food plants of the luo of siaya district, kenya

Food Plants of the Luo of Siaya District, Kenya 1

TIMOTHY JOHNS 2 AND JOHN O. KOKWARO 3

Plants used for food by the Luo-speaMng people of Siaya District, Kenya, were surveyed as part of a comprehensive ethnobotanical study. Fifty-two crops were observed under cultivation in the district; 69 species are gathered from the wild. WiM fruits, underground portions, leaves, and fungal fruiting bodies are probably important in Siaya as dietary supplements. These non-cultivated resources, particularly important in the driest areas of the district, warrant evaluation for their role as a buffer against periods of food shortage.

Les plantes comestibles du peuple Luo, district de Siaya au Kenya. Dans le cadre d'une ~tude ethnobotanique importante, nous avons r~pertori~ les plantes utilis~es dans l'alimentation du peuple Luo du district de Siaya (Kenya). Bien que nous ayons observ~ la culture de 52 esp~ces de plantes dans ce district, quelques 69 plantes sont cueillies d l~tat sauvage. Les fruits sauvages, les racines, les feuilles et les champignons constituent donc probablement un important compl~ment au r~gime alimentaire du peuple de Siaya. Ces ressources alimentaires non cultiv~es sont particulidrement importantes dans les parties les plus arides du district et m~ritent une ~valuation plus approfondie quant a leur r6le lors de p~nurie alimentaire.

Plants provide most of the foodstuffs consumed by agriculturalists in tropical countries. Luo-speaking people in Siaya District, Nyanza Province, Kenya, depend on many plant products for subsistence and for generation of cash income. Sizeable areas are dedicated to the cultivation of dietary staples and cash crops, many of which are introduced. The persistent use of a large number of indigenous crops and wild plants appears to play an important role in the continued adaptation of the Luo to the particular economic and ecological conditions of Siaya District.

Cultivated staples are important as sources of carbohydrate and protein, but minor cultigens and wild plants are increasingly recognized as important nutritional supplements (FAO 1988; Fleuret and Fleuret 1980). In the face of the narrowing of the food base brought about by emphasis of a few commercially valuable crops, indigenous cultigens and wild plants contribute to a nutritionally balanced diet by supplying essential vitamins and minerals (FAO 1988; Fleuret and Fleuret 1980; Ogle and Grivetti 1985a).

Moreover, wild plants adapted to local conditions contribute to the diet in periods of seasonal scarcity (Brooke 1967; Grivetti 1978; Hunter 1967; Ogle and Grivetti 1985a; Turton 1977). The exploitation of native flora is an important traditional buffer against periodic famines that are becoming increasingly prev- alent in other areas of the tropics. In Sub-Saharan Africa and other parts of the world, environmental degradation often associated with the expansion of culti-

Received 8 March 1989; accepted 15 May 1990. 2 School of Dietetics and Human Nutrition, Macdonald College of McGill University, Ste. Anne

de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada, H9X 1C0. 3 Department of Botany, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya.

Economic Botany, 45(1), 1991, pp. 103-113 �9 1991, by the New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458

104 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 45

vated acreage compounds the problem of environmentally and socially induced food crises by destroying the important reserve offered by native plants.

Documentation of current uses of plants records empirical knowledge of the past, while recognition of the value of plants for food and medicine can support efforts towards preserving these important resources for future generations. Our paper specifically documents the use of plants for food in Siaya District. Infor- mation reported was obtained as part of a larger survey of the ethnomedicine of the Luo conducted in July-August, 1986 and March-April, 1988 (Johns et al. 1990). Local farmers were interviewed with the aid of four Luo-speaking students and staff from the University of Nairobi. All five Divisions of Siaya District-- Bondo, Boro, Gem, Rarieda and Ugenya--were surveyed. The experience of one of the authors (JOK) in Nyanza Province over many years was a source of ancillary data. Additional Luo names and other data supplementary to those presented here are in Kokwaro (1972).

Herbarium specimens were prepared of wild species and deposited at NAI (University ofNairobi), UC (University of California, Berkeley) or MTMG (McGill University). No collections were made of common wild and cultivated species well-known to us. Specimens "JAO" and the data they support were collected by Johns, Elizabeth Achola, and Tom Omenda; specimens "JWY" were collected by Johns, Walter Wallunya, and Evans A.O. Yuko. Identifications were made by the collectors, the authors or by Simon Mathenge of the University of Nairobi.

