S.E.F.E.S. Library

Fleshy Fungi ’Commonly Eaten

By Southern Wildlife

Southern Forest Experiment Station

Forest Service

U. S. Department of Agriculture

The authors are grateful to many persons for substantial assistance in

preparing this guide. Lafayette Frederick, Biology Department, Atlanta

University, assisted in identification. Harry D. Thiers, Department of

Ecology and Systematic Botany, San Francisco State College,, furnished

information on the occurrence of boletes of the Coastal Plains. E. A. Epps,

Jr., Feed and Fertilizer Laboratory, Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Sta-

tion, made chemical analyses of several species. Stephen L. Beckwith,

School of Forestry, University of Florida, and Eldon Lucas, USDA Forest

Service, collected specimens for identification and chemical analyses. David

F. Urbston and Charles T. Cushwa, USDA Forest Service, provided data on

mushroom use by deer.

Information on ecology, growth requirements, and animal use was pro- i

vided by William Bridge Cooke, Senior Mycologist, Robert A. Taft Sanitation

Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio; C. S. Hodges, Jr., Southeastern Forest

Experiment Station, Research Triangle Park, N. C.; T. H. Filer, Jr., Southern

Forest Experiment Station, Stoneville, Miss.; Alexander H. Smith, Director,

University of Michigan Herbarium; Larry F. Grand, North Carolina State

University; and Walter E. Stienecker, California Department of Fish and Game.

U. S. Department of AgricultureForest Service Research Paper SO-49

Fleshy FungiCommonly Eaten

By Southern WildlifeHOWARD A. MILLER

ANDLOWELL K. HALLS

Southern Forest Experiment StationForest Service

U. S. Depafiment of Agriculture

1969

CAUTION:

Many species of mushrooms that are deadly to man

are apparently harmless to wildlife. Animal use does

not indicate edibility for humans.

i i

Conients

Introduction .._. -.~~~-------------------~----.~.----------~-----------------------~----~ ._..................

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89999

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1 11 11 21 2

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1 31 31 41 4

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1 61 61 7

Boletaceae ............................................................................. ..~...~~~~~~~ ........ 22Boletellus ..................................................... ..~...~...~...~.~~ ... __.............._ _ 22

betula ............................................................ ..~~..~....~ . . . _ .............. 22

Boletinus .................................................................... ..~~ ... _ ................ 22pictus ............................................................................ ______________ 22

Boletus ............................. .._ ......... ~--.~~-___-.--_---------~--~--------~- _________________ 23rubelus _.....~......-.._......~...........~...............................~ . .___.___ ........ .._ 23

Gyroporus -------.--------------~~~~.~.~~~--.-~-~~~.-~---.-----.~-----.--------------------~--~~~~~~ 23cyanescens ----------__.----------~---~---~---~---.--~~---~---~---~- _.__...___......_.._.--- - 23

Pulverboletus _-----------...... ~...~~.~.~.~~~..~___~.__.._...~~.....................~..~~...~~ ... 23retipes ......................................................... ..~...~......-~ ... _.__ ........... 23

Strobilomyces -----------.------~------.-----------.~~----~.-~---~-~-.---~~ ..... .._..........._.- - 24floccopus . ..~-......~........................................~ ............................... 24

Suillus ............. .._ ............................... ~..~~..~~..~~~~.._ ................. ___________ ... 24granulatus .--.-.----.------.-----------------.-----.~----------.-~--~.-~~ ______..._ ......... 24luteus ......................... ..~.......~...........~..-....~......~~~.~~..~~~ . .____.__________ 2 4

Other fleshy fungi : Lycoperdaceae, Clavariaceae,Hymenogastraceae, Helvellaceae _- _________ --------------- _________........._.______________ 25

Calvatia ---_---_------------------------------------ .______________________ --___--_- _______________..._. 2 5gigantea ___________ _________ ----------_---_-- ________________ - _______________..._.___________ 2 5

Clavaria ---------_-_--___----- __.._____.__________ ---__---__-------_--___ ____________..._._.________ 2 6

Rhizopogon ----------------_---_______ _____________ -_--__-_-.--_---_---- __________________...--...--- 2 6

Morchella ---.---------I---------____ _____________ -__-__--_------__----------- _____________._____.____ 2 7esculenta . . . . . . . . ..______________________________.-~-...-.-------.-.---..------....--.-.-....-- 2 7

References _-----------_- ____________________________ -----_-------__-___-____ _________________.._____________ 28

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Fleshy Fungi Commonly EatenBv Southern Wildlife

J

Howard A. Miller and Lowell K. Halls’

Mushrooms appear to be an important com-ponent of the diet for wildlife in the South.They are eaten by deer, small mammals suchas squirrels and other rodents, birds, turtles,and numerous species of insects.

