC DIESEL? – AN INTEGRATED APPROACH FOR LOWEST EMISSIONS AVL List and University of Technology, Graz Due to the inherent high efficiency, the Diesel engine plays an important role in the European market. In specific segments, the diesel sales volumes are also increasing in the US market; combining fun to drive and excellent torque with highest efficiency. In order to stay in the market on a long term basis, solutions for SULEV emission achievement have to be developed while at the same time focusing on attractive fuel consumption. In this paper, different aftertreatment systems are evaluated with respect to their capability to achieve the envisaged emission targets and respective efforts needed to assure acceptable warm-up characteristics. Starting up with short term solutions focusing on ULEV50 emission target we also compared two different aftertreatment concepts for SULEV fulfilment. With an eye towards best possible fuel efficiency, operating strategies are also varied in addition to the hardware specification. In the end the chosen system including combustion concept, air- and EGR system and aftertreatment was set up on the test bed. A proper raw emission level combined with a sophisticated operating strategy for the aftertreatment system was calibrated in order to optimise lowest tailpipe emissions with excellent fuel consumption. Besides super low emission performance, such a complex system is also challenging from monitoring perspective. To address this issue, relevant requirements are evaluated in view of the chosen system. Finally the findings of this concept study are summarised and an outlook on the next necessary steps will be given. See vCD 222 02_Weissbaeck_AVL.pdf (SIA Powertrain Conference - The Clean Compression Ignition Engine of the Future, Rouen, France, 21-22 May 2014, 9pp.) COMPREHENSIVE GASOLINE EXHAUST GAS AFTERTREATMENT, AN EFFECTIVE MEASURE TO MINIMIZE THE CONTRIBUTION OF MODERN DIRECT INJECTION ENGINES TO FINE DUST AND SOOT EMISSIONS? Umicore With the growing awareness about the presence of fine/ultra fine particulates in the ambient air and their negative impact on climate and health, some regions of the world have started to look closer at the contribution of road traffic. Since Gasoline engines, in particular when injecting fuel directly into the combustion chamber, proved to emit relevant numbers of particulates, even hardly visible, the growing share of Gasoline DI engines and their small size of particulate emissions is a concern. To address the same, the EU has already set limits for the particulate number with EU6 from 2015 onwards. The US considers setting challenging limits by particulate mass. Since mass of ultra fine particulates is very low and difficult to measure, experts investigate if a measurement by number might better address the particular concern. The implementation of a coated Particulate Filter enables meeting not only basic demands during traditional emission test cycles. Also the particulate emissions during highly transient and high load driving conditions are reduced effectively. During development of coated Gasoline Particulate Filters (GPF), high priority was given to a minimum of pressure drop, to limit the negative impact on maximum power output. With currently proposed solutions, we measured no negative impact on fuel consumption during customer relevant driving conditions. Test results show, that the future particulate emission limits can reliably be met, not only after severe dyno ageing, but over long distance road durability tests as well. Covers - Fuel Consumption Real World Driving. See SAE 2014-01-1513 (2014, 7pp.)



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AMMONIA GENERATION OVER TWC FOR PASSIVE SCR NOX CONTROL FOR LEAN GASOLINE ENGINES Oak Ridge National Laboratory A commercial three-way catalyst (TWC) was evaluated for ammonia (NH3) generation on a 2.0-litre BMW lean burn gasoline direct injection engine as a component in a passive ammonia selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system. The passive NH3 SCR system is a potential low cost approach for controlling nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions from lean burn gasoline engines. In this system, NH3 is generated over a close-coupled TWC during periodic slightly rich engine operation and subsequently stored on an underfloor SCR catalyst. Upon switching to lean, NOx passes through the TWC and is reduced by the stored NH3 on the SCR catalyst. NH3 generation was evaluated at different air-fuel equivalence ratios at multiple engine speed and load conditions. Near complete conversion of NOx to NH3 was achieved at lambda = 0.96 for nearly all conditions studied. At the lambda = 0.96 condition, HC emissions were relatively minimal, but CO emissions were significant. Operation at AFRs richer than lambda = 0.96 did not provide more NH3 yield and led to higher HC and CO emissions. Results of the reductant conversion and consumption processes were used to calculate a representative fuel consumption of the engine operating with an “ideal” passive SCR system. The results show a 1-7% fuel economy benefit at various steady-state engine speed and load points relative to a stoichiometric engine operation. See SAE 2014-01-1505 (2014, 10pp.)

Combustion systems HIGH EFFICIENCY DIESEL COMBUSTION WITH LOW COOLING HEAT LOSS USING RESTRICTED IN-CYLINDER GAS FLOW Toyota and Nippon Soken This paper proposes a new diesel combustion concept that achieves high thermal efficiency without deteriorating emissions. The new combustion is characterized by the reduction of the heat transfer through restriction of in-cylinder gas flow using a zero swirl port, a lip-less shallow dish combustion chamber and a micro multi-hole injector. Generally, restricting the gas flow causes an inadequate mixture of fuel and air. A micro multi-hole injector was adopted to create highly dispersed fuel spray. It reduced the heat flux from the in-cylinder gas to the surface of the combustion chamber wall and improved the cooling heat loss. The total heat flux and radiant heat flux were analysed to further reduce the cooling heat loss. It was found that providing a taper at the upper portion of the combustion chamber reduced the heat flux generated by the reverse squish flow. Our new combustion concept (e.g. low-swirl port, tapered lip-less combustion chamber, and micro multi-hole injector) achieved 5% reduction in fuel consumption compared to conventional combustion, without an emissions penalty. Covers - diffusion combustion. See vCD 222 30_Hashizume_Toyota.pdf (SIA Powertrain Conference - The Clean Compression Ignition Engine of the Future, Rouen, France, 21-22 May 2014, 8pp.)

Cooling systems BENEFITS OF INDIRECT COOLING SYSTEMS IN HEAVY COMMERCIAL VEHICLES Mahle To date, indirect cooling systems have been found primarily in passenger car applications. In commercial vehicles, direct cooling is still widespread today; indirect charge air coolers are used only with two-stage turbocharging concepts. Mahle has investigated the potential of its greater cooling capacity and reduced complexity when integrating additional cooling requirements in commercial vehicles. It was possible to realise fuel consumption savings of 1%. Covers - energy-efficient, dual-circuit cooling system, reduced complexity thanks to the indirect cooling system, effect of indirect cooling systems on cooling capacity, effect of indirect charge air cooling on engine operation, effect of indirect cooling systems on fuel consumption. See Doc.146023 (ATZ Worldwide, Sep 2014, pp26-30.)



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Cranktrains

EFFECT OF PISTON DYNAMIC ON THE WORKING PROCESSES OF AN OPPOSED-PISTON TWO-STROKE FOLDED-CRANKTRAIN ENGINE Beijing Institute of Technology An opposed-piston two-stroke folded-cranktrain diesel engine was studied in this paper. In order to achieve asymmetric scavenging, asymmetric angle between two crank throws were designed. However asymmetric crank-throw angle has direct effect on the piston dynamic, which affects engine performance. This paper investigated the characteristics of the piston dynamic on an opposed-piston two-stroke folded-cranktrain diesel engine; effects of the asymmetric angle on the piston displacement, velocity and acceleration were analysed; further researches were done to studied the effect of piston dynamic on the gas exchange performance and in-cylinder performance. The results show that, larger asymmetric angle is positive for the scavenging efficiency but negative for combustion. The 8.5° CA asymmetric angle showed better fuel economy and IMEP due to better mix and combustion at 2200 r/min, while the 6° CA asymmetric angle showed better fuel economy and IMEP due to better scavenging efficiency at 1000 r/min. See SAE 2014-01-1628 (2014, 9pp)

Cylinder deactivation CYLINDER DEACTIVATION: A TECHNOLOGY WITH A FUTURE OR A NICHE APPLICATION? Schaeffler One of the ways manufacturers can minimize fuel consumption is to downsize the engines they offer. A cylinder’s volume can only be restricted to a certain extent, however, if the thermodynamically ideal volumetric capacity of 400 to 500 cm³ per cylinder is to be retained. In practice, downsizing therefore frequently leads to a reduction in the number of cylinders. “Temporary downsizing” in the form of cylinder deactivation offers an attractive compromise, since this allows an engine to shift its operating mode to achieve the specific consumption figures it is rated for, especially when low loads and operating speeds are encountered. At the same time, the driver still has a sufficiently powerful engine at his or her disposal that ensures the same level of driving pleasure and comfort with regard to acoustics and vibration characteristics. An additional key success factor that can help this technology to be deployed in a more mainstream fashion is that it can be integrated into existing engine concepts at acceptable costs. Covers – deactivation mode, alternating cylinder deactivation, switch over mode, valve stroke deactivation, deactivation via switchable elements, finger followers, deactivation via a cam sliding system, cylinder deactivation via UniAir. Table gives examples of engine concepts featuring cylinder deactivation from General Motors, Daimler, Chrysler, Honda, AMG and Volkswagen. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquium_2014_11_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 8pp.)