STUDY LOCATION

Siaya District lies between 0018' north and 0~ 3' south latitude and 33~ ' and 34033 ' east longitude. With a land area of 4523 km 2 it occupies most of the Kenyan territory immediately north of Lake Victoria. A population of some 475,000 (1979 census) members of the Luo (Nilotic) tribe occupies this area.

With an altitude ranging from 1140 to 1440 m, Siaya is part of the extension of the humid tropical zone of central Africa into western Kenya. However, rainfall is unevenly distributed throughout the district, with more northerly portions such as Ugenya and Gem being considerably moister than Rarieda and Bondo Divi- sions closer to Lake Victoria. Sandy soil compounds the potential for drought in areas closest to the lake.

Population is lowest in the drier areas. Conversely, local vegetation particularly in open woodlands is more common here; in these areas the exploitation of wild plants for food and medicine is greater. On the other hand, Gem in particular is intensely cultivated.

CULTIVATED CROPS

Table 1 lists 52 taxa we observed under cultivation in Siaya District. These are generally distributed over the region, although abundance varies in relation to local environmental conditions.

The major subsistence crops in this region are all widely grown in East Africa (Acland 1971) and elsewhere. The dominant species is Zea mays; Arachis hypogaea, Carica papaya, Eleusine coracana, Ipomoea batatas, Manihot esculenta, Musa spp., Phaseolus vulgaris, Saccharum officinarum, and Sorghum bicolor have

1991 ] JOHNS & KOKWARO: LUO FOOD PLANTS 105

TABLE 1. CULTIVATED EDIBLE PLANTS OF SIAYA DISTRICT, KENYA.

Part used Crop Luo name English name

Seed Arachis hypogaea L. njugu groundnut Cajanus cajan Millsp. mbas pigeon-pea Coffea spp. a kahawa coffee Eleusine coracana Gaertn. kal finger millet Phaseolus vulgaris L. oganda bean Pisum sativum L. ng'or pea Sesamum indicum L. b nyim sesame Sorghum bicolor Pers. bel sorghum Vicia faba L. oganda-madongo faba Zea mays L. bando, oduma maize Phaseolus calcaratus Roxb. ng'or rice bean Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. bo cowpea

Fruit Ananas comosus Merr. mananas pineapple Capsicumfrutescens L. c pilipili pepper Carica papaya L. poipoi papaya Citrus aurantifolia Swingle ndim-matindo lime C. aurantium L. ndim sour orange C. fimon Burm. f. malmao lemon C. reticulata Blanco sandhra mandarin C. sinensis Osbeck maehunga sweet orange Cocos nucifera L. naas coconut Cucurbita maxima Duchesne budho, obudho squash Cucurbita pepo L. budho, obudho pumpkin Hibiscus esculentus L. dania okra Luffa cylindrica Roem. spanj luffa Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. nyanya tomato Mangifera indica L. maembe mango Musa spp. robolo banana Passiflora edulis L. matunda passionfruit Persea americana Mill. avokado avocado Punica granatum L. odumb-wahindi pomegranate Solanum melongena L. burnganya eggplant Syzygium cuminii Skeels jamna jambolan Tamarindus indica L. chwaa tamarind

Underground Allium cepa L. kitungu-rabuon onion parts A. porrum L. kitungu leek

Daucus carota L. karat carrot Ipomoea batatas Lam. rabuon sweet-potato Manihot esculenta Crantz mariwa, mwogo cassava Solanum tuberosum L. rabuond-ngwachi potato Zingiber officinale Roscoe d tanguas ginger

Leaves Amaranthus hybridus L. omboga amaranth Brassica napus L. kandhira rape B. oleracea L. vat. capitata U kabich cabbage B. oleracea L. kandhira collards

var. acephala DC. Cajanus cajan Millsp. tubas pigeon-pea Capsicum frutescens L. pilipili pepper Corchorus olitorius L. apoth jews-mallow Crotalaria brevidens Benth. mitoo, mutoo

vat. intermedia Cucurbita spp. budho, obudho pumpkin

106 ECONOMIC BOTANY

TABLE 1. CONTINUED.

