PresencingFromPasttoFutureExperience1FromContinuously(Inchoately)ExperiencingtoAnExperience:PresentationsandRepresentationsinAssessmentforInstructionandLearningTheCaseofDebriefinginAviationWolff-MichaelRoth1,2,AlfredoJornet31UniversityofVictoria;2GriffithInstituteofEducationalResearch;3UniversityofOsloAbstractMuchofwhatprofessionalsknowislearnedfromtheexperienceofworkingonthejob.However,toimprovelearningfrompracticerequiresanalysisofpracticalengagement.Howdoesonelearnfromexperience,which,aspragmatistsfrequentlysuggest,isinchoateandcharacterizedasabsorbedcoping,sothatsomethinglikeadeterminateexperience,anexperience,canbeisolated,reflectedupon,andlearnedfrom?Inthisstudy,weinvestigatethisissueinthecontextofdebriefingsessionsfromaviationwheremakingaspectsofpastexperiencepresentagainforthepurposeoflearningisvitaltotheprofessionaldevelopmentofpilots.Twenty-ninedebriefingsessionswererecordedinfiveairlinesdifferingintheir(non-)useofanexplicitassessmentmodelforpilotperformanceand(non-)useofavideo-mediateddebriefingtoolgivingrisetoa2x2factorialdesign.Theresultsshow(a)thatpilotstendtoforgetmuchofwhathashappenedduringtheirexaminationsinthesimulatorandthattheverbalmodealoneisinsufficienttomakerelevanteventspresentagainforthepurposeofreflectionandanalysis;(b)bodilykineticformsofknowingarecriticalaspectsinmakingpresentcomplexperformancesthatexistintheformofkineticmelodiesratherthanbeingencodedintheformofexplicitrepresentations;and(c)differentpresentationalandrepresentationaltoolsofferdifferentlevelsofsupportinmakingpastexperiencepresentagain.Theresultsarediscussedintermsofassessmentforlearning,corporealmemory,andtheroleofobjectsinpresencingpastexperiences.Implicationsaredrawnfordifferentcontextsinwhichparticipantsareexpectedtolearnfromexperience.KeywordsExperience;presencing;representation;Dewey;aviation;debriefing;formativeassessment;learningFragment1Interviewer: Whatsinthissessionthatyouvedonesofarthatstandsoutforyou?Whatstoodout?Positive.Pilot: Um,IwasjustrunningthroughusingthatF-DODARmodel,tryingtoapplyitintheappropriateplacesandjustseeingitactuallycapturedaweethingthatsgotpastus,whichishavingpowermanagementselectedattakeoffinsteadofincruiseorsomewhereintheclimb,I

cantrememberspecificallywhatitwas,but.And,yea,Ithink,Ohitcaughtthat.Sothatwassomething.Andjust,yeah,thatwasprobably

PresencingFromPasttoFutureExperience2theonething,therearelotsoflittlethings,butIhaventreallyassesseditfullyinmymindjustyet. Thepilotinterviewed,anexperiencedairlinecaptainwhoalreadytrainspilotsnewtothetypeofaircrafthiscompanyisusing,justhascomeforabreakmidwaythroughafour-hourassessmentsessioninaflightsimulator.Asotherpilotsinthisstudy,hehasadifficulttimerememberingspecificallywhathashappenedduringtheprecedingtwohoursanobservationthathasalsobeenmadeinotherstudiesofdebriefinginaviation(e.g.,Dismukes,McDonnell,&Jobe,2000).Infact,manypilotsinterviewedinourstudyinitiallydescribetheirprecedingexperienceasablur.Mostofthedetailthatreturnstotheirconsciousawarenessdoessowhiletheflightexaminergoesthroughthedifferentexercisestheyhavedonebeforeinthehigh-fidelity,fullmotionsimulator.Frequentlyduringthesedebriefingsessions,instanceswererecordedinwhichthepilotsexpressedsurpriseabouthavingornothavingsaidordonesomethinginthesimulator.Thesedetailstendtocomefromtheflightexaminersnotebookorrecollections,orwhenpilotsseethemselvesonthevideotapethatsomecompaniesusetorecordthesimulatorsessions.Itisfrequentlyonlywhensituationsaremadepresentagainwhentheyarepresentedorrepresentedinsomeformthatfromtheprecedingstreamof(inchoate)experiencesomefragmentsstandoutasexperiencetoberemembered.Itisfromtheserememberedsegmentsofexperiencesthatpilotslearntoperforminthefuturewhentheyfindthemselvesinnon-normalsituationsthattheydonottendtoencounterduringtheireverydayflying,butforwhichtheyhavetobepreparedjustincasesuchaneventwouldactuallyoccur.Thatis,theonlywaytoprepareforflyingexpertlyundernon-normalconditionsistoexperiencetheseinsimulatedsituationswherethereisnorisktoaircraft,passengers,andpilots.Butifsuchsituationsareexperiencedasablur,howcanpilotlearnandtherebybecomereadyfortheunexpected?Thecurrentresearchondebriefinggenerallyandondebriefinginsimulation-basedlearningspecificallytendstobesilent:thereislittlepeer-reviewedliteratureonhowtodebrief,howtolearn/teachtodebrief,andeffectivedebriefingmethods/practices(Fanning&Gaba,2007). Ourongoingethnographicresearchinaviationshowsthatmanyflightexaminersintuitivelyknowthatassessmentitselfisnotsufficienttolearnbutthattheyhavetoworkwiththepilotsandactuallygothroughtheeventsthatprecededandpulloutthoseaspectsthatwillhelpimprovefutureperformanceinrealflightsituations.Oneoftheflightexaminersexpressesthistothepilotsconcisely: Sotheresmysimplestatement,sobothofyoupassed.Sonowwellgodowntosomenitty-gritty.Andoneofthethingsingoingthroughitisimportantthatyouactually,ifwejustsaidYep,greatday,youpassed,yourenotgoingtoachievethesameeffectasifweactuallygothroughandhavealookatindividualitemsandseeifwecanactuallygothroughtomatureourperformanceforthenexttime.Sothatswhatitsallabout. Flightexaminerstherebytellexaminedpilotsthatdoingthenitty-grittything,actuallygoingthroughtheprecedingexperience,willachieveadifferenteffectthan

