Meeting the Challenges of Wildfire

A Worthwhile Investment While human safety is priority one, firefighting also protects Tennessee’s 14 million acres of forestland. Forests and the forest products industry accounts for $21.7 billion or seven percent of Tennessee’s economy, employing more than 184,000 workers, 5.2 percent of the workforce. Outdoor sports like hunting and fishing, which depend upon healthy forests, contribute an additional $2.5 billion in the state’s economy, and the scenic beauty of our forests supports the state’s $10.3 billion tourism industry. Forest fires are also a threat to homes and other property. Each year over a dozen Tennessee homes are lost to wildfire, and even more outbuildings and equipment are lost.

Fleets of Tractor Plows acquired to replace aging bulldozers, were fitted with plows and safety cages, and are critical tools in containing wildfires on the type of terrain found in our state. Smaller than most commercial bulldozers, tractor-plows are easier to transport on rural roads and to

operate in tight conditions and varying terrain. Tractor-plows cut a barrier around a fire. The front blade clears timber and debris while the back plow cuts a fireline, a shallow ditch clear of leaves, needles and other forest fuels. Fire set along the inside of the fireline burns toward the oncoming wildfire resulting in a wide firebreak--in effect “fighting fire with fire.” Nearly a third of the Division of Forestry's firefighting bulldozers had passed retirement age and another third were less than six years away. Governor Bredesen’s FY ’05 budget issued $20 million in seven-year notes to completely replace the ageing fleet, a first for the Southeast and possibly the nation.

Forestry, wildlife & fisheries

Update newsletter October/NOVEMBER 2016

IN THIS ISSUE

Meeting the Challenges of Wildfire

Timber Tax Time

Broiler Litter Not Likely to Affect

Northern Bobwhite or Wild Turkeys

Dry Weather and Wood Products

Pastures and Drought – Looking Forward

Comparing Native Grasses to

Summer Annuals

Hardwood Analysis Trends

Drought Influence on Trees

Forest Opening Size

Thinning Even-Aged Hardwood Stands

Wildlife Management Calendar

Faculty/Staff Directory

Visit our website

http://fwf.ag.utk.edu/

https://www.facebook.com/UTFWF/?hc_ref=NEWSFEED

FWF Faculty and Staff Directory

located on page 14

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Physical Fitness Standards Wildland firefighting is very physically and mentally demanding. In areas where heavy equipment cannot be used, firelines are built by firefighters using hand tools. To improve employee health and safety, the Division of Forestry adopted new physical standards for forestry firefighters on August 1, 2004. All newly hired forestry firefighters must demonstrate physical conditioning by completing a 2-mile walk within 30 minutes while wearing a 25-pound pack. The test is based on standards for USDA Forest Service firefighters. Though not a condition of employment, forestry firefighters employed prior August 1, are required to participate in the test as part of a physical assessment.

Firewise Program

Across the state many Tennesseans are moving away from crowded urban areas to rural homes. In many instances these homes are built in the wildland environment. This situation is referred to as the "Wildland-Urban Interface" (WUI). Wildfires that occur in the WUI also threaten and sometimes destroy homes and other improvements. The Division of Forestry is actively working with communities and local fire departments to educate and inform homeowners about how they can mitigate this risk. For more information, visit the Firewise pages on this website. http://burnsafetn.org/firewise.html

BURN SAFE TENNESSEE!!

The national Firewise Communities program is a multi-agency effort designed to reach beyond the fire service by involving homeowners, community leaders, planners, developers, and others in the effort to protect people, property, and natural resources from the risk of wildland fire- before a fire starts! The Firewise Communities approach emphasizes community responsibility for planning in the design of a safe community as well as effective emergency response, and individual responsibility for safer home construction and design, landscaping, and maintenance. While many people play an important role in making homes safer from wildfire, no one has more control over the safety of a home than homeowners! Please explore the various Firewise categories on the following website, http://burnsafetn.org/firewise.html If you or your agency or department would still like additional assistance, contact your local Forestry Office or the divisions’ Firewise program coordinator, Leon Konz at leonkonz@gmail.com or (865) 414-5667.

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Timber Tax Time! Larry Tankersley, Extension Associate, Forestry Specialist

If you sold timber this year, you’ll need to figure out how to

settle up with Uncle Sam. It is important not to pay too much;

we have two ways to save on taxes from timber sale proceeds.

First, if you inherited the timber or have otherwise owned it for

more than 12 months, your proceeds should qualify for long-

term capital gains treatment. What this means is that you

should qualify for taxation at tax rates lower than the rate for

you ordinary income. If your ordinary income puts you in the

10 or 15% tax rate then you don’t owe any taxes for the long-

term capital gain. Folks in the middle income brackets (25%, 28%, 33%, and 35%) owe 15% on their

long-term capitals. Folks in the highest ordinary bracket (39.6%) are required to pay 20% on their long-

term capital gains. Note your tax savings by filing your timber sale proceeds as long-term capital gains

vs. ordinary income; 10 to 20% depending on your ordinary rate.