EGR LOW PRESSURE COOLED EGR FOR IMPROVED FUEL ECONOMY ON A TURBOCHARGED PFI GASOLINE ENGINE Great Wall Engine R&D Center Downsizing is regarded as a promising strategy to reduce the fuel consumption of gasoline engines. But downsized turbocharged engines need to take knocking into account to avoid engine damage. Low Pressure (LP) cooled exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is an effective suppressant of knocking at boosted high load and EGR could reduce pumping loss at low loads. Both of them are helpful to improve fuel economy. In the research, a LP cooled EGR system is added to a 1.5-litre turbocharged PFI production



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gasoline engine and the compression ratio is changed from 9.3 to 11.5. The results show that the fuel reduction is 4.5% at 2000 rpm 5 bar (20% EGR ratio) and 9.7% at 3000 rpm 10 bar (20% EGR ratio) compared with no EGR case. But at boosted high loads the fuel consumption is almost same to the production engine due to high compression ratio which results in severe knocking. In order to further reduce fuel consumption, the engine is operated in lean burn conditions. As we know, the lean operation could decrease NOx conversion efficiency of three-way catalytic (TWC), but the EGR could substantially reduce the emission of NOx. Maybe we can sacrifice conversion efficiency for better fuel economy. The result shows that the fuel consumption is further reduced 3.8% compared to the stoichiometric operation at 2000 rpm 5 bar in the lean operation. See SAE 2014-01-1240 (2014, 11pp.)

Fuel injection systems BREAKING THE ICE - HEINZMANN SUCCESSFULLY CARRIES OUT ITS FIRST COMMON RAIL INJECTION RETROFIT ON A MARINE PROPULSION ENGINE Heinzmann As purpose-built ships that navigate through ice-covered water, icebreakers need the power to push through sea ice in a typical push-pull motion. The Swedish Maritime Administration (SMA), which operates several icebreakers in the Baltic Sea, found that these frequent and fast load changes result in a relatively high fuel consumption and smoke value for many of these vessels. For this reason, the SMA contracted with engine management specialist Heinzmann for a retrofit project to upgrade the engines in its icebreaker fleet to common rail fuel injection. The project began with the retrofit of one engine on an icebreaker equipped with five Pielstick PC 2.2 propulsion engines, each generating 3.5 MW. All the engines are 40 years old and are utilized in parallel — from two to five engines — depending on the output requirement. The first engine was retrofitted and commissioned in December 2013. Hubert Kienzler, Heinzmann’s product manager – Common Rail systems, was responsible for the project and reported that the retrofit was carried out in 10 days and did not require major modifications to the engine itself. “We were surprised with the very good results on the smoke values,”Kienzler said. “The black smoke disappeared completely and, compared to the original hydraulic governor, we determined a much better transient behaviour. Results on the measurements of filter smoke number (FSN) have shown a reduction from 0.6 to 0.1 with the engine in full load, and from 1.0 to 0.3 in part load. ”Kienzler added that the NOx values in the exhaust gases, predictably, were not improved. “We expect the NOx values prescribed by IMO Tier 2 to be reached with an exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) system and no additional exhaust aftertreatment,” Kienzler said. The installation of an EGR system will be the next step for this first trial engine, the company said. The other important result of the common rail retrofit during field tests was a fuel savings of higher than 7% compared to the former operation. See Doc.145982 (Diesel & Gas Turbine Worldwide, Jul/Aug 2014, pp32-34.) DELPHI NEW DIESEL COMMON RAIL INJECTOR FAMILY Delphi Car manufacturers around the world are facing the significant market challenges of meeting strict governmental emissions regulations and fuel economy standards while delivering the performance that consumers demand. Building on the successes already achieved and the extensive experience in the global market, Delphi continues to develop next-generation technologies to meet these demands, including a new family of injectors, fuel pumps, Engine Control Unit (ECU) and rails for light and medium-duty applications to better fit customer requirements. This new family of fuel injection equipment (FIE) offers improved performance through increased multiple injection optimization, leakage reduction and injection pressure increase up to 2500 bar, translating into better injection control and better combustion, thus reducing fuel consumption, CO2 and other emissions. This paper describes the approach Delphi utilised to develop the new injector family and outlines the innovative features included.



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The new solenoid injector family is composed of three injectors with a modular design. A key feature is a common outline design to facilitate installation in an engine family presenting different performance levels. To support the engine output, the internal features of the injector are adjustable. This new family of technologies is being launched starting with the DFI 1.20 injector on a completely new engine this year. Covers - High Pressure, DFI 1.20, DFI 1.22, DFI 4.22/25 injectors. See vCD 222 40_Bercher_Delphi.pdf and 40_Bercher_Delphi slides.pdf (SIA Powertrain Conference - The Clean Compression Ignition Engine of the Future, Rouen, France, 21-22 May 2014, Paper - 8pp, Slides - 14pp.) BEYOND EURO VI – AN FIE SYSTEM AND COMBUSTION OPTIMISATION APPROACH Delphi Beyond Euro VI the outlook for legislative demands for further NOx and soot reduction is unclear, but fuel consumption looks set to take centre stage as the key driver for truck technology development. Increased focus on efficiency and fuel consumption is once again pushing development of Fuel Injection Equipment (FIE) for improved combustion efficiency and reduced parasitic losses. This paper summarises results from the key developments that have enabled Delphi to demonstrate potential future Heavy Duty FIE functional requirements, based on in-house single-cylinder and multicylinder engine test activities. Covers - Ultra-high pressure, pulsed multiple injection, rate shape, pilot injection. See vCD 222 29_Keeler_Delphi.pdf (SIA Powertrain Conference - The Clean Compression Ignition Engine of the Future, Rouen, France, 21-22 May 2014, 10pp.)

Pistons HIGH-TECH STEEL PISTONS FOR ADDED EFFICIENCY Mercedes-Benz Mercedes-Benz is the first to replace the hitherto conventional aluminium pistons in passenger car diesel engines with a new high-tech generation of pistons made of steel. The advantages they bring, when combined with the innovative NANOSLIDE cylinder bore coating technology, include even lower fuel consumption and even lower CO2 emissions. Steel and aluminium have significantly different characteristics: steel expands less than aluminium when hot, conducts heat less well and is simply heavier. At first glance, this would seem to make the combination of aluminium housing and steel pistons tricky. Notwithstanding this situation, the Mercedes-Benz engineers discovered opportunities for the future by using the apparent differences between the properties of the respective materials to their best advantage. They exploited the fact that a steel piston only expands with heat to about a quarter of the extent of its aluminium equivalent to fit the steel piston more tightly within the aluminium housing, with the effect that it sits very snugly in the cylinder bore. However, as the temperature rises during operation of the engine, the aluminium housing expands more than the steel piston – and the result is greater tolerance of the piston within the cylinder and thus less friction. As the piston/cylinder assembly alone causes between 40 and 50 percent of the mechanical friction, the potential for efficiency revealed here was significant. Covers - V6 diesel engine of the Mercedes-Benz E 350 BlueTEC, lower thermal conductivity of steel, ignition quality, combustion duration. See Electronic Document 7010 (Stuttgart, Germany; Mercedes-Benz, 11 Aug 2014, Press release, 6pp.) PASSENGER CAR DIESEL ENGINE WITH STEEL PISTON Renault Increasing pressure on CO2 reduction and actual consumption for customers led to find technological solutions within the frame of forthcoming emission regulation. The steel piston has



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been applied for a long time on truck Diesel engines. After deep investigations on combustion, friction and reliability, Renault has decided to introduce this technology on a mass production engine. This development was completed in close cooperation with a major automotive supplier and the steel piston will be introduced on a 1.5-litre Diesel engine for Passenger Cars. The aim of this paper is to explain design, combustion and friction impacts resulting in better efficiency and CO2 emission reduction. See vCD 222 22_Hollemaert_Renault.pdf (SIA Powertrain Conference - The Clean Compression Ignition Engine of the Future, Rouen, France, 21-22 May 2014, 6pp.)

Valve trains DEVELOPING COMBUSTING ENGINES FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF A SUPPLIER Schaeffler At the end of 2013, the European Union agreed new CO2 limits. As of 2020, these specify fleet emission values of 95 grams of CO2. This figure corresponds to a consumption of approximately 3.6 l/100 km for diesel vehicles and 4.1 l/100 km for gasoline-operated vehicles. Despite increasing electrification, engineers across the entire automotive industry will focus on optimizing the combustion engine for many years to come and for a number of reasons. Covers – potential for efficiency enhancement, reducing pumping losses, dethrottling, closing the intake valves early (EIVO) or late (LIVC), camshaft phasers, camshaft phase control, switching elements that vary the lift of individual valves, fully variable valve train, UniAir electrohydraulic valve train system, reducing friction losses. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquium_2014_03_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 7pp.) GET READY FOR THE COMBUSTION STRATEGIES OF TOMORROW Schaeffler In the future, internal combustion engines will have to fulfil increasingly stringent requirements with regard to carbon dioxide emissions and exhaust pollutants, and this means a decisive role for the valve train: On the one hand, it should be designed in such a way that the losses occurring during the charge cycle are low, and on the other hand it creates the prerequisite for the best possible mixture preparation in the cylinder and thus a combustion process that provides optimum efficiency and low emissions. In addition, the valve timing directly influences the combustion process by way of the compression, which is adjustable within limits, and the residual gas in the cylinder. The variability of valve trains has therefore increased dramatically in the last few years. Two basic approaches for a higher degree of variability must be observed in this context: 1. The temporal shifting of the valve lift curve using camshaft phasing 2. The variation of the valve lift curve in terms of the lift height and the opening and closing point, and thus of the resulting opening period. Covers – development level of UniAir, applications for gasoline engines, UniAir for diesel engines, supporting future combustion processes, cylinder deactivation, homogeneous charge compression ignition. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquium_2014_12_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 7pp.)



