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Oil substitution in food formulationsFormulators considering new sourcesof [ats and oils for food productsneed to consider what effect thechange will hOI'1!on product luture,lubricity, aeration.flavor, appearanceand shelf life. Product tabeling alsomay M Q consideration. The follow-ing article by Max E. Norris, 0 con-sultant based in Cleveland. Ohio. andLeo G. Gingras of Rice/and FoodsInc. in Stuttgart, Arkansas, is baudon a presentation by Norris duringthe New Food Formulation andIngredient International Congressheld in Chicago during January/990. The article was prepared atthe request of INFORM AssociateEditor Frank Orthoefer.

Decisions on selecting fats and oils,or substituting fats and oils, in foodproduct formulations require consid-erable effort. Focus of some concernhas been the level of total dietary sat-urated fat. which has been related toserum cholesterol and hean disease.The more saturated oils. mainlycoconut. palm and palm kernel (TableI) are well-suited to a variety of foodapplications. due to their unique men-ing characteristics. lubricity, crystalhabit and flavor stability. Using lesssaturated fats and oils may change theproduct taste. texture. functionalityand shelf-life. A review of the factorsthat affect substitution of various fatsand oils follows.

Nutritional issuesResearch has shown a relationshipbetween high serum cholesterol andcoronary heart disease. A similar cor-relation is assumed between dietarysaturated fat and serum cholesterol;however, research in this area is lessconclusive.

Recommendations of the U.S. Sur-geon General's office regardingdietary fat are: (a) reduce dietary fatto 30% of total calories: (b) modifythe fat content to achieve approxi-mately 10% saturates. 10% monoen-saturates and 10% polyunsaturates:and (c) reduce dietary cholesterol.

Changing the Iype of fat or reduc-ing the level of fat in foods can be an

involved process. because the fat gen-erally contributes to total productquality. Replacing existing fat with aless saturated alternative is relativelyeasier, but still an involved process.

Considerations in substitutionsThe goal in formulating foods withless saturated alternatives is to main-tain overall product quality. Consid-eration must be given to the fat'scharacteristics as well as to the char-acteristics of the finished product.

Major product characteristics thatmay change when substituting fatsinclude texture. lubricity. aeration,flavor, appearance and shelf-life.

Texture: The texture/structure ofmany food products depends on theinteraction of fat solids with otherproduct constituents. Often the struc-ture varies with temperature. Productstructure expresses itself in mouthfeel. which is critical to a food prod-uct's success. Therefore. the meltingcharacteristics of the fat ingredientsare important in making the finalproduct chewy, soft, smooth or brittle.

Coconut and palm kernel oil fre-quently are used in applicationsrequiring a sharp melting curve,specifically in such products as con-fections, fillings and icings. Palm oiloften is used in shortenings to impart

TABLE I

Typical Fatly Acid Classes of Primary Vegetable Oils

a smooth texture, typical of fats thatcrystallize in the 6' fonn.

lsubricity : The presence of liquidoil lessens the abrasive effect of otheringredients during mixing. Thisresults in smooth compositions andincreased ease of mixing with lessenergy and time required. Lubricityalso has an effect on mouth feel andthe ease with which a product willspread.

Coconut and palm kernel oils,because of their short- and medium-chain length fatty acids, offer someunique advantages in controllinglubricity. Compared to domestic oils.the lauric oils, when melted, presentlower viscosity.

Aeration: Aeration is promoted bythe fat crystals in a shortening. Prop-erly processed plastic shortenings canincorporate large amounts of air dur-ing the creaming process. Airentrained uniformly througbout aproduct, such as dough, allows foreven distribution of leavening gasesand the water vapor released duringbaking. This results in increased vol-ume, lower specific gravity and desir-able texture.

In imitation dairy products. such aswhipped toppings, the presence of liq-uid oils inhibits incorporation of airand the development of a stable srruc-

Oil % Monounsaturated % Polyunsaturated % Saturated

Canola 60 34 •Cocoa buller 35 3 .2Coconut • 2 92Com 27 57 I.Corronseed 19 ss 2.Olive 72 11 17Palm 40 10 50Palm kernel 14 2 84Peanut 46 as I'Safflower 13 77 10Safflower (high oleic) 80 12 8Soybean 2. 60 I.Sunflower 18 70 12Sunflower (high oteic) 80 12 8

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TABLE 2

Saturated Oil Replacement Activities

Industry segment Application Traditional oils Replacements

VegeUtble-dairy Coffee whiteners Hydrogenated coconut oil Pnnially hydrogenated conoeseedor canola oil. high stability liquidsoybean. eanola or cottonseed oil

1~~ Hydrogenated coconut Panially hydrogenated soybean,toppings and palm kernel oils cottonseed or canola oils

Puddings Hydrogenated Panially hydrogeruucd soybean,cottonseed oil cottonseed or canola oils

Cocoa-based Coconuloil PaniaJly hydrogenared soybean.drinks cononsced or canola oils