PresencingFromPasttoFutureExperience3simplybeingtoldthattheyhavepassedtheexamination.Suchflightexaminersintuitivelyenactadistinctionmadebypragmaticphilosophersbetweenthecontinuityofexperience,whichistheresultofthelife-constitutivetransactionsinvolvingasubjectanditsenvironingconditionsandanexperience,whichisawholeandcarrieswithititsownindividualizingqualityandself-sufficiency(Dewey,1934/2008,p.42).Thedistinctionisnotonlyrelevanttoflightexaminers,butalsotoalargerconcerninresearchonlearningandcognitionabouttheroleofpastexperienceinfutureperformanceingeneral(e.g.,Schwartz,Sears,&Chang,2007)andabouttherolethatparticularinstructionalpracticesandrepresentationshaveinmediatingbetweenthetwo(e.g.,Son&Goldstone,2009). Inthisstudy,weinvestigatethetool-mediatedsocialpracticesthatareperformedtomakepresentagainaspectsoflivedexperiencesothatthelattercomestostandoutasanexperienceintheDeweyansense.Thecontextisconstitutedbydebriefingsessionsinaviation,wherepilotslearnwhileandasaresultofdebriefingtheirperformancewithanexaminerwhohasobservedthem.Inthisregard,thesesessionscanbeconsideredaformofformativeassessment(Rudolph,Simon,Raemer,&Eppich,2008),wherepriorperformanceisnotsimplyassessedinadispassionatemanner,butratherwherenewinsightsareachievedinthedialoguebetweenpilotsandexaminers.Throughoutthedebriefingsessions,recallingspecificeventsthathaveoccurredduringpriorperformancebecomesthecentralproblemoftheactivity.Often,recallingisnotjustachievedverbally,butinvolvesmakingthepreviousexperiencepresentagainbyavarietyofperformativeandmaterialmeans.Webeginbyreviewingliteratureontheroleofpriorexperienceinfutureperformanceandlearning.Wecontraststandardcognitivemodels,whichtakerepresentationsasthemostfundamentalaspectsthatconnectpriorandcurrentexperience,withsituatedcognitionmodels,whichemphasizetheroleofimmediate,bodily,intellectual,andaffectiverelationsbindingtogetherlearnerandenvironmentintooneunit.Toinvestigatehowtheseimmediateaspectsofexperienceareinvolvedinbringingaboutnewinsightsduringdebriefingsessions,weelaborateonthepragmatistandcultural-historicalcategoryofexperience(Dewey,1934/2008;Vygotskij,1935/2001).Accordingtothelatter,learningfrompriorexperienceinvolvesthatlearnersbecomeimplicatedinwhathappenstothemnotonlyintellectually,butalsopracticallyandaffectively.Inouranalyses,weexaminehowinstructorsandpilotstogether,andbymeansofdifferenttoolsandrepresentations,achievesuchemotional,intellectualandperceptualimplicationduringthedebriefingsituations. BACKGROUNDPriorExperienceandLearning:FromRepresentationaltoSituationalmodels Accordingtostandardcognitivemodels,theinfluenceofpriorexperienceoncurrentactionandlearningismediatedbymeansofmentalrepresentations(Vera&Simon,1993).Fromthisview,experienceisseenasencodedandstoredinmemoryintheformofeitheranalogorpropositional(symbolic)knowledgestructures(Grimm,2014).Connectionsbetweenpriorandcurrentexperiencetakeplaceinthe

