Forest Soils

Khan Towhid Osman

Forest Soils

Properties and Management

ISBN 978-3-319-02540-7 ISBN 978-3-319-02541-4 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-02541-4Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2013951530

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Khan Towhid OsmanDepartment of Soil ScienceUniversity of ChittagongChittagongBangladesh

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Preface

In an account of Forest Soils (Chap. 147, Encyclopedia of Soil Science by Ratan Lal, published by CRC Press in 2005), Nicholas B. Comerford asked “Why study forest soils? If there is a subdiscipline called forest soils, why not study corn or tomato soils?” He replied himself by saying that studying forest soil science is justified because “a long-lived forest cover imposes a unique set of characteristics in which it grows”. He further argued that “soil characteristics and processes important to the forest soil scientists are not of great concern to cropland soil scientists for whom the biological and economic time frames of food production are relatively short”. Forest soil characteristics are not only unique but their interpretations are also differ-ent. A dense and thick vegetative cover, a continuous forest floor, very deep root systems, long duration (centuries for natural forests; decades for man-made forests) of occupancy of site, and natural succession of vegetation and soil as a coupled system make forest soils a distinctly dif-ferent entity. For example, we do not get a good crop harvest from a poorly fertile soil unless we add adequate fertilizers to an agricultural soil, but very productive tropical rainforests often can occur in poorly fertile Oxisols and Ultisols. Consideration of both native soil fertility and nutrient recycling may better give a projection of the forest site quality and productivity.

Forests cover almost one-third land area of the world. Scientific investigations of forest soil properties have also been considerable in Europe, America, and the former USSR. But I could find only a few books on forest soils when I had to deliver lectures on the subject to my second semester B.Sc. (Hons.) students in the Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences as a guest faculty during 1990s. The following books were very good books of soil science for foresters: Forest Soils and Forest Growth, S. A. Wilde (1950) Chronica Botanica Co.; Forest Soils: Properties and Processes, K. A. Armson (1977) University of Toronto Press; Properties and Management of Forest Soils, William L. Pritchett and Richard F. Fisher (1987) Academic Press (latter edition Ecology and Management of Forest Soils, Richard F. Fisher and Dan Bin-kley 2000, 3rd Edition, Wiley), but I felt the necessity of a good book on forest soil science that would meet the requirements of general soil, forest soil, and environmental scientists.

Several dozens of good books are available on agricultural soils probably because agri-cultural soils are related to our food security, agricultural crop lands are intensively managed systems and farmers often find problems in their management. Now-a-days, forest planta-tions, particularly those for biomass energy production, are also being intensively managed with weeding, thinning, irrigation, and fertilizer addition. Good management without being well acquainted with the resource base is not possible. Forests are also useful in the context of global climate change adaptation and mitigation. These views inspired me to write this book Forest Soils: Properties and Management suited to students of soil science, forestry, and environmental sciences, and professionals of related disciplines. It has ten chapters. Chapter 1 gives background information on pedology. It will familiarize readers, may be even non-soil people, with the origin and development of soils. Chapters 2, 3 and 5 describe physical, chemi-cal, and biological properties of forest soils and their impacts on forest vegetation. Chapter 4 narrates forest soil organic matter. Nutrient dynamics in forest ecosystems are explained and elaborated in Chap. 6. An account of soil classification systems of the world and a description of the types of soils in different forest types of the world are given in Chap. 7. Forest soil degra-dation due to natural and human induced forest disturbances is discussed in Chap. 8. Chapter 9 presents the relationship between forest soil quality and climate change. Forest management

vi Preface

and silvicultural treatments related to seedling development, site preparation, planting, tend-ing, weeding, fertilization, and irrigation and their effects on soil and environment have been discussed in considerable details in Chap. 10.

For last 20 years, I taught forest soils to undergraduate students of Soil Science and For-estry and Environmental Sciences. The general outline of the preset book has been tested on these students during this period. I am grateful to my students. Their reactions and responses inspired me to shape this book. I tried to incorporate recent information and I hope this book will be helpful to foresters, forest managers, environmental experts, and students.