[VOL. 45

Part used Crop Luo name English name

Stem

Cymbopogon citratus StapP majand lum Gynandropsis gynandra Briq. akeyo, a lot dek Hibiscus esculentus L. dania Ipomoea batatas Lam. raboun Manihot esculenta Crantz cassave Phaseolus coccineus L. bo Sesamum angustifolium Engl. onyulo Solanum nigrum L. osuga Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. bo

Saccharum officinarum L. niang

l emon grass

okra

sweet-potato

cassava

scar le t - runner

black n ightshade

cowpea

sugarcane

a Beverage. b Oil. Condiment and vegetable.

d Spice.

considerable economic and dietary importance. Saccharum oJficinarum is most important in northern parts of the district where it is grown on large scale for refinement to sugar.

Leafy vegetables, major contributors to local diets, are abundant in local markets as well. Of those listed in Table 1 the most important and widespread are Amaran- thus hybridus, Brassica oleracea var. acephala, Corchorus olitorius, Crotalaria brevidens, Gynandropsis gynandra, Phaseolus coccineus, and Solanum nigrum. Generally speaking, leafy vegetables supplement the major staples listed above as important contributors of protein, vitamin A, ascorbic acid, folic acid and minerals (Fleuret and Fleuret 1980), although among the Luo specific quantitative studies in relation to actual dietary intake have yet to be done. Nutrient assess- ments have been made of several of these indigenous crops (Chweya 1985; Gomez 1981; Faboya 1983; Imungi and Potter 1983; Keshinro 1983; Ndiokwere 1984).

A number of plant products not grown in Siaya District are purchased and consumed locally. Of these Oryza sativa L. (muchele) and Triticum spp. (ngano) are important staples, and Thea sinensis L. is widely consumed as a beverage. The presence of particular crops on Table 1 does not suggest that the District is self-sufficient in these. Local markets contain many fruits and vegetables from other parts of Kenya.

WILD PLANTS

The importance of wild foods to subsistence agriculturalists in Africa has been emphasized by numerous observers (FAO 1988; Fleuret 1979a; Fleuret 1979b; Grivetti 1978; Ogle and Grivetti 1985c; Scudder 1971; Tallantire and Goode 1975; Woolfe et al. 1977). Luo people are knowledgeable about edible properties of indigenous wild plants, although it should be recognized that the lists totaling 69 species in Table 2-5 were complied from interviews with dozens of persons. Few individuals are likely to recognize all plants on the list. On the other hand, the list, although comprehensive, is not necessarily exhaustive. For example, our notes contain a few vernacular names for which specimens were unobtainable.

TABLE 2. EDIBLE WILD FRUIT OF SIAYA DISTRICT, KENYA.

Species (Herbarium specimen) Family Luo name

Aframomum mala K. Schum. (JAO 86-234, NAI)

Annona senegalensis Pers. (JWY 88-427, NAI)

Aphania senegalensis (Poir.) Radlk. (JWY 88-152, NAI)

Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. (JWY 88-341, NAI)

Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill. Canthium gueinzii Sond.

(JAO 86-166, NAI) Capparis erythrocarpus Isert

(JWY 88-404, NAI, MTMG) Capparis sp.

(JWY 88-400, NAI, MTMG) Capparis sp.

(JWY 88-408, NAI MTMG) Carissa edulis (Forsk.) Vahl

(JAO 86-448, NAI) Dovyalis abyssinica Warb. Ficus capensis Thunb.

(JAO 86-258, NAI) Grewia similis K. Schum.

(JAO 86-164, NAI) G. trichocarpa A. Rich.

(JAO 86-136, NAI, UC) Hoslundia opposita Vahl

(JAO 86-14, NAI, UC) Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth."

(JAO 86-329, NAI, UC) Lantana camara L.

(JWY 88-279, NAI) Lantana trifolia L.

(JWY 88-419, NAI) Maerua edulis (Gilg & Ben.) DeWolf

(JWY 88-284) Mimusops kummel A.DC.

(JWY 88-403, NAI) Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes

(JWY 88-217, MTMG) Pappea capensis (Spreng.) Eckl. & Zeyh. b

(JWY 88-374, NAI) Psidium guajava L.

(JWY 88-213, NAI) Physalis peruviana L.

(JWY 88-51, NAI, Uc) Rhus vulgaris Meikle

(JAO 86-442, NAI, UC) R. natalensis Krause

(JWY 88-112, NAI, MTMG) Sabaflorida (Benth.) Bullock Scutia myrtina (Burm.f.) Kurz

(JWY 88-392, NAI) Securinega virosa (Willd.) Pax & K. Hoffm.