The second way we can save taxes on timber sale proceeds is by reducing the “gross” or total

amount that you made by your “cost or other basis” this phrase on the tax form means that you can

deduct any costs that you incurred in order to sell the timber such as legal fees or consulting fees.

Consider that you paid an attorney $200 and your consultant 10% of the timber proceeds on a $30,000

for a total cost of $3,200. In this case you would subtract $3,200 from $30,000 and only long-term

capital gains taxes on $26,800.

Your basis in timber is the same as a “basis” on other capital assets however many of us don’t

establish that timber basis when the timber becomes ours. Your timber basis is the amount that you

paid for the timber at purchase. The difficulty for most timber purchases is that we also buy the land

the trees are sitting on. The value of the timber and the value of the land must be evaluated as

separate assets and the purchase price “allocate” between the two. The University of Tennessee has a

publication that discusses the price allocation procedure and other issues related to timber basis at the

following web address: https://extension.tennessee.edu/publications/Documents/PB1691.pdf

Returning to our previous example, if you purchased the timber a couple of years ago and

determine that the amount you paid for the timber at that time was $6,800. You would add this to the

$3,200 and subtract $10,000 from the $30,000 and only pay taxes at long-term capital gains rates on

$20,000.

These tax savings are designed by the Federal government to be incentives for growing more

timber for the country and Tennessee. If you sold timber in 2016, you should discuss these incentives

with you tax preparer. For additional information, Linda Wang with the US Forest Service has prepared

“Tax Tips for Forest Landowners for the 2015 Tax Year”. Check it out at the following website:

http://www.timbertax.org/publications/fs/taxtips/TaxTips2016.pdf

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If you get a group together, I’d be proud to visit and conduct a workshop on Timber Taxation. If no

group, don’t hesitate to contact me at 865-974-7977 or ltanker1@utk.edu and I’ll do my best to help

you out. Remember tax evasion is against the law, but tax avoidance is a great sport!

Broiler Litter Not Likely to Affect Northern Bobwhite or Wild Turkeys, but…. Craig Harper, Professor, Wildlife Management

Broilers are chickens raised for meat. Many landowners use litter from broiler houses to fertilize

pastures for increased forage production. A commonly asked question by those concerned about

wildlife, particularly northern bobwhite and wild turkey, is whether or not it is safe to spread broiler

litter on fields frequented by quail and turkeys since they are susceptible to some diseases prevalent

among chickens. One of those diseases is histomoniasis (blackhead disease). Histomoniasis is caused by

a protozoan parasite, Histomonas meleagridis, which often is found in cecal worms of domestic

chickens and turkeys. Bobwhites or wild turkeys may contract the disease by ingesting cecal worm eggs

infected with histomonads while foraging for insects, seed, or other plant parts. Birds infected with

histomoniasis develop lesions on both the liver and ceca and may appear lethargic and depressed.

Northern bobwhite are moderately susceptible to the disease (low to moderate mortality rates),

whereas wild turkeys are severely susceptible (moderate to high mortality rates).

Spreading broiler litter on pastures as fertilizer is not likely a problem for wild bobwhites or wild

turkeys for two reasons. First, histomoniasis is far more prevalent in pen-reared quail or turkeys as

opposed to wild birds because pen-reared birds tend to be infected with Heterakis gallinarum, the

cecal worm of domestic chickens and turkeys. This cecal worm is an excellent vector of histomoniasis.

Wild bobwhites and turkeys commonly are infected with another species of cecal worm, Heterakis

isolonche, which is not a good vector of histomoniasis. The second reason broiler litter is unlikely a

problem for wild bobwhites or turkeys is that broilers are killed at an early age, usually 5 – 7 weeks.

The life cycle of the cecal nematode, Heterakis gallinarum, requires about 40 days. Therefore, many of

the broilers do not live long enough for the cecal nematode to complete its life cycle and enable the

bird to be infected with the parasite. However, some broiler breeds may not reach slaughter weight

until they are older than 6 – 7 weeks, and it has become more common among poultry producers to re-

use poultry litter in pullet houses for 2 – 4 cycles, which could increase exposure to cecal worms and

the blackhead protozoan. Currently, landowners should not be overly concerned about spreading

broiler litter on fields with regard to disease implications for wild quail and turkeys.

Increased concern may be warranted for using manure from mature chickens (breeders) because

cecal nematodes have adequate time to complete their life cycle in mature chickens. However,

research has not indicated any population-level effects associated with histomoniasis and breeder

litter in Tennessee.

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Dry Weather and Wood Products Adam Taylor, Professor, Material Science and Technology Unit Contact: Taylo29@utk.edu

As I write this, almost all of Tennessee is ‘Abnormally Dry’ according to the USDA Drought Monitor

(http://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/Home/StateDroughtMonitor.aspx?TN). Some parts of East Tennessee

are in the most extreme condition: ‘Exceptional drought’. This lack of water is a challenge for many

animals and plants. For example, some trees that are old or stressed may not be able to live through

the additional stress of drought. But what does this dry weather means for wood products?