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TRANSMISSIONS AND DRIVELINES THE FUTURE OF THE MANUAL TRANSMISSION Schaeffler The internal combustion engine will continue to be the dominating force behind individual mobility for some time to come. The biggest challenge in this context, however, revolves around lowering fuel consumption in line with ever more stringent legal requirements while at the same time maintaining driving comfort and pleasure. All aspects of the engine and transmission must be revisited with equal attention, whereby driving strategies that minimize consumption are key to achieving designated performance targets. To improve on these aspects, the transmission must be further automated and coupled with electrification measures. The conventional manual transmission is therefore coming under pressure and runs the risk of being "overrun" by other designs at least in the developed markets. On the other hand, manual transmissions remain attractive for cost reasons and may continue to play a key role in the future if a way is found to develop systems that also enable “sailing“ and other efficient drive modes to be achieved in vehicles equipped with a standard transmission. Adopting a partially automated setup for the manual transmission would also open the door to integrating comfort, convenience, and safety-oriented functions without additional cost. Fuel consumption could then be further reduced by opting for longer gear ratios, for example. Misuse, or abuse of the clutch, causing it to overheat, can be reliably prevented thanks to the partially automated setup. Covers – electronic clutch management system, clutch-by-wire, hydraulic clutch actuator, MTplus – Partially automated alternative, centrifugal pendulum absorber, vibration isolation, spring-mass system – Principle of the dual-mass flywheel, the spring-mass absorber, the summation damper. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquium_2014_04_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 11pp.) MODULAR ELECTRIC AXLE DRIVE IN A 48-VOLT ON-BOARD ELECTRIC SYSTEM Schaeffler Plug-in hybrid vehicles are increasingly appearing on the market, whose batteries can be charged using public or private power supply systems. The driving performance required from these vehicles requires relatively high levels of electric power with low space requirements. At the Schaeffler Symposium 2010, Schaeffler presented a technical solution for these vehicles with the first generation of the so-called “active electric differential”. Schaeffler has been consistently developing the electric axle drive ever since. The third generation currently being tested is matched to the topology of a plug-in hybrid vehicle with a front mounted engine and front-wheel drive. The drive unit is still designed to be fitted coaxially in the rear axle and is characterised by the following features: Water-cooled electric motors in hybrid design (permanently excited synchronous motors with a high proportion of reluctance) are used. These meet automotive-specific requirements in contrast to the industrial motors used in the first generation. The transmission is still in planetary design and now has two ratio stages. The drive unit has increased power density and a modular design so that traction and active torque distribution can be offered as separate functions. Covers - active torque distribution. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquium_2014_14_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 6pp.) TURNING NEW DIRECTIONS: SURPRISING POTENTIAL IN PLANETARY TRANSMISSIONS - PART 1: PLANETARY GEAR SET Schaeffler The automotive industry and suppliers have implemented numerous innovations with the objective of reducing the CO2 emissions of individual transport. Examples are general lightweight designs and optimisations to the exhaust gas system as well as numerous detailed solutions for engine



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technology. For many years, transmission technology has also been contributing to the continuous reduction of fuel consumption and emissions. This has usually been accompanied by an increase in the number of gears. With the increased number of gears, the number of planetary gear sets in automatic transmissions also tended to be increased. This trend was not linear in relation to the number of gears due to the intelligent control of the flows of force. The design envelope of the transmission, however, remained the same. The individual transmission components therefore had to become smaller and more compact. This requirement often created special challenges for the design and dimensioning of components. At the same time, the requirements for the materials and manufacturing technologies used have increased. Schaeffler has been able to make significant contributions to reducing emissions and fuel consumption by continuously optimising planet gear bearings and axial needle roller bearings. Recent analyses have shown that even inconspicuous new developments can offer great potential. The most recent example is the new axial needle roller bearing support for planet gears. This development is considered a first in rolling bearing technology and can contribute to reducing CO2 emissions by up to 1 g/km with low additional costs. Covers – power losses, reducing frictional power, planet gear bearings in general, cage design, coating, planet gear design, latest findings from axial bearing supports for planet gears. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquium_2014_18_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 7pp.) INFLUENCE OF DRIVETRAIN COMPONENTS ON CO2-EMISSIONS OF MOBILE MACHINERY – AN INTEGRATED DRIVE TRAIN INVESTIGATION INCLUDING POWER LOSSES ZF Friedrichshafen Agenda: Introduction Diversity of mobile machinery and legislation for different vehicles Calculation model/methodologies and different driving/working cycles Fuel consumption/performance calculation and boundary potential - Step-Transmission for a construction machinery - Stepless-Transmission for an agricultural machinery - Integrated drivetrain investigation and driving strategies Summary: Currently no legal driving/working cycles defined and obligatory for mobile machinery FC-simulation of whole working process is much more complex than driving only CO2 strongly dependent on driving cycle and working process Assessment and evaluation of fuel consumption and performance is a very challenging mission ZF is able to indicate every single loss in complete drivetrain and can identify cost-effective tasks Integrated drivetrain investigation can lead to further CO2-Reduction, drivetrain contains different possibilities Besides drivetrain improvements towards CO2-Reduction also other technologies, e.g. tyre pressure regulation should be taken into consideration Reducing CO2 always makes the drivetrain/vehicle more expensive The complete working process should be taken into consideration Diversity of NRMM makes it necessary to have different types of drivetrains/transmissions. Covers - 5WG-Transmission (Dropbox) for backhoe loader, Front and rear axles, ECCOM transmission. See vCD 221 Volpert_Bastian.pdf (IQPC 4th International Conference Next Generation Off-Highway Engines, Cologne, Germany, 16-18 Jun 2014, 23pp.) RESEARCH ON NEW FUELS TO UNLOCK THE POTENTIAL OF FUTURE COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINES Aramco IFP Energies nouvelles Saudi Aramco is establishing a vast R&D program in the field of fuel technology to promote the responsible use of petroleum in transport. In this context, Saudi Aramco has established a new fuel



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research centre in collaboration with IFP Energies nouvelles. This centre focuses on developing new cost-effective fuel/engine system solutions that consider CO2 emissions reduction on a life-cycle basis. One of the first programs pursued through this joint R&D effort will aim at demonstrating, in collaboration with PSA Peugeot Citroen, the potential of fuels in the naphtha range, on a compression ignition engine equipped with the least necessary technology to comply with the most stringent pollutant emissions regulations, especially under World harmonised Light duty driving Test Cycle (WLTC) without an NOx after treatment system, while achieving attractive CO2 benefits. This program is motivated by the projected world energy demand for transport shift toward middle distillates (especially diesel and kerosene) as the result of a growing commercial transport sector. See vCD 222 28_Morel_Aramco.pdf and 28_Morel_Aramco slides.pdf (SIA Powertrain Conference - The Clean Compression Ignition Engine of the Future, Rouen, France, 21-22 May 2014, Paper - 10pp, Slides - 22pp.) HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATOR IN TRANSMISSION CONTROLS Freudenberg Sealing Technologies Dual clutch transmissions offering disruption-free traction are in the portfolio of all well-known car manufacturers. Freudenberg Sealing Technologies developed a light hydraulic accumulator to ensure that hydraulic actuations are as efficient as possible even at peak demand. Investigations have shown that this accumulator makes it possible to gear components, such as the hydraulic pump for actuators, to reduced fuel consumption. The hydraulic accumulator needs only about a sixth of energy of a conventional constant pump. Thus, the CO2 emission is reduced by up to 4 g/km. See Doc.146027 (ATZ Worldwide, Sep 2014, pp54-57.)



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ALTERNATIVE POWERTRAINS

HYBRID CONCEPT LAYOUT AND SYSTEM SIMULATION OF A 48-V DIESEL HYBRID AVL Schrick, Hyundai and AVL List As a study by Hyundai and AVL shows, a 48-V mild hybrid system with a diesel engine can be used not only to improve driving enjoyment but also to reduce fuel consumption. The key success factor is a comprehensive system approach that includes all components of the powertrain. Covers - Valeo Electric Supercharger (VES), belt-starter-generator system (BSG), Energy Storage device, UltraBattery lead acid battery, CO2 reduction. See Doc.145945 (MTZ Worldwide, Sep 2014, pp26-30.) PREDICTIVE OPTIMIZATION OF THE OPERATING STRATEGY IN FUTURE VOLKSWAGEN VEHICLES Volkswagen and TU-Braunschweig This publication introduces a method for optimisation of plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV) operating strategies. Due to its structure, the algorithm presented can be applied to various powertrain dimensions and concepts. Besides reducing CO2 emission it also increases the overall distance travelled using the electric drive, thereby increasing the driver’s electric driving experience. This is illustrated using simulation as well as real world measurement data. A special feature of the system currently being developed is its driver interface. During optimisation by the operating strategy it can assist the driver in adapting his driving behaviour, thus increasing potential for reduced CO2 emission and cost of operation. Covers - Human Machine Interaction (HMI). See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp133-142 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.) DEVELOPMENT OF POWER MANAGEMENT STRATEGY USING DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING FOR BSG MILD HEV Hua-Chuang Automotive Information Technology Center (HAITEC) An optimised power management strategy for Belt-Starter Generator (BSG) mild hybrid system is proposed and used to study its benefit of fuel economy on a 2.2-litre turbo engine. First, a cost function is defined as fuel and battery power consumptions. In order to obtain an optimal fuel economy of BSG, Dynamic Programming (DP) optimisation approach is employed to minimise the defined cost function over New European Driving Cycle (NEDC). A nonlinear vehicle dynamics simulation model is established using Matlab/Simulink. Experimental data are utilised to verify the nonlinear model. Since the detailed simulation model is not suitable for the DP due to its large number of states, a simplified dynamic model is developed in this paper. An optimised power management strategy is extracted by analysing the results of DP and is evaluated using NEDC. Preliminary simulation results show that the proposed strategy presents lower fuel consumption than that of the conventional strategy by about 11.4%. See SAE 2014-01-1811 (2014, 8pp.) ELECTRIC DRIVE SYSTEM FOR SPORT HYBRID SH-AWD Honda We have developed the new Sport Hybrid SH-AWD system, a hybrid system that provides best in class fuel economy and driveability to exceed customer expectations. The powertrain has a V6 engine and comes with three drive type modes: front wheel drive powered by a 7-speed dual clutch transmission with one built-in motor, rear wheel drive powered by a twin motor unit with two built-in motors, and all-wheel drive powered by a combination of the two. The system can automatically select the most efficient drive method for the driver's needs and the