PresencingFromPasttoFutureExperience4formofmentalstructuralmappingsacrossrepresentations(Gentner&Markman,1997).Throughoutrepeatedexperiencesthatsharecommonfeatures,theseknowledgestructuresbecomemoreabstractandgeneraland,therefore,usefulinawiderrangeofsituations(Reed,1993;Singley&Anderson,1989).Researchwithinthisframeworkhasalongtraditionofstudiesinvestigatingtheconditionsunderwhichlearnerscometoretrieveandapplyknowledgeacquiredduringpriorexperiences,andcontinuestobeanimportantfocusintheliterature(e.g.,vanGalen&Reitsma,2011).Incase-basedinstructionalapproaches,learnersengageinsolvingdiversebutrelatedproblemstofacilitatethedevelopmentofgeneralizedknowledgestructuresthatcanbeappliedinfuturelearningsituations.Learnersfailurestodosoaretypicallyexplainedintermsofproblemsintheencodingofexperiences,whichmakesretrievalatappropriatetimesdifficultorbydifficultiesinmappingtheappropriatecomponentsacrossrepresentationsofpastandcurrentexperience(e.g.,Kolodner,1997). Duringthelastdecades,theviewofpriorexperienceasarepositoryofabstractknowledgehasbeenchallengedfromsituatedcognitionapproaches,whicharguethatcognitionisgroundedinactionandperceptionprocessesratherthaninstructuralabstractions(Barsalou,2008;Roth&Jornet,2013).Inthisregard,someresearchershavepursuedtoshowthatintelligenceispossiblewithoutreasonasconceivedinthetraditionalway,thatis,withoutformalmentalrepresentations(e.g.,Brooks,1995;Clancey,1997).Acaseinpointwasmadebymodelingstudiesthatexaminedhowartificialneuralnetworkscouldbetrainedtorecognizenouns,verbs,andobjectswithouthavingexplicitrepresentationsthereof(Elman,1993).CognitivescientistshaveshownthatifTetrisplayerswouldhavetouserepresentationstoperceiveandinterpretwhatisdisplayedonthecomputerscreen,theywouldactanorderofmagnitudeslowerthantheyactuallydo(Kirsh&Maglio,1995).Inmostnormal,non-failure(breakdown)situationsbehaviorispsychologicallybettermodeledintermsofabsorbedcopingratherthanintermsofmentalrepresentation(e.g.,Dreyfus,2007;Suchman,2007).Incopingduringeverydayactivity,humanactorsdonotfashionrepresentationsbutareintimatelyconnectedtotheworldandthetoolsandmaterialsthattheyuse(Ingold,2011).Suchtoolsmayincludewhatpsychologistshavecometodistinguishasexternalrepresentations(Schnotz&Krschner,2008;Zhang&Patel,2006);insomesocialsciences,thesehavebeentheorizedundertheheadingofinscriptions(e.g.,Roth&McGinn,1998). Ratherthanmentallyrepresentingfactsandrulesabouttheworld,knowingreferstohowanorganismfunctionsintheworld(Roth&Jornet,2013).Accordingly,duringknowledgeableperformance,itisnotthatweholdrepresentationsoftheworld,butrathertheworldservesasitsownexternalrepresentation.Fromthisview,thepresenceofstructuredthingsinasituation,theirhandinesswithregardtoongoingperformance,areimportantcognitiveresourcesforeverydayperformanceandhumanexperience(Agre,1997;Clancey,1997;Gibson,1986).Therehavebeensuggestionsthatthemindmaintainsasetofdeicticpointerstorelevantobjects,processes,andstatesintheworldratherthanrepresentingstatesoftheworld(Ballard,Hayhoe,Pook.&Rao,1997).Artificialintelligenceresearchershaveshownthatshortordercookscanpreparesometenorderssimultaneouslybecausethey