For most wood products, the answer is ‘not much’. Wood always contains some water, in balance with

the temperature and relative humidity conditions of the air it is exposed to. This water content of the

wood is called the ‘Equilibrium Moisture Content’ or EMC. Dry weather means dry air which in turn

means that the EMC of exposed woodwork will be a little lower. Reducing wood moisture content

impacts three properties that may be of interest: strength, shrinkage and fuel value.

Strength – drier wood is stronger. This fact is contrary to what many people assume, perhaps because

wet wood is more flexible, and thus may bend more before it breaks. Most wood products that we use

in our daily lives (for example for building our houses) are stronger than they need to be to account for

variability, the possibility of unusual usage - and extreme weather; thus drought-related strength

effects are of little practical concern.

Shrinkage – wood shrinks when it dries. More importantly it shrinks unevenly, so , for example, a once

flat, straight and crack-free deck board can turn into an ugly, twisted, checked, toe-stubbing menace.

Conversely, this shrinkage may also be noticed as a wooden door that closes more easily than it used

to. When rain and wet air finally return, the wood will re-swell and many of the shrinkage-related

changes will be reversed. Coatings such as paints, stains or sealers can slow down the drying (and

wetting) of the wood; however, nothing will prevent the long-term adjustment of the wood with the

conditions surrounding it.

Fuel value – drier wood provides more usable heat when burned. Wood is an excellent fuel but the

water that is in wood must be evaporated when the wood burns. The evaporation of water requires a

lot of energy and more water means that more of the fire’s energy is consumed driving off the water

and less is put off as useful heat. In addition, drier wood is easier to get start a fire with and burns

more cleanly, so drier firewood is better in every way. Hot, dry weather also speeds the drying process

for firewood; so while this dry weather may be killing your garden and torturing your trees, it is doing

good for your firewood pile!

By the time you are reading this, wet weather may have finally arrived. The animals and plants may be

getting some relief. The wood products in and around your home will also be reacting: they will be

picking up moisture from the air, reversing the trends described above, but with mostly modest and

manageable results.

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Managing Native Grass Forages – Pastures and Drought - Looking Forward

Patrick Keyser, Professor, Native Grasslands Management Contact: pkeyser@utk.edu

Many areas in the Mid-South are experiencing drought –with many in severe drought – that is

worsening with no relief in sight. These dry conditions limit options for forage managers now, but it is

worth looking forward and considering steps that can position you to better handle future droughts.

One thing that comes to mind is the importance of drought-hardy perennials. Annuals, warm- and

cool-season, are valuable tools and will, no doubt, play a role in recovery strategies for many

producers. But perennials are a more reliable option for providing forage than annuals. When spring

rains are not timely, desirable summer annuals like crabgrass will not grow. Similarly, species like

annual bluegrass or seeded stands of wheat and rye cannot develop in the fall without timely rain.

A second thing that comes to mind is that so many of our pastures in this region have taken a

beating from successive droughts over the past decade. One result is that we no longer have vigorous,

strong cool-season pastures. Tall fescue is our most drought-tolerant cool-season option, but many of

our “fescue” pastures no longer have good stands. Instead, we have an abundance of annuals, low

quality warm-season grasses, and weeds. Renovation of tall fescue pastures whenever the current

drought breaks can help correct this problem.

Third, we need drought-hardy PERENNIAL warm-season forages. Without reliable, high quality

summer pastures, we put much greater stress on our cool-season pastures by continued grazing

through hot, dry summers. This is a time when cool-season pastures need to be rested. Providing a

perennial warm-season complement to tall fescue will improve forage during this period. It will also

allow for better management of both pastures and, in turn, improved sward condition.

Our most drought tolerant option for summer pasture is native grasses such as, switchgrass,

indiangrass, and big bluestem. These plants have very deep root systems (10 or more feet deep) and

can access water not available to other grasses. In addition, warm-season species have inherently

greater drought tolerance than cool-season grasses because of their physiology. As you evaluate your

pastures in coming months, consider converting those that have not been able to maintain reliable tall

fescue during the repeated droughts of recent years. Such droughty sites are a good option for native

warm-season grasses because of their adaption to such conditions.

Developing perennial pastures on a foundation of drought-hardy species for both the cool (tall

fescue) and warm-season (natives) will put you in a stronger position to handle future droughts. A

good target for the warm-season natives would be approximately 30% of your pasture base. Such a

combination will allow each forage to produce when it is at its best and enable the other to remain

vigorous.

For more information see Establishing Native warm-season grasses for livestock forage in the Mid-

South (SP731-B) and Grazing Native Warm-season Grasses in the Mid-South (SP731-C) at

extension.tennessee.edu/publications/Pages/default.aspx.

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Managing Native Grass Forages –Comparing Native Grasses to Summer Annuals

Patrick Keyser, Professor, Native Grasslands Management Contact: pkeyser@utk.edu

Native warm-season grasses make most of their contribution to a forage program when they are actively growing, late April through early September. Another forage option available during this time is summer annuals such as, crabgrass, pearl millet, or Sudex. So how do natives compare to these annuals?