In winter, when the food needs of wildlifeare usually critical, mushrooms are particu-larly important, especially to white-tailed deer.During this period the highly nutritious mush-rooms help to compensate for nutrient defici-encies in native forage.

At the Atomic Energy Commission’s Savan-nah River Project in South Carolina, David F.Urbston of the USDA Forest Service reportedthat deer ate mushrooms at all seasons (un-published data). In an analysis of 100 deerstomachs, he found that 95 percent containedmushrooms or other fungi, varying in volumefrom a trace to 83 percent. Strode (21) listsmushrooms as the most important food for deeron the Ocala National Forest in Florida. Hefound that 79 percent of deer stomachs exam-ined contained mushrooms; percent by volumewas 24. In Missouri, 50 out of 270 deer stom-achs contained fungi (14).

While at the Southeastern Forest ExperimentStation, Charles Cushwa and colleagues col-lected stomach samples from deer in the majorphysiographic provinces of the Southeast. Per-cent of stomachs containing mushrooms rangedfrom 10 to 100, depending on province andseason; content by volume ranged from I to27 percent (unpublished). Use was generallyhighest in summer.

Game birds such as grouse, turkeys, andquail feed heavily on mushrooms. Grouse andturkeys, which are strong scratchers, easilyuncover mushrooms hidden by pine needles or1 Formerly Branch Chief, Wildlife Management, SouthernRegion, USDA Forest Service. Now consulting forester andbiologist, Marietta, Georgia.

2 Halls is on the staff of the Wildlife Habitat and SilvicultureLaboratory, which is maintained at Nacogdoches, Texas,by the Southern Forest Experiment Station in cooperationwith Stephen F. Austin State University.

hardwood leaves. Broken ends and threads ofmycelia that have been pulled up indicate thepresence of fungi and use by birds. Quail,being weak scratchers, often feed on pieces ofmushroom left by rodents.

Among rodents that eat mushrooms aresquirrels and white-footed and deer mice. Thewestern gray squirrel feeds heavily on sub-terranean fungi, such as false truffles. Theeastern gray squirrel favors above-groundmushrooms. In Ohio, mushrooms ranked highin the gray squirrel diet (18). In Virginia,fleshy fungi constituted 26 percent of the falldiet and 16 percent of the winter diet of graysquirrels (5).

The fruiting bodies of mushrooms, whichare often heavily infested by insects, are alsoa source of food for birds. Robins and bluejays,for example, frequently tear mushrooms apartin search of larvae.

Four species of mushrooms are preferred farmore than others. In order of preference theyare peppery lactarius (Lactarius piperatus),little red russula (Russula roseipes), honeymushroom (Armillaria mellea), and granulatedbolete (Suillus granulatus).

Purpose of this guide is to aid in identifica-tion of mushrooms commonly eaten by wildlifein the southern forests extending from Texasto Virginia. In addition, the aim is to stimulateinterest in research on mushrooms as wildlifefood and on their ecology and growth.

The fungi described here occur commonly inone or more physiographic provinces of theSouth. They are known to be eaten by one ormore species of wildlife. Their fruiting bodiesare large enough (i.e., at least 2 inches indiameter) to provide a substantial segment ofthe diet for larger birds and mammals. Onlymushrooms that meet these requirements ac-cording to present knowledge are included here.For those interested in additional information,a list of comprehensive manuals is provided.

NUTRITIVE VALUE

Fresh fleshy fungi have high moisture con-tents, usually between 75 and 90 percent. Thus,rather large volumes have to be consumed toprovide adequate protein and phosphorus. Aprotein content of about 30 percent of dryweight has been reported for a typical Mor-chella (17). Crude protein content averaged17 percent (dry weight basis) for several speci-mens of Hygrophorus, Armillaria, Russula,Clitocybe, Tricholoma, Pholiota, and Amanitacollected during late autumn in Georgia; therange was from 12 to 27 percent. Phosphorusaveraged 0.40 percent, ranging from 0.20 to0.58 percent.

In east Texas, specimens of Hygrophorus andAmanita collected during early winter av-eraged 23 percent crude protein and 0.55 per-cent phosphorus. The same samples averagedonly 12 percent in crude fiber content, an indi-cation that they are readily digestible by rumi-nants such as cattle and deer.

Samples of Morchella, Rhizopogon, Cortin-arius, Amanita, Clitocybe, and Lactarius col-lected in May averaged 30 percent crude pro-tein, 17 percent crude fiber, and 0.68 percentphosphorus.

HABITAT REQUIREMENTS

Fleshy fungi are particularly abundant inthe litter on the forest floor. Some fungi arefound only in association with conifers andothers with hardwoods. Some seem to be de-pendent upon a single tree species. A few areparasitic on other mushrooms. Certain fungiare especially numerous in soils where organiccontent is high. A few live mainly on the slashleft after logging of hardwoods. Many estab-lish a mycorrhizal association with tree roots.