PresencingFromPasttoFutureExperience5transformstatesintheworldratherthanbecausetheyprocessmentalrepresentationsofthekitchenanditscontents(Agre&Horswill,1997).Psychologicalandneurologicalresearchhasdevelopedaccountsofvisualperceptionthatinsteadofrepresentationsoftheoutsideworldtakesensorimotorcontingencieslearnedthroughembodiedengagementastheirstartingpoint(ORegan&Ne,2001).Inthisregard,thecloserelationbetweentheimmediatematerialcontextandbodymovementasintegralaspectsofcognitionhasbeenconceptualizedascorporality,whichcapturesthefactthatwhenyoumoveyourbody,incomingsensoryinformationimmediatelychanges(ORegan,Myin,&Ne,2005,p.374).Itisbecauseofthiscloserelationbetweenbodymovementandperceptionthatsensoryinformationhasacertainintimatequalityanditisalmostasthoughitwerepartofyou(p.374). Ofmostrelevancetolearningduringdebriefingsituations,accountsofrememberinghavebeendevelopedthatdonotresorttonotionsofretrievingintheclassicalsense.Theseaccountsrefertomemorytracesasincomplete,partial,andcontext-sensitive,tobereconstructedratherthanreproduced(Sutton,2009,p.229).AsClancey(1997)notes,rememberingisnotretrievingonethingbutreestablishingarelation,awayofcoordinatingperception,words,ideas,andactions(p.48).Together,thisresearchsuggeststhatbringingpriorexperiencetobearoncurrentactivityincludesanactivecorporealrelationtotheimmediatesocialandmaterialcontextofactivityasanintegralaspectofthinkingandlearning. Inresearchoninstruction,theintimateconnectionbetweencontextandgeneralizationoflearninghasreceivedconsiderableattentionduringrecentyears(Greeno,Smith,&Moore,1993;Hershkowitz,Schwarz&Dreyfus,2001).Somestudieshaveexaminedtheextenttowhichprovidingcontextualizingdetailintheinstructionalmaterialsaffectslearningofgeneralprinciples(Son&Goldstone,2009).Situativeinterpretationsofthefindingsofsuchstudiessuggestthat,ratherthanignoring(abstracting)aspectsofthelearningcontexts,generalitydependsonattendingtospecificfeaturesofalearningsituationinsomeparticularway,involvingastructuralrelationinwhichtheyparticipate(Greeno,2009,p.272).Otherstudiesdocumenthowinstructionalpracticesthatleadtogeneralizationinvolvemakingparticularaspectsoftheimmediate(classroom)environmentperceptuallysalient(Lobato,Rhodehamel,&Hohensee,2012).Teachershavebeenfoundtoperformgesturesthatsimulatespecificactionsandperceptualstateswhenintroducingnewandcomplexmathematicalideas(Alibalietal.,2014).However,howsuchperceptualandperformativeaspectsareinvolvedinteaching/learningduringdebriefingsituationsinwhichpriorexperiencesarebeingrecalledandreflecteduponhasnotbeeninvestigated. Althoughreviewshaveincludedconsiderationsofthesetting,theseconsiderationswerelimitedtosuchissuesascomfortandseatingarrangements(e.g.Fanning&Gaba,2007)anddidnotincludetheroleofcognitivelyrelevantartifacts.Theroleofvideoduringdebriefing,asshownindifferentmeta-analysesofdebriefingfortechnology-enhancedsimulation,isnegligible(Chengetal.,2014;Tannenbaum&Cerusoli,2013).However,theliteraturereviewedabovesuggeststheimportanceofconsideringhowbodilyandcontextualaspectsofactivityareinvolvedinformativepracticesinvolvingtherecallingofpriorexperienceto

PresencingFromPasttoFutureExperience6improvefutureperformance.Recentcognitivestudiesinaviationshowthatpilots,whileevaluatingtheperformanceoftheirpeers,oftenenactthesamemovementsthattheywoulduseinthecockpittoarticulatewhatthepilotsinavideotapedscenarioshouldhavedone(Roth&Mavin,2014).Theprevalenceofgesturesthatmodelaspectsofactualcockpitsituationsduringaviationdebriefingsessionshasbeendocumentedinotherstudiesaswell(e.g.,Hutchins&Nomura,2011).Therehavebeensuggestionsinstudiesofbonobomother/childrelations(Hutchins&Johnson,2009)andofschoolstudents(Roth,2003)thatsymbolichand/armmovementsmayarisefromwork-related(ergotic)orinformation-producing/seeking(epistemic)hand/armmovements.Together,thesefindingsmayleadustosuspectthatbodilyenactingspecificaspectsofpriorexperience/activityareanimportantaspectofdevelopingknowledgeablecompetenceduringinstructionalsituations.ExperienceandLearningfromaPragmaticandCultural-HistoricalPerspective Althoughtheliteratureonsituatedcognitionreviewedabovepresentsconsistentfindingssuggestingthatimmediatebodilyexperienceandabsorbedcopingandnotjustrepresentationarefundamentaltothinkingandlearning,thereisimportantvariabilityonhowexperienceanditsrelationtolearningaretheorized(Barsalou,2008).Inrecentwork,pointsincommonbetweenseveraloftheintellectualandscientificantecedentsofsituatedcognition,includingAmericanpragmatism,phenomenology,andcultural-historicalpsychology,havebeenemphasizedtodevelopatheoryofexperiencethattakesaspointofdeparturetheirreducibleunityofthepractical,intellectual,andaffectivedimensionsofactivity(Roth&Jornet,2014).CentraltothistheoryareDeweysandVygotskysideasonexperience,andtheRussianequivalenttermpereivanie,asanalyticalcategoriestoinvestigatetherelationbetweenpersons-acting-in-settingsandtheirlearninganddevelopment.Fortheseauthors,experienceisananalyticalcategorythatdenotesarelationshipofapersonwiththeworldandcapturesthisrelationshipintermsofitsintellectual,pragmatic,andaffectivereflectionintheperson(Dewey,1934/2008;Vygotskij,1935/2001).Innerandouteraspectsareirreduciblepartsofanexperientialwholeatransactioncharacteristicofasituationratherthanofaperson. Dewey(1934/2008)distinguishesbetweenthegeneralstreamofexperienceandanexperience,whichstandsoutasacompleted,determinate,andintegralwhole.AccordingtoDewey,anexperienceisawholeandcarrieswithititsownindividualizingqualityandself-sufficiency(p.42).Incontrasttoinchoateexperience,anexperiencepossessesinternalintegrationandfulfillment(p.45).Withoutthisdeterminateandintegratedquality,anyexperience,whetherpracticalorintellectual,isinconclusive.Theseoriginalexperiences,therefore,areimportanttowhatitmeanstoknow,forwithoutthem[thethinker]wouldneverknowwhatitisreallytothinkandwouldbecompletelyatalossindistinguishingrealthoughtfromthespuriousarticle(p.44).Thoseexperiencesarecentraltowhatitmeanstolearnbecausetheyarewhattakesrootinmind(p.51).Importantly,however,thoseexperiencesareneveronlyintellectual(i.e.onlydealingwithsymbols,