The most obvious difference between these two forage options is that the natives such as, big bluestem, switchgrass, eastern gamagrass are all perennials that can, with good management, last for a decade and more. Although natives can be expensive to establish, the long life of the stand allows that cost to be spread out over a longer period. Annuals, on the other hand, require the yearly expense of seed, seedbed preparation, and planting. The result? Natives actually produce cheaper gain ($0.31 vs. $0.75 per pound) and cheaper hay ($53 vs. $83 per ton) based on 2011 prices.

Another advantage (of any perennial) is that there is no risk associated with repeated establishment as there is with annuals. There also is no decision to make about when or even if to plant. If you rely on volunteer crabgrass, you will be at the mercy of late spring and early summer rains – making such forages much less reliable than perennials. Indeed, perennials are available year after year, dry spring or wet.

Also, perennials, including natives, are available much earlier in the season than annuals, typically early May vs. early or even mid-June. Of course tall fescue is still productive during this period, but natives will provide much better rates of gain (and no toxicosis) during this period making it advantageous to move cattle to the warm-season forage. One other advantage of the perennial natives is the lack of nitrate or prussic acid issues that can occur in summer annuals.

Based on recent studies conducted at UTIA, average daily gains (pounds) for bred heifers were 1.15 (eastern gamagrass), 1.54 (switchgrass), 1.64 (Sudex), and 2.01 (big bluestem/indiangrass blend). For bred heifers, all of these are acceptable rates of gain. However, the annual provided fewer pounds of total gain per acre (129) than the perennial natives (158 for big bluestem/indiangrass blend, 180 for switchgrass, and 205 for eastern gamagrass) because of the longer grazing season they provided.

It should be clear that perennials have a number of advantages over annuals. That does not mean that there is not a role for summer annuals though. But what it does mean is that you will be “money ahead” (literally!) by basing your long-term plan for addressing summer forage production on perennials. It is also clear, based on data from various studies at UTIA and elsewhere, that natives are a perennial summer option worth considering. For more information, see UT Extension publications SP731-C (Grazing Native Warm-season Grasses in the Mid-South) on line at https://utextension.tennessee.edu/publications/Pages/foragesLivestock.aspx or http://nativegrasses.utk.edu/publications/default.htm.

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Hardwood Analysis and Trends (HAT – Oct 2106) David Mercker, Extension Specialist, Forestry Contact: dmercker@utk.edu

Hardwood Analysis and Trends (HAT) is a periodic commentary that offers insight into markets for

hardwood lumber with focus on species that are more commonly grown and processed in Tennessee.

With this issue of HAT, hardwood lumber trends will emphasize the U.S. condition as a whole. The

information presented is a summary of data provided by the American Hardwood Export Council

(Pryer, T. 2016) and will largely focus on exporting.

During the years 2007 – 2015 (a period that included the U.S. recession), domestic consumption of

graded hardwood lumber experienced a decline of over 50 percent for the following top hardwood

products: furniture, moulding, cabinets, and flooring. This was a result of a precipitous drop in housing

starts, which for the five years preceding the recession averaged about 1.5 million units per year, and

the five years following the recession, averaged about 750,000 per year. Initially, hardwood lumber

prices also dropped, but by early 2010 prices rebounded, eventually peaking in late 2014 at levels

exceeding pre-recession. Since then, moderation has occurred and prices for most species have settled

to near pre-recession levels.

With domestic hardwood lumber demand diminished, lumber merchandizers turned to exports,

which have driven the hardwood lumber market price higher - for some species. During a 15 year

period, beginning in 1999, U.S. grade lumber exports increased from 14 percent of total hardwood

production, to 41 percent. United States leads the world in hardwood lumber exports, in an amount

exceeding $2 billion annually, a figure that more than doubles the closest competitor (Thailand). China

imports more U.S. lumber than any country, with the European Union, Canada, Vietnam, Mexico, and

Japan following. Top imports of U.S. lumber by China, by species, are red oak (38 percent) and Ash (18

percent).

Nearly half of all U.S. exported hardwood lumber is purchased by China and has increased at a rate

outpacing the rest of the world. China is purchasing hardwood lumber predominately for: domestic

consumption, furniture industry, lumber re-exports, and because local logging restrictions are affecting

their domestic lumber supply. China leads the world in wood furniture exports, a category where the

U.S. ranks 10th. Over a 10 year period, ending in 2014, the export value of China’s furniture

experienced nearly a fourfold increase.

The U.S. hardwood industry, including landowners, loggers, and mills, is reliant on China and

perhaps too heavily. An unexpected and sudden restriction to U.S. imports, such as could materialize

from tariffs, quotas, embargos, or health/safety standards, could shock the market. Just as rapidly as

China has lifted our hardwood markets, markets could fade.