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road conditions. The two motors built into the twin motor unit are individually controlled and torque vectoring is used to create a torque difference between the left and right tyres, improving the turning performance. The electric drive system was developed with consideration for layout feasibility and quietness. The two motors built into the twin motor unit and the inverter that drives the motors have been newly developed. By installing this system in the 2015 model year RLX, we achieved engine performance equivalent to a car with a V8 engine at 0-60 mph in 5.4 sec and fuel economy equivalent to a car with an L4 engine at 30 mpg. See SAE 2014-01-1821 (2014, 8pp.) OPTIMIZATION OF THE LAYOUT AND CONTROL STRATEGY FOR PARALLEL THROUGH-THE-ROAD HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES Politecnico di Torino This paper describes the optimisation of the layout and of the control strategy of through-the-road (TTR) parallel hybrid electric vehicles equipped with two compression-ignition engines that feature different values of maximum output power. First, a tool has been developed to define the optimal layout of each TTR vehicle. This is based on the minimisation of the powertrain and fuel cost over a 10-year time span, taking into account the fuel consumption. Several performance requirements are guaranteed during the optimisation, namely maximum vehicle velocity, 0-100 km/h acceleration time, gradeability and the all-electric range. A benchmark optimiser that is based on the dynamic programming theory has been developed to identify the optimal working mode and the gear number, which are the control variables of the problem. A mathematical technique, based on the pre-processing of a configuration matrix, has been developed in order to speed up the calculation time. After the layout optimisation, the potential of the two identified hybrid vehicles in improving the fuel economy, compared with the conventional vehicle, has been analysed and discussed over several driving missions, i.e. the New European Driving Cycle, the Artemis Urban Driving Cycle, the Artemis Rural Driving Cycle, the Artemis Motorway Driving Cycle and the Federal Test Procedure. The contributions related to the vehicle electrification and to the control strategy were identified separately. Finally, a real-time optimiser has also been developed, which is based on the instantaneous maximisation of an equivalent powertrain efficiency. See SAE 2014-01-1798 (2014, 17pp.)



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COMPONENTS

Batteries

OPTIMIZING LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES - TAILORING ELECTRODES FOR MICROHYBRID VEHICLE APPLICATIONS Johnson Controls Power Solutions Design of batteries for automotive applications requires a careful balance between vehicle requirements - as driven by automakers - and cost. Typically, for batteries, the goal is to meet the most stringent requirement at a competitive cost. The real challenge in doing so is understanding how the battery-level requirements vary with changes in the vehicle, powertrain, and drive cycle. In this work, we consider the relationship between vehicle-level and battery-level requirements of microhybrid vehicles and their linkage with battery design. These vehicle platforms demand high-power pulses for impractical durations - over 60 seconds on some drive cycles. We demonstrate a method for optimising the battery design for fuel economy against any specific drive cycle, whether regulatory, consumer, or otherwise. This method allows for a high degree of customisation against manufacturer or consumer value. Electrochemical modelling and vehicle modelling, coupled with experimental validation, is used to investigate the effects of key battery design parameters - such as particle size and coating thickness - on the energy and power capability of lithium ion batteries. See SAE 2014-01-1836 (2014, 12pp.)



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APPLICATIONS

Buses

STUDY ON OPTIMIZATION OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING CONTROL STRATEGY IN HEAVY-DUTY DIESEL ENGINE CITY BUS USING PNEUMATIC HYBRID TECHNOLOGY Loughborough University Recovering the braking energy and reusing it can significantly improve the fuel economy of a vehicle which is subject to frequent braking events such as a city bus. As one way to achieve this goal, pneumatic hybrid technology converts kinetic energy to pneumatic energy by compressing air into tanks during braking, and then reuses the compressed air to power an air starter to realise a regenerative Stop-Start function. Unlike the pure electric or hybrid electric passenger car, the pneumatic hybrid city bus uses the rear axle to achieve regenerative braking function. In this paper we discuss research into the blending of pneumatic regenerative braking and mechanical frictional braking at the rear axle. The aim of the braking function is to recover as much energy as possible and at the same time distribute the total braking effort between the front and rear axles to achieve stable braking performance. This paper presents an analysis of vehicle behaviour through different bus drive cycles and during braking events and compares two configurations of pneumatic hybrid braking system. The respective configurations, a parallel hybrid brake system and a fully controllable hybrid brake system, are described and the control strategy presented and discussed. Finally the fully controllable hybrid braking system is chosen as the main topic for further research. A pneumatic hybrid braking optimisation simulation model has been built in the MATLAB/Simulink to facilitate an investigation of an optimum air tank pressure for energy recovery. Based on the optimisation result, a new control strategy is implemented with a baseline simulation model to explore the benefits of the new control strategy. The results demonstrate that the energy recovery efficiency can be enhanced relative to the baseline vehicle performance and the pneumatic hybrid technology can significantly reduce the fuel consumption of city bus. See SAE 2014-01-1807 (2014, 10pp.)



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FUELS AND LUBRICANTS IMPACT OF FAME ON THE PERFORMANCE OF THREE EURO 4 LIGHT-DUTY DIESEL VEHICLES PART 1: FUEL CONSUMPTION AND REGULATED EMISSIONS CONCAWE and Aristotle University of Thessaloniki By 2020, EU legislation will require that 10% of the total transport fuel energy demand is met by the use of renewable energy, primarily by blending bio-components. Although many types of blending components for diesel fuels are being considered to achieve this requirement, Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME) are the most likely to be used in significant volumes over the coming decade. FAME products have been used in Europe for many years, both as blends and as neat fuels, in certain niche markets. One unanswered question concerning FAME/diesel fuel blends is the effect of FAME on fuel consumption. Since FAME has a slightly lower energy content compared to hydrocarbon-only fuels, a higher volumetric fuel consumption is expected unless the vehicle is able to compensate in some way for the energy loss associated with the bio-component in diesel fuel. To answer this question, Concawe completed a vehicle study in which four diesel fuel blends with FAME (as Rapeseed Methyl Ester (RME)) were tested in three Euro 4 light-duty passenger cars, each equipped with different after-treatment technologies. The FAME contents of these fuels varied from 0% to 50% v/v in order to accentuate the effect of FAME on the energy content of the blended diesel fuels. The programme was statistically designed to give a robust and repeatable testing schedule so that fuel consumption and tailpipe emissions data could be reliably collected over regulatory and transient driving cycles. The vehicle study was conducted for Concawe by the Laboratory for Applied Thermodynamics of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. Fuel consumption data for all three vehicles over all driving cycles show that the volumetric fuel consumption increases in direct proportion with increasing FAME content and the decreasing volumetric lower heating value (energy content) of the FAME/diesel fuel blends. There was no detectable change in the energy efficiency of the vehicles on different fuel blends and they were not able to compensate for the lower energy content of the FAME/diesel blends through improved performance. Increasing the FAME content also reduced the PM but increased the NOx, HC, and CO emissions. The overall impact of FAME on tailpipe emissions was small when compared to the variations in emissions seen for different driving cycles and for different vehicles over the same driving cycle. No significant difference in emissions performance was observed for the two types of Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) aftertreatment systems that were tested in these vehicles. It is expected that these results will be of importance to those interested in the impact of FAME in diesel fuel on Well-to-Wheels fuel consumption and on tailpipe emissions from modern light-duty passenger cars. See Electronic Document 7014 for Part 2. See Electronic Document 7015 (Brussels, Belgium; CONCAWE, May 2014, Report No. 6/14, 97pp, 29 refs.) RENEWABLE FUELS: LOOKING AHEAD TO 2020 It is widely recognised that mobility and transport are fundamental to satisfy socio-economic needs and curbing mobility is not an option. Demand for mobility and transport services is expected to continue growing in Europe until 2050, while at the same time a reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the sector of 60% compared to 1990 level is targeted. As part of an ongoing strategy to address GHG emissions and energy use from transport, the European Union in 2009 enacted a package of regulations and directives intended to reduce GHG emissions from the transport sector. These included required improvements in the CO2 emissions performance of passenger vehicles and light-duty vans, as well as the increasing use of renewable and alternative energies in transport fuels before the end of this decade. At the same time, there will be increased attention on even tighter limits for regulated pollutants. Legislation for new refuelling infrastructures for alternative fuels are expected to encourage greater diversification in both vehicles and fuels.