PresencingFromPasttoFutureExperience7representations).Rather,althoughafteritsoccurrenceanexperiencemaybefoundtohavebeenpredominantlyintellectual,initsactualoccurrenceitwasemotionalaswell(p.44).Thisissobecauseemotionisthemovingandcementingforce(p.49)thatbringstheotherwiseinchoateaspectsofexperiencetogetherintoanintegralandsignificantwhole.Evenwhenthinkingintermsofpropositions,Deweyargues,premisesandconclusionsarenotself-standingentitiesthatthemindbringstogether.Rather,inanexperienceofthinking,premisesemergeonlyasaconclusionbecomesmanifest(p.44).Thatis,itistheemotionalandpracticalintegrityofanexperiencethatprovidesforitsintellectualcoherence. DeweysnotionofanexperienceisinmanywaysconsistentwiththatofVygotskyspereivanie(Vygotskij,1935/2001),whichthelatterintroducedtodiscusstherelationbetweenachildsenvironmentandherdevelopment.Inthiscontext,pereivaniedetermineswhatkindofinfluencethissituationorthisenvironmentwillhaveonthechild(p.73).BecausetheRussianpereivaniealsotranslatesfeeling,itemphasizestheaffectivesideofexperience.Inhischaracterizationofthinking,VygotskyshareswithDeweytheviewthatintellectualandaffective/motivationalaspectsareunitedinexperience.Thus,pereivanieisacategoryandunitofanalysisaimedtocapturehowachildbecomesawareof,comprehends,andaffectivelyrelatestoacertainevent(p.75).Withregardtothinking,Vygotskyargues,Thoughtitselfisnotbornofotherthoughtsbuthasitsoriginsinthemotivatingsphereofconsciousnessthatincludesourinclinationsandneeds,ourinterestsandimpulses,andouraffectandemotions(Vygotskij,2005,p.1013).Inasimilarvein,Dewey(1934/2008)arguesthatinactualpracticetherearetrainsofideas,whichformatrainonlybecausetheyaremuchmorethanwhatananalyticpsychologycallsideas.Theyarephases,emotionallyandpracticallydistinguished,ofadevelopingunderlyingquality(p.44).Intellectual,emotional,andpracticalaspectsofactivity,thus,areirreduciblyconnectedinthecongruenceofanexperience. DeweyandVygotskysideasonexperiencearerelevanttothepresentstudybecausetheyprovideaframeworkfor(a)understandingtherelationbetweenthepracticeofmakingpriorexperiencepresentduringdebriefingsessionsand(b)theachievementofnewinsights(learning)duringsuchsessions.Inparticular,theyhelpusaddressaquestionthatstandardrepresentationalcognitivetheoriesdonotaddress,thatis,thequestionofsignificanceandrelevance(Dreyfus,2007):howcanalearnerknowwhichaspectsofanygiven(represented)situationaretheonesrelevantwithregardtoagivenactivityifpreciselythemotiveofthatactivityiswhatthelearnersdoesnotyetknow?Thenotionofanexperienceimpliesthatthelearner,inproducingandbeingsubjectofanemotionalqualityofinternalfulfillmentandintegration,comestofindaworldthatpresentsitselfasmeaningful.Thisalignswithrecentworkoncognitionofflyingemphasizingthattheappropriateunitisnottheindividualpilotnortheinteractionbetweenthepilotsbutthecockpitasajointcognitivesystem(Henriqson,vanWinsen,Saurin,&Dekker,2011;Hutchins,1995).Theindividualpilotthereforedoesnotjustactbutiscaughtupintheconstitutiverelationsthatmakethecockpitanirreducibleunit. Thedistinctionbetweenthefluxof(inchoate)experienceandanexperienceisimportantinthatithighlightsadistinctionbetweenthekindofexperiencethatmay