Khan Towhid Osman

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Contents

1 Rocks, Minerals, and Soils ........................................................................................... 11.1 Rocks...................................................................................................................... 1

1.1.1 Igneous Rocks ........................................................................................... 11.1.2 Sedimentary Rocks .................................................................................... 21.1.3 Metamorphic Rocks ................................................................................... 2

1.2 Minerals ................................................................................................................. 31.2.1 Classification of Minerals .......................................................................... 3

1.3 Weathering ............................................................................................................. 61.3.1 Physical Weathering .................................................................................. 61.3.2 Chemical Weathering ................................................................................ 71.3.3 Biochemical Weathering ........................................................................... 71.3.4 Weatherabilty of Minerals and Weathering Products ............................... 7

1.4 Soils........................................................................................................................ 81.4.1 Pedon ......................................................................................................... 81.4.2 Soil Profile ................................................................................................. 8

1.5 Soil Formation ....................................................................................................... 91.5.1 Soil-Forming Factors ................................................................................. 91.5.2 Soil-Forming Processes ............................................................................. 14

Study Questions .............................................................................................................. 16References ....................................................................................................................... 16

2 Physical Properties of Forest Soils .............................................................................. 192.1 Soil Particles .......................................................................................................... 192.2 Soil Texture ........................................................................................................... 20

2.2.1 Suitable Forest Tree Species for Different Soil Textures......................... 202.2.2 Soil Texture and Species Distribution ...................................................... 22

2.3 Soil Structure ......................................................................................................... 222.3.1 Soil Structure Formation ........................................................................... 232.3.2 Soil Structure and Tree Growth ................................................................ 24

2.4 Density, Porosity, and Compaction ....................................................................... 242.4.1 Effect of Soil Compaction on Forest Tree Growth .................................. 26

2.5 Soil Air ................................................................................................................... 262.5.1 Aeration ..................................................................................................... 272.5.2 Effect of Soil Air on Forest Tree Growth................................................. 27

2.6 Soil Temperature ................................................................................................... 272.6.1 Factors Affecting Forest Soil Temperature ............................................... 272.6.2 Effect of Soil Temperature on Forest Tree Growth and Physiology ....... 292.6.3 Effect of Soil Temperature on Forest Soil Processes ............................... 302.6.4 Control of Forest Soil Temperature .......................................................... 31

2.7 Hydrological Properties of Forest Soils ................................................................ 312.7.1 Hydrologic Cycle ....................................................................................... 31

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2.7.2 Effect of Water Stress on Forest Trees ................................................... 352.7.3 Effect of Waterlogging on Forest Trees ................................................. 35

2.8 Soil Water ............................................................................................................ 36Study Questions ............................................................................................................ 38References ..................................................................................................................... 38

3 Chemical Properties of Forest Soils .......................................................................... 453.1 Chemical Composition of Soils ........................................................................... 453.2 Soil Solution ........................................................................................................ 453.3 Soil Reaction ........................................................................................................ 473.4 Liming .................................................................................................................. 503.5 Buffering Capacity ............................................................................................... 503.6 Ion Exchange ....................................................................................................... 513.7 Base Saturation Percentage ................................................................................. 523.8 Salinity and Sodicity ............................................................................................ 533.9 Free Carbonates ................................................................................................... 563.10 Redox Potential (Eh) ............................................................................................ 57Study Questions ............................................................................................................ 58References ..................................................................................................................... 58

4 Organic Matter of Forest Soils .................................................................................. 634.1 Soil Organic Matter ............................................................................................. 634.2 Sources of Organic Matter in Forest Soil ........................................................... 634.3 Categories of SOM .............................................................................................. 644.4 Functions of Organic Matter in Forest Soil ........................................................ 644.5 Forest Floor .......................................................................................................... 664.6 Chemical Composition of SOM .......................................................................... 674.7 Dissolved Organic Matter in Forest Soil ............................................................ 694.8 Types of Humus in Forest Soils .......................................................................... 714.9 Organic Matter Content in Forest Soils .............................................................. 724.10 SOM Turnover ..................................................................................................... 73Study Questions ............................................................................................................ 74References ..................................................................................................................... 74

5 Biological Properties of Forest Soils .......................................................................... 775.1 Forest Soil Organisms ......................................................................................... 775.2 Plant Roots ........................................................................................................... 785.3 Mycorrhizae ......................................................................................................... 795.4 Soil Microflora ..................................................................................................... 79

5.4.1 Functions of Microflora in Forest Soil .................................................... 805.5 Soil Fauna ............................................................................................................ 83

5.5.1 Macrofauna in Soils of Different Types of Forests ................................ 915.5.2 Functions of Macrofauna......................................................................... 91

Study Questions ............................................................................................................ 92References ..................................................................................................................... 92

6 Nutrient Dynamics in Forest Soil .............................................................................. 976.1 Biomass and Nutrients ......................................................................................... 97

6.1.1 Biomass Production ................................................................................. 976.2 Nutrient Retranslocation ...................................................................................... 1016.3 Nutrient Recycling ............................................................................................... 102

6.3.1 Nutrient Uptake ....................................................................................... 102

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6.3.2 Nutrient Retention ................................................................................... 1036.3.3 Nutrient Return ........................................................................................ 1036.3.4 Nutrient Release ...................................................................................... 110

6.4 Forest Floor Biomass and Nutrients .................................................................... 114Study Questions ............................................................................................................ 115References ..................................................................................................................... 115