(JAO 86-378, NAI) Ximenia americana L.

Zingiberaceae osaye

Annonaceae nyabolo, obolo

Sapindaceae ochol

Balanitaceae othoo

Euphorbiaceae athuno Rubiaceae achokra, anyuka

Capparidaceae ong'ono

Capparidaceae lang'o

Capparidaceae rabuor

Apocynaceae ochuoga

Flacourtiaceae akudho, songola Moraceae ng'owo

Tiliaceae aroya, aroyo

Tiliaceae powo

Lamiaccae ofwong'o, n'gwewny

Bignoniaceae yago

Verbenaceae magwagwa, tek-tagwari

Verbenaceae magwagwa, tek-tagwari

Capparidaceae amoyo

Sapolaccae nyabondo

Celastraceae acnond-rateng'

Sapindaceac okworo

Myrtaceac mapera

Solanaceae nyatonglo-ojuo

Anacardiaceae awayo, sangla-madongo

Anacardiaceae sangala, sangla

Apocynaceae abool Rhamnaceae migodha

Euphorbiaceae kagena

Olacaceae olemo

�9 For beer.

b Food and for beer.

108 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 45

TABLE 3. WILD UNDERGROUND FOODS FROM SIAYA DISTRICT, KENYA.


Cissus rotundifolia VahP Hydnora abyssinica A. Br.

(JWY 88-214, NAI) Ipomoea oenotherae Hallier f.

(JWY 88-417, NAI) Mondia whitei (Hook.f.) Skeels

Vitaceae munyu Hydnoraceae oyusu, osuyo

Convolvulaceae ongeny

Asclepiadaceae muombo, ogombo

' Spice.

Wild fruits

The primary place of wild fruits in Luo subsistence is as snacks, and most of the plants listed in Table 2 are eaten on a casual basis in a similar pattern to that of people in other African locations (Campbell 1987; Fleuret 1986; Ogle and Grivetti 1985b; Turton 1977). Many of them are regarded as items that children gather in play, but this should not belittle their nutritional contribution. Although these plants may make little contribution to subsistence under most circumstances, their greatest importance is undoubtedly as supplementary and emergency foods.

Many species exploited in Siaya are not more routinely used because they produce fruits that are small and difficult to gather. Often they occur as single, widely dispersed plants. Moreover the use of many of these fruits is limited by their low palatability. Psidium guajava, an introduced tree with weedy tendencies, is an exception to all these generalizations.

Availability of these species depends also on local ecology and on the history of deforestation in the area. Many of them occur as part of native forests. When fields and homesteads are cleared from this land, useful trees are often preserved and protected.

Wild fruits in forest environments have received some attention as potential resources for economic development (FAO 1983). However, the study by FAO of food and fruit-bearing forest species in eastern Africa discusses only one of the plants listed in Table 2, namely Ximenia americana.

Wild underground foods

The Luo do not appear to make great use of wild roots or tubers. The exceptions we encountered are listed in Table 3. These are all plants eaten raw on a limited basis. Ipomoea oenotherae produces a small tap root dug by shepherds. Hydnora

TABLE 4. WILD FUNGI USED FOR FOOD IN SIAYA DISTRICT, KENYA.

Species Family Luo name

Sphacelotheca reiliana (Kuhn) Clint Termitomyces rnagoyensis N.C. Otieno T. microcarpus Heini T. robuorii N.C. Otieno T. robustus (Beeli) Heim

Ustilaginaceae ochondo Agaricaceae obuoch-oruka Agaricaceae obuoch-omegre Agaricaceae obuoch-atiemo Agaricaceae obuoch-ohumo

1991] JOHNS & KOKWARO: LUO FOOD PLANTS 109

TABLE 5. WILD LEAFY VEGETABLES USED FOR FOOD IN SIAYA DISTRICT, KENYA.


Acalypha volkensii Pax (JWY 88-179, NAI, MTMG)

Amaranthus spp. Asystasia schimperi T. Anders.

(JAO 86-259, 86-372, JWY 88-215, NAI) Basella alba L. Bidens pilosa L.

(JAO 86-342, NAI) Cassia occidentalis L.

(JWY 88-16, NAI) Cassia bicapsularis L.

(JWY 88-327, NAI) Celosia schweinfurthiana Schinz

(JWY 88-454, NAI, MTMG) Chenopodium opulifolium Koch & Ziz

(JWY 88-321, 88-438, NAI) Coccinia adoensis (A. Rich.) Cogn.