PresencingFromPasttoFutureExperience8resultfromautomaticallyactingoutahabit,andthekindofexperiencethatmayleadtonewinsightandlearning.Thedifferenceisbetweenunmediatedrelationtotheworldinthesenseofecologicalpsychology(Gibson,1986;Norman,1988),andanaccesstotheworldmediatedbymeansofsignsandtools(Vygotskij,2005).Withrespecttotools,forexample,wedistinguishthosethataresimplypresentandready-to-handfromthosethatbecomepresent-at-hand(Dreyfus,1991;Suchman,2007).Whereastheformertendtodisappearfromawarenessintheflowofexperience,thelatterbecomesalientandcanbereflectedupon.However,unlikemuchliteraturethatcharacterizesreflectionasfundamentallyanintellectualendeavor,theframeworkarticulatedheresuggeststhatreflectionmustbestudiedasanemotionalandperceptualorganization. PURPOSEANDRESEARCHQUESTIONS Thescientificandtheoreticalliteraturereviewedabovesuggeststheimportanceofconsideringtheperformativeandaffectiveaspectsasessentialtothinkingandlearning.Inthisstudy,weinvestigatethoseaspectsinthecontextofdebriefinginaviation.Forpilots,thinking-andacting-in-situationarenotseparatebutintegraltotheirholisticexperienceofflying(Mavin&Roth,2014).Duringthesimulatorperformance,onedifficult,notnormallyexperiencedsituationfollowsanother.Suchacontextoftenimpedes,asDewey(1934/2008)pointsout,theemergenceofanexperienceasnooneexperiencehasachancetocompleteitselfbecausesomethingelseisentereduponsospeedily(p.51).Asaresult,nothingtakesrootsinmind(p.51).Thephilosopheremphasizesthatthistakingrootcannotbeachievedbyintellectualmeansalonebecauseexperiencecomesnotbymereintellectualandoutsidejudgmentbutindirectperception(p.56).Itisonlyonceanexperiencerunsitscourseasanintegralwholethatitcanbereflectedupon;itisbybeingemotionallyandpracticallyimplicatedintheunfoldingofsuchintegralexperiencesthatlearnerscometodevelopnewinsight. Pilotscomeoutofsimulatorsessionsandalreadymayhavehadanexperiencebecauseoftheextraordinarynatureoftheevent.However,inthepresentstudy,partoftheobjectiveof(mostof)thedebriefingsessionistomakepartsoftheoriginalsituationpresentagainevenifithadnotbeenasignificanteventsothatitstandsouttobedescribed,analyzed,andassessed.Itisthroughdescription,analysis,andassessmentofpreviousexperiencethatthepilotscanlearnfromit.Thatis,whereasDeweydescribedthosesituationsinourlivesthatstandoutontheirown,thepurposeofthisstudyistoinvestigatetheinstructionalpracticesbymeansofwhichprioreventsaremadepresentagainsothatanaspectbecomesanexperience.Understandingsuchinstructionalpracticesinvolvesconsideringnotonlytheroleofrepresentations,butalsoofanyarrayofobjectsandperformancesmobilizedformakingpresentpriorexperienceagain.Becausetheypresupposeimmanentratherthanpriorformalunderstanding,thelatterhavebeenreferredtoaspresentations(e.g.,Jornet&Roth,inpress).Accordingly,inthepresentstudyweaddresstwointerrelatedresearchquestions:

PresencingFromPasttoFutureExperience9 Howarepasteventsmadepresentagainforthepurposeofturningwhathasbeenpartofafrequentlyinchoatestreamofexperienceintoanexperienceduringformativeassessmentsituations(heredebriefinginaviation)? Howaredifferentpresentationsandrepresentationsinvolvedinmakingpriorexperiencepresentagain? METHOD Thisstudywasdesignedtoinvestigatethetool-mediatedsocialpracticesthatareperformedtomakepresentagainaspectsoflivedexperiencesothatthelattercomestostandoutasanexperienceintheDeweyansense.Thesessionsareintendednotonlytoassesspilotsbutalsotoallowthemtolearnactinginsituationsnotnormallyencounteredduringregularflying(e.g.,enginefailure).Thestudyemploysaformofexperiencesamplingmethodologyideallysuitedforthestudyofbehaviorinorganizationsbecauseitincreasesourunderstandingofvariabilityinhowpeoplefeel,think,andactoverthecourseoftheirdailylives,andhow