Given the above, and looking closer to home, hardwood markets within Tennessee are mostly

solid. This is particularly the case with white and red oaks, but is less so for poplar, hickory, ash, and

sugar maple. Markets are reflective of many variables. Therefore forest landowners with mature

timber should seek the assistance of professional foresters prior to selling. Doing so is wise, in that not

only is timber income maximized, but for assurance that proper silviculture is followed and long term

woodland productivity is enhanced.

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Drought Influences on Trees Wayne Clatterbuck, Professor, Silviculture and Forest Management

A tree strives to be in equilibrium with its environment. Any time the tree is not in equilibrium, the

tree is stressed and must spend extra energy to survive. Drought leads to decreased rates of diameter

and height growth, poor resistance to other stresses, disruption of food production (photosynthesis)

and distribution and changes in the timing and rate of physiological processes, like flower and fruit

production. Visual symptoms of drought stress include wilted leaves, premature defoliation, and

discolored or brown leaves as trees try to conserve their moisture resources. Drought can eventually

kill trees, especially those trees that are older (nearing the end of their life cycle) that do not have

enough stored energy reserves to persist during the drought. Often, stressed trees actually die during

the next growing season because trees are not able to releaf or refoliate with the depletion of energy

reserves during the drought of the previous year.

Most of the variation in tree growth is associated with water supply problems. The term “drought”

denotes a period without precipitation during which the water content of the soil is reduced to such an

extent that trees suffer from lack of water. Water deficits in a tree are formed when transpiration (the

process by which leaves emit moisture and oxygen) exceeds the water supply available to the leaf.

Trees need a drink of water too!

Droughts are common in southeastern landscapes. Many trees are stressed by prolonged periods

of hot, dry weather. Selecting trees that use water efficiently without the need for frequent watering

or irrigation is one way to make your landscape more resistant to droughts. With impending water

shortages in many urban areas leading to prohibitions of irrigation or water, planting trees that are

more tolerant to drought conditions is the best long-term solution to a healthier, low-maintenance

landscape.

A few factors to consider when selecting trees that use water efficiently are:

1. Native trees are better adapted to local soil, moisture, climate and pest conditions than non-native trees.

2. Trees with small leaves (linden, elm, willow oak) are more easily cooled and have better water-use efficiency than trees with larger leaves (sycamore, cottonwood, basswood, tuliptree).

3. Upland species are usually more drought-resistant than bottomland species. 4. Early successional species, those that colonize old fields and disturbed sites (pines, black locust,

elms), use water more effectively than late successional species (sugar maple and beech). 5. Trees with deep, upright crowns are more effective in water use than those with flat, wide-

spreading crowns. 6. Trees with multi-layered crowns having many branches and leaf layers (oak, ash, gum hickory)

are more water efficient than those trees with leaf canopies that concentrate leaves in single layers along the outer edge of the crown (beech, sourwood, redbud, magnolia).

7. Drought-tolerant plants usually have thick bark and leaf waxes (cuticle), efficient stomatal control and extensive root systems.

Page 10

Examples of a few trees that are not drought-tolerant include black cherry, basswood, beech, birch,

buckeye, cottonwood, dogwood, sassafras, sugar maple, sycamore and yellow-poplar (tuliptree). These

species respond to drought by shedding leaves prematurely or wilting.

Although there is not an ideal drought-resistant tree for every landscape, many trees have drought

resistant features (small leaf size, degree of leaf wax, crown form) and are more tolerant of dry

conditions than others. Planting trees in locations where they are only partially exposed during the day

and not totally exposed to direct sunlight in an open area will provide some drought relief. Refer to the

following UT Extension publications for more information on trees with drought-tolerant attributes and

information on why trees become stressed and die.

https://extension.tennessee.edu/publications/Documents/sp570.pdf and

https://extension.tennessee.edu/publications/Documents/SP615.pdf

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Forest Opening Size

Wayne Clatterbuck, Professor, Silviculture and Forest Management Contact:wclatterbuck@utk.edu

A fundamental, but not well known publication by Chris LeDoux (Forest Products Journal 49(3): 34-

37 --- 1999) evaluated effective size of forest openings from biological and economic perspectives by

integrating logging studies with regeneration studies. LeDoux is a harvesting engineer and used his

own work with cable and ground-based logging systems with the regeneration work of Martin Dale

who assessed 89 openings ranging in size from 0.04 to 1.61 acres in the upland oak area of West

Virginia, Illinois, Ohio, and Kentucky. The results 30 years after harvesting are not surprising.

There was a higher proportion of shade-tolerant species (beech, maple) in small openings, particularly those less than 0.1-acre. As opening size increased up to one acre, the proportion of shade-intolerant and intermediate species increased.

Smaller groups have less trees/acre and smaller trees, while larger openings had more trees/acre and larger trees.

Economic success depends on product markets, value of tree species, tree quality, and logging costs

Total harvesting costs increase as size of opening decreases.

Small openings have a large proportion of their area influenced by the surrounding forest (edge effects) compared to larger openings resulting in reductions in total height and merchantable height growth of the new regeneration.

Larger openings had larger trees, of shade intolerant species which are more valued.