(JWY 88-109, NAI) Commelina africana L.

(JWY 88-292, NAI) C. benghalensis L.

(JAO 86-375, NAI) C. trilocularis Burrn.f.

(JWY 88-141, NAI, MTMG) Cyphostemma orondo Descoings

(JAO 86-172, NAI) Erythrococca bongensis Pax

(JAO 86-114, NAI, UC) Euphorbia sp.

(JWY 88-406, NAI) Gynandropsis gynandra Briq. Hyparrhenia cymbaria (L.) Stapf Justicia matammensis Oliv. Ludwigia stolonifera (Guill. & Perr.) Raven

(JWY 88-317, NAI, MTMG) Nicandra physalodes Gaertn.

(JAO 86-475, UC) Oxygonum sinuatum (Meisn.) Dammer

(JAO 86-241, NAI, UC) Portulaca quadrifolia L. Sesamum angustifolium Engl.

(JAO 86-7, NAI, UC) Sida acuta Burm.f.

(JAO 86-16, NAI, UC) Solanum nigrum L.

(JAO 86-46, UC; JWY 88-42, NAI, MTMG) Sonchus schweinfurthii Oliv. & Hiern Talinum portulacifolium (Forsk.) Aschers &

Schweinf. (JWY 88-416, NAI)

Tephrosia pumila (Lain.) Pers. (JAO 86-142, NAI)

Euphorbiaceae dindi

Amaranthaceae ododo, omboga Acanthaceae atipa

Basellaceae ndemra Asteraceae nyanyiek-lnon

Fabaceae nyayado, ohingla-thiany

Fabaceae angor angor

Amaranthaceae tunga

Chenopodiaceae tiga riga

Cucurbitaceae mutkuru

Commelinaceae odielo

Commelinaceae odielo

Tiliaceae apoth

Vitaceae alango, obwombwe

Euphorbiaceae hariadho

Euphorbiaceae ohawo

Capparidaceae akeyo, alot dek Poaceae abool Acanthaceae piupiu Onagraceae nyasigumba

Solanaceae osuga

Polygonaceae nyatiend-gweno, okuro

Portulacaceae obwanda Pedaliaceae onyulo

Malvaceae adongo nyar yuoro

Solanaceae osuga

Asteraceae achak

Portulacaceae amondi

Fabaceae nyangor


abyssinica is a parasite on roots of Lannea fulva (Engl.) Engl. (Anacardiaceae). The names nduma and nyapongo referred to reputedly edible roots we were unable to find in the field.

Tubers of Cissus rotundifolia are pounded, dried, and then ground before being added to food as a flavoring agent.

Wild fungi

Edible fungi are sought after and eaten to a considerable extent by the Luo (Table 4). They are available in local markets on occasion. Their availability is seasonal, although the small Termitomyces microcarpus are dried and stored for consumption throughout the year.

WiM leafy vegetables

Leafy vegetables are arguably the most important group of wild plants used by the Luo. In general, they probably provide the same nutrients as cultivated leafy vegetables, although the nutrient content of most plants in Table 5 has not been evaluated.

Many of the listed plants grow abundantly and are easy to procure in quantity in particular localities. Asystasia schimperi, Commelina africana, C. benghalensis, Oxygonum sinuatum, Portulaca quadrifolia, and Sonchus schweinfurthii are in- vasive weeds in cultivated plots. They are most available during the rainy season, and along with semi-cultivated species such as Gynandropsis gynandra and Sola- num nigrum can play an important dietary role as soon as the growing season commences. This is a season widely reported to be a period of potential shortage for subsistence farmers in tropical Africa (Hunter 1967; Pagezy 1982). Under normal circumstances most plants are weeded out and discarded. They grow well in fields in wet areas and in drought years are likely to remain locally available.

Cassia occidentalis, Coccinea adoensis, Erythrococca bengensis, and Sida acuta are perennials of local abundance, although their leaves are most luxuriant in the rainy season.

Many of the species commonly grow in a dispersed fashion. However, it is customary even with cultivated leafy vegetables to mix species; in times of scarcity, people reportedly combine whatever edible leaves they can gather.

Preparation of all varieties of leaves is more or less the same. Generally they are prepared by boiling, either to dryness, or with pouring off and readdition of water if it is desired to remove bitter principles. Magadi soda, a sodium sesqui- carbonate salt (Muindi et al. 1981), is added to soften unacceptably tough leaves. Data do not exist to assess the effects of this treatment on nutrient content.