The mushroom population in the forestchanges with the seasons. Morchella, or morels,usually appear in the coolness of early spring,Boletus in the summer, Cortinarius in autumn,Hygrophorus in early winter, and Collybiaduring winter (15).

The greatest number of species are usuallyfound where the forest floor is covered withsufficient humus, dead leaves, thick moss, orother debris to hold moisture. Mycelia canlive for many years, and mushrooms are oftenfound in about the same spot each year. During

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a drought, fruiting bodies are seldom seen, anda long rainy spell may be necessary before theyappear above ground. Except where rottenlogs and woods retain moisture, a single heavyrain or even a number of scattered showersmay not be sufficient to induce growth (12).

Certain conditions of temperature and hu-midity must be present even when soil mojs-ture is ample. Commercial mushrooms growsbest between 50” and 60°F.. but in the wildthere is a wider tolerance (15). If showersoccur frequently during warm weather, a largenumber of species can be found fruiting simul-taneously in a small area (20).

Since mushrooms lack chlorophyll and gettheir food from organic matter, direct sunlightis not necessary for growth. The mycelium iscapable of fruiting even under dense shade,given the proper temperature and moisture.This characteristic will become increasinglyimportant in management of game habitat un-der dense pine stands grown on short rotations.

Any forest management practice that resultsin disturbance to the soil or an accumulationof derbis and organic material will usuallyaffect the mushroom population. Species ofmushrooms that live on slash and downed treesshould increase for several years followinglogging. Later, as the debris breaks down,additions to the duff provide a medium onwhich a large number of mushrooms of otherspecies live.

Burning, an important management tech-nique, often causes certain fungi to fruit fora few years, after which they are not seenuntil the next burn. On six burned plots ofloblolly and shortleaf pines (Pinus taeda, P.echinata), the senior author observed that fireapparently induced heavy fruiting of Suillusgranulatus, R u s s u l a delica, R . variata, Arm-illaria ventricosa, and Hygrophorus tennesseen-sis. On the other hand, where fire destroys asubstantial proportion of the litter, the numberand kinds of fleshy fungi will probably decline.

In southern forests where upland hardwoodshave been converted to pines, certain mush-rooms that were scarce or absent among thehardwoods become abundant. Species such asAmanita verna, A. chlorinosma, and Lactariuspiperatus tolerate the high density of youngstands and the lack of hardwood litter anddebris.

AgaricaceaeMembers of the family Agaricaceae are para- use of species with black spores has been ob-

sol-shaped fungi bearing gills under the cap. served, probably because as the fungi matureThey are sometimes known as the true mush- the caps and gills liquify through a processrooms. The agarics may be grouped according of autodigestion.to the color of their spore masses. Wildlife Species described here are arranged al-apparently prefer those in the white, pink, phabetically by genera within spore-colorpurple-brown, and yellow-brown groups. No groups.

Amanita

Amanitas are eaten by deer, squirrel, turkey,grouse, and other birds and mammals. Mostof them are deadly to humans, however.

These beautiful mushrooms range in colorfrom pure white to brilliant red and orange.The spores are white and the gills are free oronly slightly attached to the stem. The outerveil, when broken, becomes the volva or cupat the base of the stem. The inner veil, whenbroken, becomes the ring on the stem.

Species described here are common in south-ern pine-hardwood forests.

Browning amanito

CAP

GILLS

STEM

RING

VOLVA

CAP

GILLS

STEM

RING

VOLVA

Browning AmanitaAmanita brunnescens

1% to 4 inches wide; conical, becom-ing flat convex with small umbo;tan to gray-brown, smoky; nauseousodor

white; close; medium broad

2 to 5 inches long; tapering upwardand often splitting up and down

on upper portion of stem

a shallow cup, if at allOccurs from June through Au-

gust.

Caesar’s MushroomAmanita caesarea

2 to 5 inches wide; conical, becomingconvex to flat; red to orange; scalesrarely found on mature specimens

white or slightly yellow; close andmedium broad

4 to 7 inches long; yellowish

yellowish

deep, well-formed white cupThis colorful mushroom is found

from July through August.

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Caesar’s mushroom-mature and immature

Chlorine amonito

Tawny AmanitaAmanita fulva

CAP 1 to 4 inches wide; conical; tawnyto gray or pale orange to buff, withconspicuously striate margin

GILLS white, close and narrow

STEM 3 to 5 inches long; whitish above anddull yellow below

RING not evident

VOLVA white; deeply cup-likeOccurs solitarily and scattered,

June to August.