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Two of these Directives are changing the composition of road fuels over the coming decade and beyond. The 2009 Renewable Energy Directive (RED) mandates a 10% share of renewable energy in transport by 2020. At the same time as the 2009 RED was enacted, the Fuel Quality Directive (FQD) mandated that fuel suppliers must also reduce the GHG intensity of transport fuels by 6% in 2020 compared to a 2010 baseline. Although efficiency improvements in the fuel manufacturing process can contribute to meeting this target, the growing and increasingly disparate gasoline and diesel demand means that the majority of this GHG performance improvement must be achieved through biofuel blending. Covers - The 2011 JEC Biofuels Programme, The 2013 JEC Biofuels Study update. Table shows - Main characteristics of legislative concepts for the RED and FQD amendment. See Electronic Document 7018 (Concawe Review, Spring 2014, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp26-30.) PARAMETRIC STUDY OF USING TRANSESTERIFIED BIODIESEL IN A DIESEL ENGINE Ain Shams University The spray comparative tests on diesel/biodiesel–ethanol blends revealed that the spray tip penetration increases by a range from 4.4 to 21.5%, while the spray cone angle decreases by a range between 33.2 and 50.0% upon switching from diesel to biodiesel. Using biodiesel has an impact on the spray angle that is stronger than that on the penetration length. It was found that in order to minimise the relative reduction in the spray angle upon using a 50% petroleum diesel/50% biodiesel blend (B50), injectors of larger spray angles should be used, while no significant changes were found by adding ethanol to the diesel/biodiesel blends. The emission tests on a single-cylinder naturally aspirated direct injection diesel engine showed that although the brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) increased upon switching from diesel to biodiesel, the unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions decreased. Upon blending ethanol with the diesel/biodiesel mixture, the HC emissions decreased by a relative percent as high as 26.6%, while the percentage of decrease in CO reached 10.8% by increasing the injection pressure from 55 to 95 MPa. Adding biodiesel to diesel increased the nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions due to the increased oxygen availability. Upon approaching the full load, the correspondingly reduced ignition delay resulted in earlier combustion and higher peak temperatures where an average turbulent kinetic energy of about 320 m²/s² has been predicted. The NOx emissions were effectively reduced upon adding ethanol to the diesel/biodiesel blend due to the higher latent heat of evaporation of ethanol. Combining the retardation in the injection timing from -25 to -5° crank angle with the exhaust gas recirculation of 15% effectively reduced the NOx emissions to be below 2.6 g/kW.h. Covers - pressure rise due to combustion and rate of heat release (ROHR). See Doc.145957 (IMechE Proceedings Part A, Journal of Power & Energy, Sep 2014, Vol. 228, No. 6, pp674-687, 42 refs.) EVALUATION OF EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF BLEND OF ALGAE OIL METHYL ESTER WITH DIESEL IN A MEDIUM CAPACITY DIESEL ENGINE Delhi Technological University Primary energy sources can be divided into non-renewable and renewable. The over-exploration of non-renewable sources for energy availability imposes considerable impacts on the environment. Reducing the use of fossil fuels would significantly reduce the carbon dioxide emissions and other pollutants produced. The future drift for sustainable production of renewable energy is cautiously thoughtful for it has been increasingly understood that first generation biofuels, majorly produced from food crops that are limited in their ability to achieve targets for biofuel production, climate change mitigation and economic growth. These concerns have increased the interest in developing second generation biofuels produced from non-edible feedstock such as microalgae, which potentially offers greatest opportunities in the longer term. Microalgae are considered a very promising feedstock for biodiesel production due to their very high yield and their no competition with food crops. This research paper examines the potential suitability of biodiesel made from microalgae of Indian origin. In the present investigation, three different blends of algae oil methyl ester (AOME) of 10%, 15% and 20% by volume with fossil diesel were tested on single-cylinder water cooled medium capacity diesel engine. During the investigation, significant reduction in brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), unburned hydrocarbon (UBHC), carbon monoxide (CO), and



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smoke was observed. However, the emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) increased significantly. Hence, it can be concluded that diesel fuel can be successfully blended with algae biodiesel to decrease dependency on fossils through promising performance characteristics without any prior engine modification. See SAE 2014-01-1378 (2014, 8pp, 29 refs.) DOES MAGNETIC FUEL TREATMENT AFFECT ENGINE'S PERFORMANCE? Benha University The effect of magnetic field has attracted many researchers to investigate the impact of this type of force on different applications such as combustion and water. Different systems supported by many patents were introduced to the market to treat these applications. In the present study, a series of experiments were conducted to explore the impact of magnetic fuel treatment on engine performance. The magnetic field was produced from two different sources based on permanent and electromagnetic coils. Two engines with different configurations were used. Three fuels were tested, gasoline and diesel as liquid fuels and natural gas as a gaseous fuel. Vast numbers of experiments at different operating conditions were conducted on the two engines. Fuel consumption, output power, and exhaust emissions were analysed under the exposure of magnetic field. Gasoline was the most affected fuel while other fuels showed less or negligible effect. Magnetic field strength was a key parameter to have any impact on engine performance. Promising results were obtained evidenced by the reduction in engine fuel consumption and main pollutants. See SAE 2014-01-1398 (2014, 10pp, 35 refs.) ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECT OF LOW VISCOSITY OILS USAGE ON A LIGHT DUTY DIESEL ENGINE FUEL CONSUMPTION IN STATIONARY AND TRANSIENT CONDITIONS Universitat Politecnica de Valencia Regarding the global warming due to CO2 emissions, the crude oil depletion and its corresponding rising prices, OEMs are exploring different solutions to increase the internal combustion engine efficiency, among which, the use of Low Viscosity Oils (LVO) represents one attractive cost-effective way to accomplish this goal. Reported in terms of fuel consumption, the effect of LVO is round 2%, depending on the test conditions, especially if the test has taken place in laboratory or “on road” conditions. This study presents the fuel consumption benefits of a commercial 5W20, compared against higher SAE grade oils, on a light duty diesel engine, when it is running under motored test, stationary fired test and the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC). See Doc.146007 (Tribology International, Nov 2014, pp132-139.) THREE ROUTES FORWARD FOR BIOFUELS - INCREMENTAL, TRANSITIONAL, AND LEAPFROG University of California, Davis Large quantities of low carbon fuels will likely be needed to meet the world’s increasing levels of travel and need to achieve climate change goals. For example, electricity and hydrogen appear to be potentially attractive fuels for light duty vehicles, but these energy carriers may not be suitable for aviation, shipping or long haul trucking. Biofuels made from non-food sources such as agricultural, municipal, and forest waste, high yielding cellulosic crops, and algae are potentially important low-carbon liquid fuel options. Despite billions of dollars invested over the last decade in these advanced biofuels, the jump from labs and small demonstrations to commercial-scale operations is proceeding slowly. Progress is being made, however, at many existing commercial biorefineries to incrementally lower the carbon intensity of fuels; these facilities are improving efficiencies and adding new process fuels, as well as expanding into small scale cellulosic production using existing infrastructure and feedstock supply logistics. This white paper characterizes the complex landscape of biofuels into three routes: (1) an Incremental route in which progress happens at existing biorefineries, (2) a Transitional route in which “bolt-on” equipment leverages existing production facilities to process small amounts of cellulosic material, gaining experience; and (3) a Leapfrog route that focuses on major



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technological breakthroughs in cellulosic and algae-based pathways at new, stand-alone biorefineries. There is a tradeoff between investment risk today and carbon emissions reductions in the future. We examine how the industry is developing over time in terms of technologies and finances. Since 2007, investments in the Leapfrog route have averaged $1.9 billion per year from federal, private equity, and corporate backers. Incremental and Transitional routes, on the other hand, have been supported through biofuel tax credits and low carbon transport fuel policies. We discuss how, to date, California's Low Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS) and the US Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) have tended to support the Incremental route. We conclude that the Incremental and Transitional routes will likely achieve the greatest near-term CO2e reductions but that the Leapfrog route is ultimately needed to achieve deep, long-term reductions. Federal and state policies must continue to evolve to create an environment that ensures large-scale, low-carbon, advanced solutions are implemented. See Electronic Document 7034 (Institute of Transportation Studies, UC Davis, 24 Jul 2014, 42pp, 34 refs.)