Whipped Coconut and palm Partially hydrogenated soybean.toppings kemcloils cononsccd or canola oils

Confectionery Center fats Hydrogenated coconut Partially hydrogenated soybean orand palm kernel, coeoeseed oils: high stabilitycoconut oils liquid oils

Coalings Hydrogenated palm Partially hydrogenated soybeankemeloil or ccncoseed oils

Bakery B=d Hydrogenated palm oil Liquid oils

Sweet doughs Hydrogenated palm and Liquid oilssoybean oils

Bakery mixes Hydrogenated palm oil Hydrogenated soybean Ofcononseed oils

Cookies Palm-based shortenings Pnnially hydrogenatedsoybean oil

Cracker spraying Coconut oil. hydrogenated High stability liquid oils;coc::onutoil high oleic sunflower oil

Margarine Stick Panially hydrogenated High stability cottonseed.soybean. cottonseed or palm soybean. com Of canola oiloil

Tob Panially hydrogenated Panially hydrogenatedsoybean. cottonseed or sunflower. com. canola orpalm oil soybean oil

Light spreads Partially hydrogenated Partially hydrogenatedsoybean. coeonseed or sunflower. com Ofpalm oil canola oil

S"'''' Frying. nut Coconut oil High stability soybean.roasting. ccncnseed or canola oil.extrusion. popcorn peanut oil

Cereal Ready-to-eat Coconut Of palm High stability soybean.cookedlf1avored kernel oil cottonseed or canola oil. high

oleic sunflower oil

INFORM.Vol. 1.no.4 (Apr1Il990)

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ture, and may promote "churning."Solid fats behave as less active func-tional ingredients.

p,lm oil is used in plastic shorten-ing to provide aeration propertiesbased on its ability to form a' crystals.The smaller crystals promote aerationin the bakery dough. Other B'-tendingfats, such as cononseed. promote sim-ilar functionality.

Flavor: Fats and oils, while typi-cally bland in flavor, will release andenhance the flavors of other ingredi-ents. In some applications, they areused to apply flavoring agents. Gen-erally, sharp-melting fats with lowerviscosity release flavors rapidly,whereas higher-melting versionsretard flavor release.

Appearance: Fats may impart asheen to some products (such ascooked fruit pieces and nuts), a dryappearance to confections or snackfoods, and a "greasy" appearance tosome fried foods. Generally, the foodprocessor wants to avoid a greasyappearance, although a slightly greasyappearance is preferred with frenchfried potatoes.

Shelf-life: The shelf-life of prod-ucts containing fats and oils is relateddirectly to the oxidative stability ofthose ingredients. In tum, the stabilityof the fat is related to its fatty acidcomposition. Saturated fats are themost stable and unsaturated fats areless stable. Generally, stabilitydecreases as the number of doublebonds increases or as the unsarurationincreases. Lauric oils, because of theirhigh levels of saturates, are resistantto off-flavors resulting from oxida-tion. However, hydrolysis, whichoccurs during storage of almost allfood products, may affect the fooddepending on the fat present. Domes-tic fats having long-chain fatty acidswill show limited effect on flavorafter hydrolysis. Lauric oils undergo-ing minor hydrolysis will taste"soapy."

Labeling: While labeling is not aquality characteristic of the finishedproduct, the desired fatty acid labelingmay be an important consideration,especially if the processor wants to labelthe product as "new" or "50% Jess satu-rated fat," etc. A target fatty acid com-position should be determined before

testing the alternative fat in order tolimit the testing of fats that are unac-ceptable from a marketing standpoint.

Fat characteristicsFat source, processing conditions andprice are important characteristics tobe considered with any potentialalternative fat.

Source: An important decisioninvolved in substitution of variousfats and oils is who the supplier willbe. In some cases, a current suppliermay be able to provide the alternativefat. In other cases, where a commoncommodity is to be replaced by amore sophisticated alternative, a newsupplier may be needed. Suppliersshould be able to provide servicealong with the needed quantities aswell as technical assistance to supportproduct reformulation efforts.

Processing conditions.' It may benecessary to change operating proce-dures when substituting types of fats.For example, replacement of coconutoil with a domestic oil in snack fryingmay require raising the frying temper-ature to obtain sufficient draining ofthe oil from the product after frying.In most cases, adjustment of formula-tion and operating conditions will beneeded.

Price: Just as a target should be setfor final fatty acid composition, so amaximum price should be determinedbefore evaluation of potential alterna-tive fats is begun. This will save theexpense of testing fats that are unac-ceptable for cost reasons.

AllernalivesDomestic oils having similar solid fatindices for hard fats or similar iodinevalues for liquid oils generally areinterchangeable. Using domestic oilsas substitutes for lauric oils is moredifficult. Using vegetable oils toreplace animal fats may presentunique taste and textural changes aswell as product stability differences.