The study suggests that financial yield is maximized when an opening size of 1.25 acres or larger is

implemented, from both financial and biological aspects.

Note that the term “group selection” is not used in this context. This phrase/term in the silviculture

literature is part of the uneven-aged management system. The maximum opening size or diameter

associated with a group selection is two times the total height of the overstory trees. For example, if

tree height is 100 feet, the maximum opening size would be 200 feet across or 0.72 acres. Thus, larger

opening size should be considered even-aged management.

Too often, group selection is used in terminology to denote small opening size. If that phrase is

used, then the intent is to practice uneven-aged management, i.e., groups are not maintained or

differentiated in the stand. However, if opening size is large enough to be maintained, even-aged

management prevails and the harvest area should be referred to as an even-aged opening.

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Thinning Even-Aged Hardwood Stands

Wayne Clatterbuck, Professor, Silviculture and Forest Management Contact:wclatterbuck@utk.edu

Thinning produces bigger and better trees faster. Thinning removes the poor quality trees and

concentrates growth on the best trees by giving them more growing space. The faster growth usually

shortens the rotation age as much as 20 years. The four questions with thinnings are how, when, how

much, and how often. The answers are not straight-forward and will depend on management

objectives and site productivity. Expected stand growth will vary based on factors such as stand age

and residual stand density (number of trees/acre and basal area --- defined as cross-sectional area of a

tree stem). This article will focus on even-aged stands that are 25 to 30 years old or more.

Inventory Your Stand --- Although most professionals will measure the trees in a stand to determine

basal areas and number of trees/acre to determine stand stocking on a stocking chart, most stands can

be visually accessed by determining the amount of sunlight that reaches the forest floor. If little

sunlight is reaching the forest floor, the overhead crowns (leaves) are intercepting the sunlight such

that there is little growing space between tree crowns. A thinning is required to allow selected trees

more crown space to grow --- more leaves, more photosynthesis, larger crowns, and more diameter

growth resulting in larger diameter trees in a shorter time period. Without thinning, trees have skinny

stems with small crowns because the only space for crown expansion is upward. Tree crowns do not

expand laterally unless space presently occupied by adjacent trees becomes available. If plenty of

sunlight is reaching the forest floor, there is enough space for trees to continue to grow. A thinning is

not required at that time.

Thinning Method --- The most frequently used method of thinning is termed “free” thinning where

trees in all crown classes are removed to give the best growing conditions and space for the remaining

trees. The objective is to distribute the best trees as evenly as possible throughout the stand. The

sequence is usually cutting the cull, defective (poor form), and undesirable species trees first.

Intermediate and suppressed crown classes are removed next to culture more desirable species of

seedlings and saplings that will eventually replace the stand once the final harvest is made, well

beyond the present thinning objective. Finally, lower value species and some desirable trees are

removed from the overstory to achieve uniform spacing of the better “leave” trees. Although some

larger trees are harvested, many smaller trees are removed in thinning resulting in an increase in the

average diameter of trees remaining in the stand.

First Thinning --- When the first thinning is conducted is probably the most important decision in

managing hardwood stands. The decision is conflicted because it has both biological and economic

considerations. The first thinning is implemented in younger stands that respond best to an increase in

growing space, provides immediate financial returns from harvested products, and influences the value

and growth of the stand for many years. Often thinning, though needed, is delayed because markets

are not available for smaller diameter products. Without thinning, stand growth slows because

growing space is limited. For most owners, thinning is not implemented until a positive cash flow

occurs.

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Tree Response to Thinning --- Diameter growth of individual trees increases with thinning, the heavier

the thinning the more the increase. However a breakeven point occurs if too many trees are removed

because the growing space is not being effectively utilized. Open stands are more susceptible to

weather events. Some species such as white oak develop epicormic branches when stocking is reduced

too much. These branches persist causing serious defects (knots) degrading wood quality and value of

lumber. For most stands, thinning more than 50% of the trees or basal area at one time increases the

risk for tree damage.

Thinning Guidelines

When to Thin --- Thinning usually occurs when the crown canopy closes (crown growing space is

limited) and when trees can be economically harvested. On most hardwood stands of average

productivity, thinning usually occurs in the 25- to 35-year age range: older ages on poorer productivity

sites where growth is slower and at younger ages on the better productivity sites where growth excels.

How Much to Thin --- The first thinning should be as heavy as possible, not exceeding more than 50%

of the number of trees or basal area. Young stands respond most to thinning and the crowns will grow

and close quickly. Subsequent thinnings will probably be lighter, removing 25 to 40% of the trees. Trees

are older and respond to thinning and increased growing space more slowly than in younger stands.

The goal is to eventually produce a well-stocked stand with 40 to 50 desirable, high quality trees per

acre for the final harvest.