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OTHER APPLICATIONS

AEROSPACE TRANSPORTATION AND FUELS: LOOKING AHEAD AT AVIATION Shell Compared to road vehicles, new aircraft, like the Airbus A380, the Boeing Dreamliner and others, have long working lives and will be a major part of the global fleet 40 years from now. Today’s aircraft and those in the design stage have been developed with certain assumptions about the properties and availability of the fuel that will power them. The sheer amount of fuel that must be on-board, often more than 30% of the plane’s take-off weight, has a major impact on the airframe’s centre of gravity, the strength of its structural components, and its overall performance. Even if a significantly new and different fuel from today were readily available at all airports, retrofitting aircraft to work with this fuel would be difficult. Completely new aircraft and engine combinations, with a new fuel supply and distribution infrastructure, probably would be needed to use such a fuel. By volume, more than 99% of worldwide aviation fuel today falls into the ‘jet fuel’ category. Most piston engined aircraft, however, fly on leaded aviation gasoline (avgas). It too is under pressure to adapt. Environmentalist and other organisations have called for the removal of lead and the Federal Aviation Authority (FAA) have created the Piston Aviation Fuels Initiative (PAFI). The US-driven FAA’s ‘Aviation 2025’ programme is targeting 2018 for an unleaded replacement to be available that is usable by most general aviation aircraft. The avgas community are responding, with various groups and individual oil companies working on appropriate test procedures and/or fuel formulations to replace avgas fuels with ultralow or zero lead content alternatives. Covers - Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthetic paraffinic kerosenes (FT-SPKs), Sasol’s coal-to-liquids (CTL) kerosene, Gas-to-Liquids (GTL) paraffins, Environmental emissions, CO2. See Electronic Document 7016 (Concawe Review, Spring 2014, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp17-21.)



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MARINE

ADVANCED CO2 EXHAUST HEAT RECOVERY FOR TOMORROW’S ENERGY-EFFICIENT SHIPS Increasing fuel costs and stricter emissions requirements in the marine industry are compelling owners and operators to re-evaluate the impacts and economics of ship power plants. These trends set the stage for expanded use of energy efficient technologies on commercial and military vessels. One promising solution is exhaust heat recovery (EHR) using carbon dioxide (CO2) as the working fluid. This technology offers the desired benefits of increased fuel efficiency coupled with marine-friendly features such as compactness and low maintenance requirements. Using similar thermodynamic cycle principles that have been in practice for over 100 years — but replacing traditionally used steam with CO2 — these systems improve upon the many benefits of a proven technology. In the commercial marine segment, the most prevalent marine prime mover type is the low-speed diesel (LSD), followed by medium-speed diesel (MSD) engine, and gas turbines (GTs). LSD engines have the highest fuel efficiency of any engine type (close to 50%), but also have the lowest amount of heat lost to the exhaust. The two diesel types have similar heat balances; the LSD has slightly higher efficiency, resulting in lower exhaust heat energy. Both engines lose about 25% of their heat through various other means, charge air cooling being the most significant. The gas turbine, on the other hand, has the lowest efficiency and loses almost all of its remaining heat through the exhaust. The addition of heat recovery effectively levels the combined system efficiency of the three engine types to within a few percentage points. Ship designers can take advantage of some of the inherent advantages of gas turbines (reduced maintenance, reduced vibrations, improved emissions, etc.) without having to sacrifice the efficiency that comes with diesels. Within the commercial sector, both the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have imposed restrictive limits on sulphur oxide (SOx) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions through the implementation of Emissions Control Areas (ECAs). Sulphur oxide emissions limits will eventually apply worldwide, according to the current plan. Covers - exhaust scrubbers, electric-drive or hybrid propulsion, CO2 based Rankine Cycle technology. See Doc.145995 (Diesel & Gas Turbine Worldwide, Jul/Aug 2014, pp28-31.)



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POWER GENERATION

J920 FLEXTRA GAS ENGINE FOR 60 HZ SEGMENT GE GE Power & Water's Distributed Power business has launched its 10 MW-class Jenbacher J920 FleXtra gas engine for the 60 Hz North American segment. "The 60 Hz J920 engine is ideally suited to provide utility and industrial customers with fast, reliable on-site power during demand periods and as more renewable energy is added to the grid," said Lorraine Bolsinger, president and CEO for GE Power & Water's Distributed Power business. "Our J920 FleXtra gas engines offer best-in-class electrical efficiency of up to 49% for 60 Hz in simple cycle, which approaches where a traditional combined-cycle plant can operate. This adds up to significant fuel savings over the life cycle of any plant." Covers - individual cylinder combustion control system, two-stage turbocharging system. See Doc.145952 (Diesel & Gas Turbine Worldwide, Jul/Aug 2014, pp18, 20 & 22.)



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COMMON ISSUES

FRICTION REDUCTION FRICTION TAILORED TO YOUR REQUIREMENTS: YOU WISH, WE DELIVER Schaeffler In any discussion about reducing fuel consumption, attention quickly turns to powertrain hybridisation. However, the fact that a saving of 15% can be achieved simply by minimising friction is often overlooked. This has been demonstrated by Schaeffler in various studies over the past few years. The costs required to reduce CO2 emissions by 1 g/km can be kept well below those of electrifying the drive. Covers – basic principles, tribological system, friction in tribological systems, surface technology, energy efficiency through minimised friction, influence of bearing designs, coatings for specific requirements, Triondur diamond-like carbon (DLC) layer, functional friction, dry running friction linings for clutches, friction materials, wet linings for twin clutches, challenges for friction linings in synchronisation, tribotronics, thin-layer sensor Sensotect. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquim_2014_23_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 8pp.) NORTH AMERICAN FUEL-EFFICIENT MOBILITY: US CAFE DEMONSTRATOR Schaeffler Global fuel economy standards are driving a push for energy-saving technology. At the same time, the consumer cannot afford large price increases for the vehicle. Therefore, high value technology is needed, especially in markets such as North America, where fuel prices are low. For example, a consumer who trades in a car meeting the 2020 CAFE (Corporate Average Fuel Economy) standard for a car which meets the 2025 standard, will only save $80 per year in fuel costs. The technology required to make that jump currently costs several thousand dollars, which means the consumer cannot recover his investment. Friction reduction offers a relatively high value in fuel saving but often raises the question: what is the best combination of friction reduction technologies? Against this background, Schaeffler set out to build a demonstration vehicle which would: - Demonstrate by measurement an effective combination of friction reduction technologies - Provide a platform to experience new technologies developed for the North American market - Improve and verify Schaeffler system simulation and calibration tools - Provide 5 years of progress against the US CAFE standard at < $ 40/% fuel saved This vehicle is based on the Ford Escape AWD, model year 2013, which utilises a 2.0-litre engine and 6-speed 6F35 automatic transmission. Covers - simulations, software, software development, SIL simulations, transmission-driven accessories, TDA mechanical architecture, battery and motor calculations. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquim_2014_32_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 6pp.) TAILORED DESIGN AND LAYOUT FOR LOSS MINIMIZATION OR COST-EFFECTIVE COMMONALITY OF PARTS - A CONTRADICTORY CONFLICT FEV In order to minimise the development and production costs in the automotive industry, despite steadily increasing variety of models and applications offered by the OEMs, the pressure on standardisation of components and production processes is increasing continuously. As a direct consequence, modular engine families are already established with high degrees of common parts and kits as well as standardised interfaces for all vehicle platforms by most manufacturers these days. At the same time, the world adopted and announced massive legal demands concerning the reduction of CO2 emissions for the entire vehicle fleet. In addition to the optimisation of the combustion process, the exhaust gas aftertreatment and thermal management, the use of improved and more resilient materials for higher reduction of mechanical friction leads to a



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significant amount of the realised lowering in fuel consumption resp. CO2 emissions. Significant future potential for friction reduction and loss minimisation is expected to result from, for example, one for the particular application optimised, on-demand component dimensioning and tailored calibrations. This dedicated fine-tuning approach is contrary to the widely spread application of a clear common part strategy. In the course of this paper the question will be discussed whether the additional cost of a component diversification can be justified within an engine family in contradiction to a best cost approach by using the scaling effects of parts communization. Covers – main bearings, crankshaft friction, piston group (connecting rod bearing, piston rings), oil pump, coolant pump, benefit-cost analysis. See vCD 222 12_Bick_FEV.pdf and 12_Bick_FEV slides.pdf (SIA Powertrain Conference - The Clean Compression Ignition Engine of the Future, Rouen, France, 21-22 May 2014, Paper - 6pp, Slides - 23pp.) NEXT TRENDS FOR ENGINE FRICTION REDUCTION Renault Internal combustion engines friction reduction is needed to fit stringent fuel consumption and emission regulations. For this purpose, best solution is to optimise engine mechanical joints with right dimensions. As best friction reduction solutions are already used, future friction benefits will result from the sum of many small benefits from various technologies. Trends are given on some design parameters: lubricant, loads, kinematics optimisation and some technologies: surface finishing, coatings. Some challenges on future engine design and manufacturing process are exposed. Covers – DLC coatings, engine NVH reduction, roller bearings, steel piston. See vCD 222 23_Noel_Renault.pdf and 23_Noel_Renault slides.pdf (SIA Powertrain Conference - The Clean Compression Ignition Engine of the Future, Rouen, France, 21-22 May 2014, Paper - 9pp, Slides - 23pp, 30 refs.) FIGHTING FRICTION Federal Mogul Among bearings Federal Mogul manufactures for heavy-duty diesel engines are con-rod bushes, main and flange bearings, rocker arm bushes, fan drive and oil pump bushes, gear train bushes and crankshaft thrust washers. And now that Euro 6 emissions limits are in force, and future legislation looks likely to focus on reducing carbon dioxide emissions and fuel consumption, the spotlight may well turn on further reducing friction in the engine – with bearings playing a key part. Lead (originally introduced for its lubrication properties) was banned from bearings for light-duty engines in the European Union from 1 July 2011. Since that time, all cars and light CVs up to 3500 kg gvw have used lead-free bearings. Admittedly, the directive does not apply to heavier vehicles, but Haring reckons that will come. Federal Mogul's latest bearing materials have certainly demonstrated improved wear resistance, increased fatigue performance, good resistance to seizure and low sensitivity to contaminating particles. One, dubbed IROX, is iron oxide based, with a polymer resin coating delivering further improvements and an optimised interaction with the oil film. Solid lubricants in the coating also maximise lubricity in the mixed lubrication states caused by stop/start systems, while also improving wear resistance. Häring also points to a trend towards aluminium bearing materials for heavy-duty engines – popular for their low wear rates and ability to tolerate main bearings' high loads. Aluminium also offers excellent corrosion, seizure and wear resistance. Aluminium-based bearings can be upgraded with IROX. Beyond bearings though, reducing piston friction is another means of improving efficiency and here, the trend is away from aluminium, in favour of steel pistons, certainly for larger capacity diesels. Covers – piston skirt, DuroGlide piston ring coating. See Doc.145998 (Transport Engineer, Jul 2014, p31.)