7 Forest Types and Their Associated Soils .................................................................. 1237.1 Forest Types of the World................................................................................... 123

7.1.1 Tropical Forests ....................................................................................... 1247.1.2 Temperate Forests ................................................................................... 1287.1.3 Boreal Forests .......................................................................................... 1317.1.4 Regional distribution of forests ............................................................... 133

7.2 General characteristics of forest soils ................................................................. 1337.2.1 Limitations of forest soils........................................................................ 1347.2.2 Natural Succession .................................................................................. 134 7.2.3 Forest Floor ............................................................................................ 135

7.3 Modern Soil Classification Systems .................................................................... 1357.3.1 Soil Taxonomy ........................................................................................ 1357.3.2 WRB for Soil Resources ......................................................................... 139

7.4 Soils of Major Forest Types of the World .......................................................... 1417.4.1 Soils of Tropical Rainforests, Evergreen Forests,

and Deciduous Forests............................................................................. 1417.4.2 Soils of Tropical Montane Forests .......................................................... 1457.4.3 Soils of Tropical Freshwater Swamp Forests ......................................... 1477.4.4 Soils of Tropical Mangrove Forests ........................................................ 1477.4.5 Soils of Tropical Miscellaneous Forests ................................................. 1487.4.6 Soils of Temperate Forests ...................................................................... 1497.4.7 Soils of Boreal Forest .............................................................................. 150

Study Questions ............................................................................................................ 151References ..................................................................................................................... 152

8 Forest Disturbances and Soil Degradation ............................................................... 1578.1 Forest Disturbances ............................................................................................. 157

8.1.1 Forest Harvest .......................................................................................... 1598.1.2 Fuel Biomass Collection ......................................................................... 1608.1.3 Shifting Cultivation ................................................................................. 1608.1.4 Forest Fires .............................................................................................. 1628.1.5 Deforestation ............................................................................................ 164

Study Questions ............................................................................................................ 167References ..................................................................................................................... 167

9 Forest Soil and Climate Change ................................................................................ 1739.1 Climate Change and Forests ................................................................................ 1739.2 Climate Change and Soil ..................................................................................... 1759.3 Carbon Stock in Forest Soils ............................................................................... 1779.4 Temperature and Soil Organic Carbon ............................................................... 1779.5 GHG Emissions from Forest Soils ...................................................................... 1789.6 Forestry Activities to Adapt to and Mitigate Climate Change ........................... 179

9.6.1 Planting Forests ....................................................................................... 1799.6.2 Protecting Existing Forests ...................................................................... 1799.6.3 Improved Forestry Techniques to Reduce Emissions ............................ 179

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9.6.4 Replacing High-energy Materials with Climate-friendly Substitutes .... 1799.6.5 Fossil Fuel Substitution Through Renewable Wood Energy ................. 180

Study Questions ............................................................................................................ 180References ..................................................................................................................... 180

10 Forest Soil Management and Silvicultural Treatments .......................................... 18310.1 Objectives of Forest Soil Management ............................................................. 18310.2 Soil Management-Related Terminologies ......................................................... 183

10.2.1 Land Capability .................................................................................... 18310.2.2 Soil Quality .......................................................................................... 18410.2.3 Soil Productivity .................................................................................. 18510.2.4 Site Quality and Site index .................................................................. 18610.2.5 Soil-site Evaluation .............................................................................. 186

10.3 Forest Management ........................................................................................... 18710.3.1 Management of Natural Forests .......................................................... 187

10.4 Forest Plantations ............................................................................................... 18810.4.1 Major Plantation Tree Species ............................................................. 18810.4.2 Plantation Development ....................................................................... 192

10.5 Effects of Forest Plantations on Soil ................................................................. 202Study Questions ............................................................................................................ 203References ..................................................................................................................... 203

Index ................................................................................................................................... 211

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List of Abbreviations

AEC Anion Exchange CapacityBA Basal AreaBNF Biological Nitrogen FixationBSP Base Saturation PercentageCEC Cation Exchange CapacityDOM Dissolved Organic MatterDON Dissolved Organic NitrogenECe Electrical Conductivity of Saturation ExtractECEC Effective Cation Exchange CapacityET EvapotranspirationFAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsGWT Ground Water TableIAA Indole Acetic AcidIPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeISSS International Soil Science SocietyNPR Nodule Producing RhizobacteriaNRCS Natural Resource Conservation ServicePGPR Plant Growth Promoting RhizobacteriaPHPR Plant Health Promoting RhizobacteriaSAR Sodium Adsorption RatioSOC Soil Organic CarbonSOM Soil Organic MatterTEB Total Exchangeable BasesUSDA United States Department of AmericaVAM Vesicular Arbuscular MycorrhizaWRB World Reference Base (for Soil Resources)