Many of the vegetables in Table 1 and in Table 5 are relatively unpalatable and their digestibility may be limited. Unpalatability comes from allelochemicals in plants; these chemicals may also be toxic. However, toxicity is a relative concept that must be considered in relation to the context in which these plants are used. Several of them, in particular Cassia occidentalis, Crotalaria brevidens, Gynan- dropsis gynandra, Solanum nigrum, and Sonchus schweinfurthiL are believed to have medicinal properties and are eaten routinely by people seeking therapeutic benefit (Johns et al. 1990). Under normal circumstances the benefits from eating these plants may outweigh any detriment. However, under stress conditions brought

1991] JOHNS & KOKWARO: LUO FOOD PLANTS I 11

on by food shortage, consumption of large amounts of potential toxins can have negative consequences (cf. G a d d e t al. 1962). These plants require greater phy- tocbemical and toxicological evaluation.

Gynandropsis gynandra, Sesamum angustifolium, and Solanum nigrum are both cultivated and gathered from the wild for their leaves. In addition Corchorus trilocularis, a close relative of the cultivated C. olitorius, is used more or less interchangeably with the cultigen. Both cultivated and wild species of Amaranthus are consumed. We are uncertain to what extent domestication of these plants is taking place. Seeds for cultivation are often taken from wild populations. Gynan- drops& gynandra, particularly prolific, is often planted once in a field with the expectation that it will persist through self-seeding for many years. Of the three plants listed above only S. nigrum exhibits much variability, although populations within sizeable areas in Siaya appear more or less uniform. As well as having morphological differences, populations of black nightshade vary in bitterness and may be subject to selection for chemical content.

The Luo name for Gynandropsis gynandra suggests that this species may have been historically the most important of the leafy vegetables currently consumed by the Luo. Although this plant is widely known as akeyo, it is also commonly referred to by the same informants as alot dek. This term, meaning vegetable (alot) food (dek), underlines the fundamental role of this plant in Luo subsistence.

C O N C L U S I O N

The Luo of Siaya District, primarily small-scale farmers, adhere mostly to traditional agricultural practices. Although sugarcane, maize and fruits are grown commercially in some places, most families continue to depend on production of large number of crops for subsistence. The diversity on which their subsistence is based is represented in Table 1.

The retention of knowledge by both young and old people of the uses of edible wild plants attests to the continuing importance of these resources for subsistence and as part of the cultural heritage of the Luo. In general, people in this rural area are well versed in the native names of wild plants used for both food and medicine. Wild edibles are particularly important in the driest regions, which are most vulnerable to drought. These areas correspond to those portions of the district where native vegetation has been conserved to the greatest extent.

Evaluation of the nature and the potential of these plants should proceed from a broad perspective. First, all wild edibles and indigenous crops of this area require greater evaluation for nutritional, pharmacological, and toxicological properties. Interpretation of scientific data must be done in the context of the nutritional and subsistence needs of Luo.

Second, research needs to be focused on basic biology of the plants. Much remains to be understood of their systematics, reproductive biology, ecology, and biogeography. Other than the anecdotal evidence presented here little is known of the extent to which the plants are exploited. This needs to be put on a quantitative basis (cf. Ogle and Grivetti 1985b). Investigations are needed into pro- ductivity, harvestability, and regenerability of the plants. Surely it makes no sense to advocate exploitation that leads to destruction and elimination of the plants.

Many plants used by the Luo for food and medicine come from forested areas.


Retention of native forests in Africa is desirable on broad climatological and conservational grounds. Exploitation of native plants must occur in relation to the need to renew this environment. Recognition of the value of these plants in traditional economic patterns can help to rationalize the retention and regener- ation of such habitats. We believe that an integrated approach to exploitation and conservation of these resources is in the long-term interest of the people of such regions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are grateful for financial support from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council Canada (NSERC) and the University of California Research Expeditions Program (UREP). We thank W. Wallunya, E.A.O. Yuko, E. Achola, and T. Omenda for assistance in the field and S. Booth, L. Lanoue, and L. Thibault for comments on and assistance with the manuscript. In addition we are most grateful to the people of Siaya and the Chiefs and other local authorities for their cooperation in this investigation.

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food plants of the luo of siaya district, kenya

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