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OPTIMIZING BASE OIL VISCOSITY TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE FOR POWER CYLINDER FRICTION REDUCTION Massachusetts Institute of Technology Lubricant viscosity along the engine cylinder liner varies by an order of magnitude due to local temperature variation and vaporization effects. Tremendous potential exists for fuel economy improvement by optimizing local viscosity variations for specific operating conditions. Methods for analytical estimation of friction and wear in the power-cylinder system are reviewed and used to quantify opportunities for improving mechanical efficiency and fuel economy through lubricant formulation tailored specifically to liner temperature distributions. Temperature dependent variations in kinematic viscosity, density, shear thinning, and lubricant composition are investigated. Models incorporating the modified Reynolds equation were used to estimate friction and wear under the top ring and piston skirt of a typical 11.0-litre diesel engine. Friction losses were analysed in the liner local position and temperature domains, and practical considerations for obtaining optimal viscosity profiles are reviewed with regard to the limitations of viscosity modifiers. The study extends friction and wear modelling techniques to consider local temperature dependent composition changes. Specifically, oil consumption, viscosity, and friction models were coupled to account for the effect of rheological changes along the liner due to oil vaporization. Potential wear mitigation opportunities available through base oil formulation are presented. Results suggest significant friction and wear benefits may still be obtained through lubricant formulation tailored specifically to engine temperature variations. See SAE 2014-01-1658 (2014, 17pp, 65 refs.) MECHANISM OF AND FUEL EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT BY DIMPLE TEXTURING ON LINER SURFACE FOR REDUCTION OF FRICTION BETWEEN PISTON RINGS AND CYLINDER BORE Nippon Piston Ring and Hino Reducing friction between the piston ring and cylinder is an effective way of meeting the demand for lower fuel consumption in vehicle engines. To that effect, the authors have proposed a new and efficient friction reduction treatment for the cylinder. At first glance, this treatment seems similar to typical microtexture treatments, but it is built on a different approach. Through a rig tester, it was confirmed that optimizing the shape of the dimples and the treatment area for the cylinder improves FMEP between the piston ring and the cylinder liner by 17%. This report presents an analysis of the test results to explain the mechanism by which this effect is achieved. Fuel consumption was measured in an actual engine, and a maximum fuel consumption improvement of 3.2% was confirmed after conversion to the Japanese heavy duty vehicle fuel economy standards (Category T2). Lubricating oil consumption, blow-by and durability were also examined. See SAE 2014-01-1661 (2014, 6pp.) RESEARCH INTO ENGINE FRICTION REDUCTION UNDER COLD CONDITIONS – EFFECT OF REDUCING OIL LEAKAGE ON BEARING FRICTION Toyota and Taiho Kogyo Co Fuel efficiency improvement measures are focusing on both cold and hot conditions to help reduce CO2 emissions. Recent technological trends for improving fuel economy such as hybrid vehicles (HVs), engine start and stop systems, and variable valve systems feature expanded use of low-temperature engine operation regions. Under cold conditions (oil temperature: approximately 30°C), fuel consumption is roughly 20% greater than under hot conditions (80°C). The main cause of the increased friction under cold conditions is increased oil viscosity. This research used the motoring slipping method to measure the effect of an improved crankshaft bearing, which accounts for a high proportion of friction under cold conditions. First, the effect of clearance was investigated. Although increasing the clearance helped to decrease friction due to the oil wedge effect, greater oil leakage reduced the oil film temperature increase generated by the friction. Consequently, the friction reduction effect was less than that predicted by the lubrication calculation. Next, the rate of friction used as heat energy was analysed based on the oil film temperature and



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the leakage amount. In the test engine, approximately 20% of the total friction was used to increase the journal oil film temperature. Since the analysis found that raising the oil film temperature by reducing leakage may help to decrease friction under cold conditions, bearings with a sealing function were evaluated for verification. This sealing method can potentially reduce overall friction by 5%. See SAE 2014-01-1662 (2014, 7pp.) THE CONTRIBUTION OF ENGINE MECHANICS TO IMPROVED FUEL ECONOMY FEV Measures for reducing engine friction within the powertrain are assessed in this paper. The included measures work in combination with several new technologies such as new combustion technologies, downsizing and alternative fuels. The friction reduction measures are discussed for a typical gasoline vehicle. If powertrain friction could be eliminated completely, a reduction of 15% in CO2 emissions could be achieved. In order to comply with more demanding CO2 legislations, new technologies have to be considered to meet these targets. The additional cost for friction reduction measures are often lower than those of other new technologies. Therefore, these measures are worth following up in detail. Covers - potential of plain and roller bearings, cylinder liner and piston rings, lubrication. See SAE 2014-01-1663 (2014, 13pp.)



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OPERATING STRATEGIES AND CONTROL A COMPARISON OF COLD-START BEHAVIOR AND ITS IMPACT ON FUEL ECONOMY FOR ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY VEHICLES Michigan Technological University and Argonne National Laboratory Vehicle operation during cold-start powertrain conditions can have a significant impact on driveability, fuel economy and tailpipe emissions in modern passenger vehicles. As efforts continue to maximise fuel economy in passenger vehicles, considerable engineering resources are being spent in order to reduce the consumption penalties incurred shortly after engine start and during powertrain warmup while maintaining suitably low levels of tailpipe emissions. Engine downsizing, advanced transmissions and hybrid-electric architecture can each have an appreciable effect on cold-start strategy and its impact on fuel economy. This work seeks to explore the cold-start strategy of several passenger vehicles with different powertrain architectures and to understand the resulting fuel economy impact relative to warm powertrain operation. To this end, four vehicles were chosen with different powertrain architectures. These include a modern conventional vehicle with a 6-speed automatic transmission equipped with a torque converter, a downsized and turbocharged GDI vehicle with a 7-speed dual-clutch transmission, a modern turbo-diesel with a 6-speed dual-clutch transmission, and a gasoline-electric hybrid with a power split transmission. The vehicles were operated on a chassis dynamometer with instrumentation in place to determine real-time fuel consumption and tailpipe emissions while observing powertrain behaviour. The test vehicles were subjected to hot and cold start iterations of the EPA Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS) and US06 drive cycles at 72°F ambient test cell temperature. The vehicles were found to exhibit increased fuelling rates, mild changes in shifting behaviour, larger levels of tailpipe emissions, and changes to secondary operating strategies such as deceleration fuel cutoff. The duration of cold start behaviour varied between the vehicles, and was directly affected by the aggressiveness of the drive cycle. The severity of the cold start penalty was found to vary with vehicle architecture and drive cycle, but was generally smaller for more aggressive vehicle operation. Cold start penalties ranged from a low of 10.5% on the US06 drive cycle to a maximum of 21.8% on the UDDS cycle. See SAE 2014-01-1375 (2014, 9pp.)