momentaryexperiencesandeventscanimpactavarietyofindividual-leveloutcomes(Dimotakis,Ilies,&Judge,2013,p.325,emphasisadded).Thedesignhereismatchedtothetheoreticalunderpinningsofthisstudyconcerninglearning(outcome)fromexperience.Design Thisstudyisanaturalisticinvestigationinwhichairlines(pilots)wereinvitedtoparticipateaccordingtoa2x2factorialdesign(Figure1):(a)acompanyeitherusesordoesnotuseanexplicithuman-factorsbasedmodelofassessmentofpilotperformance(MAPP)and(b)acompanyusesordoesnotuseadebriefingtool(DBT).However,airlinecompanieswerenestedwithincellssothatanystatisticallysignificanttestsmaybeduetothecompanydifferencesratherthaneffectsoftooluse.Theinvestigationispartofalargerethnographicstudyconcernedwiththeassessmentandtrainingofairlinepilots.Thedebriefingsessionswerepartoftheparticipatingcompaniesregularactivitiesduringaspecifictimemadeavailablefordatacollection.Sessionswererecordedinvolvingfiveregionalairlinesinthesouthernhemisphere,28usingatwin-propelleraircraftfromoneoftwomajormanufacturersandoneflyingjets.

InsertFigure1abouthereAccessandEthics Thisstudyispartofaresearchprogramthatbringstogetheruniversityandindustrypartners.Thethirdauthor,havingbeenacommercialpilotandhavingservedasflightexaminerforanaircraftmanufacturer,establishedrelationswithmanyairlinesinthegeographicalareathatcontributetofundingresearchontheiroperations.Thisisanimportantfirststepinaccessingdebriefingsessionsthatarenormallyheldincameraandarerarelyaccessiblebyresearchers.Becauseofour

PresencingFromPasttoFutureExperience10pastresearchinthecontext,airlinemanagers,pilots,andlaborunionshavecometorecognizethebenefitsthattheyaccruefromparticipatinginappliedcognitiveresearch,whichincludedevisingmoreefficientassessmentmethodsandinstruments. Becauseofthesensitivenatureofthedata,approvalwassoughtandprovidedbytheuniversityethicsboard,theairlines,therelevantlaborunions,andtheindividualpilots.Concerningthelatter,theethicsprotocolincludedastatementintheinvitationthatnon/participation(withdrawal)wouldnotaffectemploymentstatus.Themulti-leveledapprovalprocesswasimportantespeciallyinthecaseofcompaniesusingthevideo-baseddebriefingtool,asrecordingsfromthesimulatornormallyaredestroyed,asrecommendedbytheU.S.FederalAviationAuthority(FAA)(2004).(Oneconsequenceofdestructionisthatitpreventsthepossibilityofcourtsubpoenasshouldapilotbeinvolvedinacrash.) Recommendationsfordebriefingtendtoincludetheresponsibilityoftheevaluatororfacilitatortosetapositive,non-threatening,andsupportiveclimate(FAA,2004;Fanning&Gaba,2007).However,inthepresentstudy,debriefing,thoughoccurringinasimulator,inherentlycontainsathreateningcomponentbecausethepilotsareassessedinadditiontoengageinlearning.Failureisinherenttothenatureofthesedebriefingsessionsbecausetheoutcomeoftheassessmentcanleadapilottobeingtakenoffregulardutyandtobeassignedtoretraining.Participants Fiveairlinesfromtwocountriesinthesouthernhemispherewereinvolvedinthestudy.Participantsinthestudywerethoseflightexaminersandpilots(a)slottedinthesimulatorduringthisperiodand(b)willingtoparticipateinthestudy.Atotalof38pilots(MAGE=37.2years,SDAGE=8.3)underwentexaminationandtraining.Therewasawiderangeofpriorexperienceasmeasuredbyyearsascommercialpilot,whichrangedfrom4to34years(MFLY=12.7yrs,SDFLY=8.1),orbytotalflyinghours,whichrangedfromalowof1,200hrstoahighof16,000hrs(MHRS=5,710,SDHRS=3,431).DetailsforpilotswithdifferentrankandexperienceareprovidedinTable1.Althoughpilotsmayalreadyhaveconsiderableexperience(e.g.,oneparticipatingpilotintrainingalreadyhad7yearsascommercialpilotand3,200flighthours),theyundergospecialtype-ratingtrainingwhenhiredtoflyanaircrafttypenewtothem.Sixofthepilotsinvolvedwereintrainingorwereundergoingend-of-trainingassessment.Pilotsbegintheircareeronaparticularaircraftasfirstofficersoncetheyhavecompletedthetype-ratingtraining.Thereweren=14firstofficers.Experiencedandcompetentfirstofficersbecomecaptainsafterhavingundergonecommandupgradetraining.Therewere14pilotsattherankofcaptain.Experiencedcaptainsmaybecomeflightexaminersafterhavingundergoneon-the-jobtrainingwithanotherflightexaminer.Therewerefourflightexaminersamongtheexaminedpilots;threeofthemalsoservedasflightexaminersinthisstudy.Therewerethreefemalepilots(n=3),oneeachattheranksoftrainee,firstofficer,andcaptain.