How Often to Thin --- Frequency of thinning depends on the intensity of the first and subsequent cuts -

-- time it takes for the remaining trees after the previous thin to close the overhead canopy again. . The

more that is cut, the longer it takes to reach crown closure and vice versa, the fewer trees thinned, the

faster crown closure occurs. That time period also is influenced by site productivity, growth rate, and

the rotation age (tree maturity). Once the rate of tree growth begins to decline, tree maturity is

reached. Generally hardwood stands are thinned 2 or at the most 3 times within a rotation depending

on markets and site productivity.

In summary, thinning can guide your forest management regime by growing trees bigger, better,

faster, and with greater value than would otherwise occur without management. Being aware of the

how, when, how much, and frequency of thinning allows your forest ownership goals to be

accomplished in a more progressive and responsible manner.

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Wildlife Management for December

Craig Harper, Professor, Wildlife Management Contact: charper@utk.edu

Wildlife Notes

Black bears and chipmunks begin hibernating Gray and fox squirrels are breeding River otters begin breeding Mink, muskrat, and bobcat fur are prime Northern mourning doves migrating into TN Migrating woodcock numbers peak Waterfowl numbers often peak in December, according to the weather Owls and hawks increase vocalization and are establishing territories just prior to mating season Christmas Bird Count conducted in late December

Habitat Management

Do not mow old-fields if you have any interest in wildlife

- mowing at this time destroys much needed winter cover - mowing accumulates thatch, limits mobility, and suppresses the seedbank - wait until late March/early April and burn or disk the field - if you can’t burn or disk, at least wait until early April (just prior to nesting seasons) before mowing - burning or disking are preferable strategies for setting back succession and managing fields for

wildlife - refer to Chapter 6 in Native Warm-Season Grasses: Identification, Establishment, and Management

for Wildlife and Forage Production in the Mid-South, PB 1752 for additional information on managing early successional plant communities

Portions of old-fields may be burned or disked in December, but it is best if you wait until late winter/early spring if possible

- setting back succession later in the season (March) will allow winter cover to stand through the season

- burning / disking now, however, may be necessary if considerable acreage needs disturbance, but may be difficult because of wet weather

- do not burn / disk all available cover in one year - ideally, disturbance, whether burning or disking, should be completed in a block pattern rather than

strips Disk firebreaks around fields and woods (if it’s not too wet) before the ground freezes

- disking now will stimulate forbs next spring and will enable you to burn when conditions are favorable

It is not too early to conduct dormant-season burning in woods (hardwoods and pines) to reduce fuel loads and enhance conditions for wildlife; when the weather is right, get it done; this is especially important if you have a considerable amount of acreage to burn; if you wait until March/early April, you may not get it all done, depending on weather

- obtain burning permit from Tennessee Division of Forestry - make sure firebreaks are in place - only burn when duff layer (below leaf litter) is moist (not usually a problem in December)

Page 15

- remove any relatively large woody debris from around the base of desirable trees to avoid damaging

the tree - primarily use a backing fire with relatively low flame lengths (6 – 12 inches) - refer to A Guide for Prescribed Fire in Southern Forests for additional information on using

prescribed fire

Enhance the cover around old-fields by thinning (killing) undesirable trees 100 – 300 feet into the woods (edge feathering)

- girdle unwanted trees and spray wound with a mixture of Garlon and Arsenal AC - use a 20% solution of Arsenal (imazapyr) or a 50% solution of Garlon 3-A (triclopyr) with water - dead standing trees (snags) provide perching, roosting, denning, and feeding sites for many wildlife

species - increased groundcover is stimulated by the additional sunlight, improving forage and nesting cover

for many wildlife species Continue to strip-mow or silage-chop dove fields to provide seed and hunting opportunities

- don’t cut it all – leave some for January/February - migrating doves appreciate your efforts and late dove seasons can offer great shooting

Spray perennial forage food plots for weed control if necessary

- 4 ounces of imazethapyr (such as Pursuit) tank mixed with 12 ounces of clethodim (such as Clethodim) will control many broadleaf weeds and problem grasses in a perennial clovers, chicory, and/or alfalfa

Fertilize winter forage plots containing oats, wheat, and/or cereal rye

- 30 pounds of N per acre - P and K according to soil test

Soil test now for spring plots

- applications of lime require about 6 months before full effect on pH is realized Plant trees/shrubs for wildlife

- plant trees/shrubs in blocks at end of fields and in “odd” areas - apple, pear, crabapple, wild plum, sumac, persimmon, mulberry, and elderberry are good choices - refer to Improving Your Backyard Wildlife Habitat, PB 1633, for a list of additional trees and shrubs

to consider Establish hedgerows across fields with soft-mast-bearing trees and shrubs

- hedgerows can be used to break-up fields into sections - hedgerows should be at least 50 feet wide—a single row of planted shrubs/trees with at least 25

feet of fallow growth of blackberry, forbs, etc. on either side - spray tall fescue and other undesirable grasses before planting!