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THERMAL MANAGEMENT

SCHAEFFLER´S THERMAL MANAGEMENT FOR A CO2 REDUCTION OF UP TO 4% Schaeffler Improved and variable use of the heat flows in a vehicle is a requirement for further reducing emissions and fuel consumption and increasing the air conditioning comfort in passenger cars. The integrated turbochargers (ITL) increasingly used in vehicles place increased requirements on cooling systems. ITLs require a predictive cooling system if possible instead of a system, which reacts to different operating conditions. This requirement cannot be met with conventional thermostats because thermostats have a delayed reaction to energy input into the cooling system and also suffer from pressure losses. Innovative mechatronic components are required for making a predictive calculation of the cooling requirements from the engine load and speed. Schaeffler’s thermal management modules (TMM) are able to adjust the coolant flow to zero, for example, in order to achieve accelerated heating of the engine. At the same time, they are able to decouple thermal masses and thus dissipate quantities of energy to other components such as the engine oil, transmission oil, heater or traction battery via the residual mass. In contrast to conventional thermostats TMMs are controlled using a load-based calculation model. This allows the integration of a large number of connected components as well as a narrow temperature range of +/-2°C. Covers - Audi 1.8-litre TFSI engine, EA888Gen.3, maintaining the engine oil temperature, maintaining the temperature in the interior, cold-start strategies, gasoline technology car. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquim_2014_21_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 8pp.) EFFECTS OF THE INTAKE AIR HEATING ON A EURO 5 DIESEL ENGINE UNDER -7ºC AMBIENT TEMPERATURE DURING THE NEW EUROPEAN DRIVING CYCLE Valeo and Universitat Politecnica de Valencia Diesel engines operation during warm-up conditions is a well-known issue that influences on engine startability, exhaust emissions, fuel consumption and radiated noise. Applied solutions from engine manufacturers involve the calibration of fuel injection parameters and the air management system, with specific EGR strategies. Together with these measures, intake air heating provides additional benefits. These improvements are even more remarkable when operating with lower ambient temperature. In this paper, engine tests were performed in an automotive Euro 5 turbocharged diesel engine during the warm-up process in the NEDC homologation cycle at -7ºC ambient temperature. The engine test cell is a climatic chamber with an asynchronous dynamometer able to reproduce engine performance during a NEDC cycle. Several intake air heating systems were introduced in the engine in order to evaluate the benefits when intake air temperature is increased. The tested systems include different strategies to heat the coolant inside the intercooler and electrical resistors placed in the intake line. Comparisons between the different approaches are provided together with the results in terms of engine pollutant emissions and fuel consumption. Covers – coolant flow, thermal management, strategies to control intake air temperature. See vCD 222 06_Soukeur_Valeo.pdf and 06_Soukeur_Valeo slides.pdf (SIA Powertrain Conference - The Clean Compression Ignition Engine of the Future, Rouen, France, 21-22 May 2014, Paper - 10pp, Slides - 30pp.) INFLUENCE OF ACTIVE COOLING THERMAL MANAGEMENT VALVE ON FUEL CONSUMPTION AND ENGINE WARM-UP: SIMULATION AND TESTS MANN+HUMMEL and LUNAM Universite, Ecole Centrale de Nantes Thermal management technologies are increasingly developed to lower fuel consumption and pollutant emissions whilst keeping the same driving and thermal comforts. This entails reducing warm-up time and friction losses without detriment to fuel consumption. A new technology for engine cooling systems named ACT valve (Active Cooling Thermal management valve) is developed by MANN+HUMMEL. It allows first to implement a no flow strategy to decrease the



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warm-up time and to enhance thermal comfort. It is also able to accurately control the coolant flow and temperature depending on engine operating load and speed, and so to decrease friction and heat losses. In order to quantify the fuel consumption potential, a complete engine co-simulation has been developed. It consists of a coupled simulation between AMESim (coolant and oil circuit, thermal exchanges), GT-Power (gas dynamics, combustion) and Simulink (temperature regulation strategy, ACT valve control and software link). Tests performed in the laboratory and on an engine bench enabled to tune the combustion and thermal parameters. Furthermore, road tests are performed with an instrumented vehicle. These are performed with the series wax-thermostat then with the ACT solution. Fuel consumption benefits using a thermal management system depending on real driving conditions is assessed. The road tests also served as model calibration data and were reproduced by simulation. The obtained fuel consumption benefits are compared to test results. Simulations on standard driving cycles are then performed with the ACT valve to evaluate the influence of the temperature regulation strategy on CO2 emissions and thermal comfort. See vCD 222 17_Mezher_ECNantes.pdf and 17_Mezher_ECNantes Slides.pdf (SIA Powertrain Conference - The Clean Compression Ignition Engine of the Future, Rouen, France, 21-22 May 2014, Paper - 8pp, Slides - 20pp.)



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WASTE HEAT AND ENERGY RECOVERY

SYMBIOSIS OF ENERGY RECOVERY AND DOWNSIZING IAV Recovering exhaust gas energy is a promising approach to reducing the fuel consumption of future vehicles powered by internal combustion engine. For application in passenger cars, IAV is pursuing a systematic approach to integrating a Rankine cycle that involves a close-coupled heat exchanger upstream of a turbine, a main heat exchanger downstream of a catalytic converter and a single-cylinder reciprocating piston expander. The entire cycle has been examined on the engine test bench using ethanol as the working medium. Covers - simulation models, potential for reducing consumption from further downsizing. See Doc.145948 (MTZ Worldwide, Sep 2014, pp4-9.)



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LITERATURE EU TRANSPORT IN FIGURES STATISTICAL POCKETBOOK 2014 European Commission Transport represents a crucial sector of the economy. This publication provides an overview of the most recent and most pertinent annual transport-related statistics in Europe. It covers the European Union and its 28 Member States and, as far as possible, the current EU candidate countries and the EFTA countries. The content of this pocketbook is based on a range of sources including Eurostat, international organisations, national statistics and, where no data were available, own estimates. Own estimates have mainly been produced to get an idea of the EU total. At the level of individual countries, they are merely indicative and should by no means be misinterpreted as ‘official’ data. The publication consists of three parts: (1) a general part with general economic and other relevant data, (2) a transport part covering both passenger and freight transport as well as other transport-related data, and, finally, (3) an energy and environmental part with data on the impact which the transport sector has on the environment. Most of the tables have data up to 2011; where available, more recent data have been provided. Contents: General Data Growth in GDP and Industrial Production Employment and Unemployment Share of Gross Value Added and Employment by Sector Population Member States External Trade: imports Member States External Trade: exports Comparison EU-28 – World: General data Part 2 – Transport General Statistical Overview EU Transport Transport Growth EU-28 Road transport: Speed Limits, Blood Alcohol Limits Road transport: Maximum Gross Vehicle Weight Employment by Mode of Transport Number of Enterprises by Mode of Transport Turnover by Mode of Transport Final Consumption of Households for Transport EU-28: Evolution of Consumer Prices for Passenger Transport EU-28 External Trade by Mode of Transport Energy taxes as % of GDP - Transport fuel taxes Environmental taxes as % of GDP - Transport (excluding fuel) Environmental taxes on transport (fuel and other taxes) – as % of total taxation Comparison EU-28 – World: Infrastructure and Vehicles Comparison EU-28 – World: Passenger and Freight Transport Performance of Freight Transport expressed in tonne-kilometres EU-28 Performance by Mode for Freight Transport - 1995-2012 EU-28 Performance by Mode EU-28 Performance by Mode - Inland Road: National Haulage Road: International Haulage Road: National and International Haulage Railways Inland Waterways Pipelines (Oil) USA



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Performance of Passenger Transport expressed in passenger-kilometres EU-28 Performance by Mode for Passenger Transport 1995-2012 EU-28 Performance by Mode Modal Split of Passenger Transport on Land by Country 2012 Passenger Cars, Buses & Coaches, Tram & Metro, Railways, Rail USA Performance of Freight and Passenger Transport Using Other Indicators Air: Passenger Traffic between Member States; Major Regular European Airlines; Passenger Traffic at Major EU Airports; Main Intra-EU Airport Pairs in Passenger Transport; Main Connections Between EU and Non-EU Airports in Passenger Transport; Air: Freight Traffic at Major EU Airports; Movements of Aircraft at Major EU Airports Sea: Inward and Outward Flow of Passengers by Country; Passenger Traffic at Major EU Seaports; Freight Traffic at Major EU Seaports; Intra-EU Maritime Transport; Container Traffic at Major EU Seaports Combined Transport Traffic Combined transport Infrastructure Road: Length of Motorways; Length of Road Network; Railways: Length of Lines in Use; High-Speed Rail Network; Main Railway Gauge and Electric Current Used Air: Number of Airports Inland Waterways: Length in Use Pipelines Means of Transport Road: Motorisation; Passenger Cars; Buses and Coaches; Goods Vehicle; Powered Two-wheelers; Passenger Cars; Motorcycles; Mopeds Sea: EU Merchant Fleet; World Merchant Fleet Air: passenger aircraft; freight, special, business aircraft Rail: Locomotives and Railcars; Passenger Transport Vehicles; Goods Transport Wagons Safety - Road Fatalities; Road Fatalities Country Rankings; Road Fatalities by Type of User; Road Fatalities of Vehicle Occupants by type of vehicle; Road Accidents; Railway Fatalities; Air: Lives Lost; Sea: Ships Lost (World) Part 3 – Energy and environment Energy – Glossary; Average Calorific Values – Energy Content; Conversion Factors; Energy Statistics for EU-28; Final Energy Consumption, by Sector, 2012; Final Consumption of Petrol, Diesel and Biofuels for Transport, by Fuel 2012; Biofuels Production by Fuel 2012 Environment - Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHG); GHG Emissions from Transport; GHG Emissions from Transport – EU-28, 2012; GHG Emissions from Transport, EU-28, 2012; Total CO2 Emissions; CO2 Emissions from Transport; CO2 Emissions by sector – EU-28, 2012; CO2 Emissions from Transport, by mode; Oil Spills at Sea. See Electronic Document 7029 (Luxembourg; Publications Office of the European Union, 2014, 77pp.)



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NATIONAL NEWS OFFICE MEMORANDUM - CONSTITUTION OF STEERING COMMITTEE FOR MONITORING PROGRESS OF FUEL ECONOMY NORMS FOR HEAVY DUTY VEHICLES Government of India In view of the growing dependence of the country on import of crude oil and the fact that the highest consumption of diesel is by commercial vehicles, i.e. 26.75%, followed by 10.75% by buses/STUs, it has been felt imperative by the Government to define fuel economy norms for heavy-duty vehicles (trucks and buses) in India. In order to address the above issues, it has been decided that Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA) and Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) will jointly formulate time bound action plan to develop fuel economy norms for heavy-duty vehicles in consultation with other stakeholders. See Electronic Document 7021 (New Delhi, India; Government of India - Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas, 1 Jul 2014, No. P-45011/1/204-CC, 3pp.)

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