InsertTable1abouthere

PresencingFromPasttoFutureExperience11 Atotalof29debriefingsessionswererecorded,sometimesinvolvingrepeatedsessionswiththesameflightexaminer/pilotscombinations,sessionswiththesameflightexaminerbutdifferentexaminees,andtrainingsessionsforexperiencedpilotsintheprocessoftrainingtoflytheparticularaircraftoftheirnewemployer.Therewereatotalof14flightexaminerswithconsiderablecareersaspilotsandaccumulatedflyinghours(Table1).Allflightexaminersweremale.Theirflightexaminerexperiencevariedwidely,fromthe1yearofanexaminerstillintrainingtothe23yearsofthemostseasonedexaminer(MEX=9.7yrs,SDEX=9.2).DebriefingandAssessmentDebriefing Thecontextofthisstudyonlearningfromexperienceisconstitutedbydebriefingsessionsastheseoccurineverydayaviationpractice.Thepracticeofdebriefingperformanceonceanactivityorexercisehasbeencompletedisintegraltoarangeofdomains,includingthemilitary(e.g.,Adler,Bliese,McGurk,Hoge,&Castro,2009),teachertrainingandprofessionaldevelopment(e.g.,Flint,Zisook,&Fisher,2011),medicalpracticeandsimulationexercisesinhealthcare(Fanning&Gaba,2007),andaviation(Dismukes,2000).DebriefingfitsintoaDewey-inspiredexperientiallearningparadigmthoughttobeespeciallyeffectiveforadultlearners(Kolb,1984).Thereisrecognitionthathowmuchpilotslearnfromexercisesintheflightsimulatordependsonthedebriefingsessionsthatmore-or-lessimmediatelyfollow(Dismukesetal.,2000). Recollectionandaccuratedescriptionofwhathashappenedareimportantingredientstosuccessfullearningfromexperienceduringdebriefing.Theintensityofafour-hoursimulatorsession,wherepilotsareinvolvedinamannerbestdescribedbythetermabsorbedcoping,hampersrecallingsituationsingreaterdetail(Dismukesetal.,2000).Theoreticalanalysisofabsorbedcopingandrelatedexperiencesofflowormeditationsuggeststhatpreciselybecauseinthesemodalitiesofexperiencethesituationisnotapprehendedbymeansofrepresentations,theycannotbeimmediatelyrepresentedwhentheexperiencehascometoaclose(Husserl,1980).Centraltothepracticesofrecallinganddescribingwhathashappenedduringthesimulatedflightsituationsarethetoolsandrepresentationthatmakeitpossibleforthingsandeventstobepresentwhiletheyareabsent.Althoughregulatorybodiesrecommendaudiovisualfeedbackduringdebriefingofline-orientedflighttrainingandothertraining,whichisheldtobeanexcellentwayforflightcrewmemberstoassesstheirskillsasindividualsandasteammembers(FAA,2004,p.7),thispracticeisnotyetwidelyimplementedintheindustry(e.g.Hutchins,Weibel,Fouse,Emmenegger,&Holder,2013).TheFAAadvisoryalsostatesthatthegreatestimpactofdebriefingarisesfromself-andpeer-producedcritiqueinthecontextofguidancefromafacilitator.Integraltoviewingthemselvesisthethird-personperspective;andthevideotapesarecrucialbecauseoftheircapabilityofvividdepictionofstrengthsandweaknessesinperformance.Researchshows,however,thattherecommendedbehaviorstendnottobe

PresencingFromPasttoFutureExperience12implementedinactualdebriefingsessions(e.g.,Dismukesetal.,2000)limitingtheamountoflearningthatcanaccrueforthepilotsunderexamination.OrganizationofDebriefingSessions Theaviationregulatorsinthetwocountrieswherethestudytookplacecurrentlyspecifytwoannualassessmentsessions,eachlasting2days.Oneachday,thereisa4-hoursimulatorsession,whichtendstobebrokenintotwosessionswithabrief,approximately15-minutebreakbetweenthefirstandsecondhalf.Thetimeinthesimulatorisfollowedbya1-hourslotdedicatedtodebriefing,withapproximately1015minutesgivenforabreakduringwhichmanyflightexaminersprepareforwhatistocome.Althoughprovidedwitha1-hrslot,thesessionslastedameanofX=36.4minutes(SD=14.3).Therewasaconsiderablespread,theshortestsessionlastingonly11minutes,thelongest57minutes.WeconductedanANOVAincludingthe28sessionsfromfourairlines.Therewasasignificanteffect(F(3,24)=3.59,p