Fertilize/prune trees/shrubs for increased soft mast production

- this is for trees/shrubs out in the open, not those in woods - fertilizing oaks in woods is a waste of time and money; to increase mast potential for trees in the

woods, refer to Forest Improvement activities Continue Forest Improvement activities

- stimulate growth among oaks, beech, cherry, persimmon, blackgum, and other mast producers by killing surrounding competitors

- girdle unwanted trees and spray wound with appropriate herbicide - use a 20% solution of Arsenal (imazapyr) or a 50% solution of Garlon 3-A (triclopyr) with water

- Page 9

Spray Chinese privet and Japanese honeysuckle

- spraying the green foliage of these species now prevents harming desirable species that are dormant

- 5% solution of Garlon 3-A or 1% solution of glyphosate herbicide and water works well for honeysuckle

- 3% solution of glyphosate herbicide works well for privet Erect boxes for wood ducks and bluebirds

- 1 box per 100 yards of shoreline is adequate for wood ducks - clean-out old wood duck boxes and replenish fresh wood shavings (about 4 – 6 inches) - screech owls and squirrels may use the boxes through winter - repair/install predator shields if necessary - bluebird boxes should be no closer than 80 yards apart - up to 9 or more bluebirds may roost in a single box on cold nights, however, insulated wrapping

around the box (leaving entrance hole open) may be needed to protect birds in box; even with several birds in the box, they may freeze to death if temperatures drop into single digits overnight

Put out bird feeders and keep them full

- refer to Improving Your Backyard Wildlife Habitat, PB 1633, for information on specific feeders and seed for birds

Flood waterfowl impoundments

- a depth of 8 – 12 inches is ideal for dabbling ducks

Duck numbers should be rising – watch the weather!

Wildlife Damage/Population Management

Close crawl spaces under the house and check for openings in the attic

- helps keep snakes, skunks, and squirrels from getting into places where they are not welcome - rodents are caching food for the rest of winter; take action now to keep them out of your house - glueboards are very effective in trapping mice, snakes, and lizards looking for a warm place inside

your basement or garage Blackbirds and starlings have gathered into large winter flocks

- don’t allow them to roost in your trees; if they start, they’ll form a habit - repel them with noise makers (shotguns, firecrackers, banging metal pans together) - be persistent

Vultures may be problematic around structures and livestock holding areas

- scare tactics using firearms and pyrotechnics are effective—persistence is necessary - it is against the law to shoot a vulture without a permit - contact USDA-Wildlife Services for severe problems and information on obtaining a permit

Refer to Managing Nuisance Animals and Associated Damage Around the Home, PB 1624 for additional information on wildlife damage management.

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For more information: Refer to Managing Nuisance Animals and Associated Damage Around the Home, PB 1624, for additional information on wildlife damage management

URL’s Native Warm-Season Grasses: Identification, Establishment, and Management for Wildlife and Forage Production in the Mid-South, PB 1752 https://extension.tennessee.edu/publications/Documents/PB1752.pdf A Guide to Successful Wildlife Food Plots: Blending Science with Common Sense, PB 1769 https://extension.tennessee.edu/publications/Documents/PB1769.pdf

Managing Nuisance Animals and Associated Damage Around the Home, PB1624 https://extension.tennessee.edu/publications/Documents/pb1624.pdf

Improving Your Back Yard Wildlife Habitat, PB1633 https://extension.tennessee.edu/publications/Documents/PB1633.pdf

department of forestry, wildlife & fisheries

2431 Joe Johnson Drive E-mail: http://fwf.ag.utk.edu

274 Ellington Plant Science Bldg. Telephone: (865) 974-7346

Knoxville, TN 37996-4563 Fax: (865) 974-4714

EXTENSION FACULTY AND STATE SPECIALISTS

Dr. Keith L. Belli, Professor and Department Head

865-974-7346, kbelli@utk.edu

Dr. Wayne K. Clatterbuck, Professor, Silviculture & Forest Management

865-974-7990, wclatterbuck@utk.edu

Dr. Craig A. Harper, Professor, Wildlife Management

865-974-7346, charper@utk.edu

Dr. Patrick D. Keyser, Professor, Native Grasslands Management

865-974-0644, pkeyser@utk.edu

Dr. Sharon Jean-Phillipe, Associate Professor, Urban Forestry

865-974-7126, jeanphil@utk.edu

Dr. Adam Taylor, Professor, Forest Products

865-946-1125, adamtaylor@utk.edu

Dr. David C. Mercker, Extension Specialist, Forestry Specialist

731-425-4703, dmercker@utk.edu

Mr. Larry A. Tankersley, Extension Associate, Forestry Specialist

865-974-7977, ltanker1@utk.edu

fisheries first responders

East Tennessee Region Central Tennessee Region

Mr. Mannie Bedwell, Hamblen County Mr. Creig Kimbro, Grundy County

Extension Agent, County Director Extension Agent, County Director

423-586-6111,, ebedwell@utk.edu 931-592-3971, ckimbro@utk.edu

West Tennessee Region

Extension Agent, County Director

Mr. Ron Blair, Henderson County

731-968-5266, rblair3@utk.edu

extension professional staff

Mrs. Mirian Wright, Administrative Assistant

865-974-7346, mwright@utk.edu