There are two general types ofdomestic oil replacements for coconutand palm kernel oils. The first typesare partially hydrogenated oils thatclosely resemble lauric oils in meltingcharacteristics. Such oils typically aremade from soybean oil, althoughcom, cottonseed and canola also may

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392FOOD TECHNOLOGY

be used. Hydrogenation conditionsare set to promote formation of thetrans form of oleic acid. This pro-vides necessary solids and minimizessaturate content. The second types ofreplacements attempt to matchcoconut and palm kernel oils inoxidative stability. The "high trans"type of product, while designed toapproximate melting characteristics,also will provide resistance 10 oxide-tion. Other alternatives include higholeic sunflower and safflower oils,partially hydrogenated domestic oilsand partially hydrogenated and frac-tionated domestic oils. Antioxidants,such as TBHQ, BHA, BHT and toco-pherols, also may be used to enhanceoxidative stability.

Palm oil, composed of longer-chain fatty acids compared to coconutand palm kernel oils, gained wide uselargely as a lower-cost replacementfor domestic oils, particularly cotton-seed oil. Replacement of palm oil canbe relatively easy as, in many cases,the food processor may simply returnto the previous formulations incorpo-rating domestic oils.

Substitution for animal fatsrequires matching the melting charac-teristics of the particular fat beingreplaced. Flavor may be added to thevegetable oil to match the flavor ofthe animal fat. Functional equivalencerequires developmental efforts.

Current developmentsMany segments of the food industryare now reformulating products inresponse to the Surgeon General'sreport and, therefore, to the consumer.Table 2 summarizes a variety ofreplacement activities that are at vary-ing stages of research and/or imple-mentation. The following overviewlooks at major industry segments thatdepend on the performance profiles offats and oils.

Vegetable-dairy: The vegetable-dairy segment traditionally has usedvegetable oils that are derived fromcoconut, palm kernel and palm oil inblends having domestic fats as a

minor ingredient. These oils providenecessary solids, melting profiles,texture, flavor release, and shelf-lifeto meet consumer requirements.Blends using only North Americanoils (soybean, cottonseed and canota)recently have been taken seriously asfunctional counterparts.

Confectionary segment: The con-fectionary segment may be the marketmost heavily dependent on lauric oils.Although cocoa butler is the oil ofchoice. many confectionary manufac-turers have used vegetable oil "hardbutters" in such applications to reducecosts. The "hard butters" frequentlyare formulated from fully hydrogenat-ed coconut, palm kernel and palm oilswith added domestic-based hard fats.These function as replacers or substi-tutes for cocoa butter in compoundcoating formulations.

There exists a family of domesticoil counterparts that possesses func-tionality and cost benefits that arebecoming more prominent in thosedifficult formulations for confec-tionary products. Products currentlymarketed include partially hydro-genated soybean/palm blends, hydro-genated soybean/cottonseed blends,and solvent fractionated hard buttersbased on a partially hydrogenated cot-tonseed oil or a soybean/cottonseedblend.

Baking,' The baking segment hasemployed oils derived from animaland vegetable sources for many years.The move away from animal-derivedfat began approximately 15 years ago.With the advent of fluid shorteningsystems, highly unsaturated shorten-ing compositions containing emulsi-fiers aided in removing highly satu-rated systems formulated from animalor even lauric oils.

Margarines: This segment in gen-eral is not heavily dependent on lauricoils for required performance. How-ever, further processed fats-includ-ing palm and soybean-may containsubstantial saturated fatty acid levelsto provide a satisfactory butler substi-tute. Blends of partially hydrogenated

base oils and nonhydrogenated liquidoils are used in stick, tub andreduced-fat margarines.

Snack foods,' Previously, the oil ofchoice for snack foods was coconutoil. The flavor, melting point andoxidative stability of coconut oil aremajor factors in such use. High-stabil-ity domestic oils based on com, cot-tonseed or soybean oil have madeinroads in the manufacture of snackfoods. Further processed soybean,canola or cottonseed oils can be pro-vided 10 overcome perceived func-tional deficiencies.

Cereal: Coconut and other tropicaloils traditionally have been used toprovide flavor-carrying capacity,standup in milk, and extended shelf-life for cereals. Many cereal manufac-turers recently have begun to use soy-bean, cottonseed, canola and high-oleic sunflower oils as functionalcounterparts.

Once a decision has been made toreplace a highly saturated oil, the fol-lowing general steps should be taken:(a) determine a target fatty acid com-position for the replacement; (b)determine the maximum price thatmay be offered for the replacement;(c) request alternative oils from cur-rent and potential suppliers, alongwith the necessary technical advice;(d) evaluate the alternatives in termsof final product quality; and (e) selectthe optimal replacement, and initiatethe change.It should be borne in mind that

most any oil substitution may involvesome compromise in terms of priceand final product quality. Having spe-cific goals and criteria for selection ofthe replacement simplifies the evalua-tion process and is critical in makingan optimal decision. The earlyinvolvement and interaction of mar-keting, operations, purchasing andquality assurance departments, aswell as the research and developmentsegment, are integral to having asmooth transition and making thechange successful.

INFORM, Vol. 1, no. 4 (April 1990)