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Chlorine omanito-sectioned

Chlorine AmanitaAmanita chlorinosma

CAP 3 to 10 inches wide; conical; whitishor pale cream; has odor of stronglime or old ham

GILLS white to creamy; close

STEM 4/ to 10 inches long; bulbous atground

RING fragile, soon disappears

VOLVA mealy powder on base of stemWarty scales on the central por-

tion become soft and powdery andoften fall from the cap and stem;fruiting bodies occur from July toNovember.

Tawny amanita

Fly MushroomAmanita muscaria

CAP 4 to 6 inches wide; egg-shaped whenyoung; convex to flat and oftenslightly concave when mature; sur-face pale yellow to orange, some-times reddish, often with white orpale yellow scales in concentricrings

GILLS white, turning yellow; close andbroad

STEM 4 to 6 inches long; enlarged at baseand tapering upward; yellowishwhite

RING fragile, often hanging from stem orcap edge

VOLVA scales or broken ridges encirclinglower stem and bulb

Found from June to October.

Fly amanita

Fly amanita

Solitary AmanitaAmanita solitaria

CAP 3 to 5 inches wide; first conical, laterflat; surface white or nearly so withbrownish warts

GILLS white to yellowish; close

STEM 4 to 8 inches long; scaly and bulbousat ground line

RING white; at first attached to stem; rem-nants of veil often persist on gills

VOLVA scales on base; no well-formed cupOccurs singly, June through Au-

gust.

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Solitary amanita

Solitory omonita-veil remnants

Destroying AngelDestroying Angel

CAPCAP

Amanita vernaAmanita verna

2 to 5 inches wide; convex to flat;2 to 5 inches wide; convex to flat;whitewhite

GILLS faintly serrate in older specimens

STEM 4 to 7 inches long; white; bulbous atbase

RING white, often hanging from upperportion of stem

VOLVA cup-like, often in soilUsually grows solitarily or in

small groups, June to August; dead-ly to humans.

ArmillariaSpecies in this genus have white spores, and

the gills are attached to the stalk. A ring occurson the stem, but it is often inconspicuous andshort-lived. In contrast to amanitas, armillariashave no volva. The stem is continuous withthe cap and does not separate readily. Armil-larias differ from lepiotas, the other white-spored mushroom with a ring, by their attachedgills; in lepiotas the gills are free. Armillariasoccur in pine and pine-mixed hardwoods inthe mountains, Piedmont, and upper CoastalPlain.

Booted ArmillariaArmillaria caligata

CAP 2 to 6 inches wide; flat or funnel-shaped at maturity; reddish-brownscales tinged with purple

GILLS white to grayish, turning brown withage

Destroying angel

STEM 2 to 3 inches long; brownish andscaly below, white and smooth a-bove

RING

-..

flaring and conspicuousThe lower portion and light up-

per part resemble a boot; commonin autumn; often associated withhuckleberry thickets. 1

Booted armillario-variant

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Honey MushroomArmillaria mellea

CAP 2 to 5 inches wide; convex to flatwhen mature; honey-colored orbrown, usually scaly; surface ofyoung plants sticky

GILLS decurrent; pale yellow to white, fre-quently brownish when mature

STEM 4 to 10 inches long; tapering down-ward and scaly to pointed “root”

RING at first stands out like collar, latercollapses and may disappear

This common mushroom growsabundantly in large clusters about

Honey mushroom---squirrels and turkeysfeed heavily on this species.

stumps of deciduous trees; it oftenproduces black strands of fungalfilament, under the bark, that re-sembles shoestrings; found mainlyin September and October.

Swollen-Stalked ArmillariaArmillaria ventricosa

CAP 4 to 12 inches wide; depressed incenter when young, flat or funnel-shaped when mature; shining andsmooth; whitish or silver-gray

GILLS decurrent; narrow and white

STEM 2 to 6 inches long; stout; taperingrapidly to point

RING flaring and prominentThis species is important to deer

in late fall and winter.

Swollen-stalked armillaria

LepiotaMost Lepiota species have white spores

though some have cream-colored or greenspores. All have a ring on the stem, which sep-

Green-Gilled MushroomLepiota molybdites

arates readily from the cap. The gills are free.Lepiotas resemble amanitas except that theydo not have a cup. They grow on the ground,on debris, or on rotten wood. Wildlife do notfeed heavily on them, probably because theyoccur along with large and succulent species ofLactarius, which may be more attractive. Threespecies, however, are locally common enoughto be considered valuable for wildlife.

CAP 3 to 8 inches wide; buff with palebrownish scales

GILLS becoming dull green with maturity;spores green in mass

STEM 3 to 8 inches long; tapering towardbulbous base

RING whitish; becomes movable

Found mainly in grasslands, Julyto early fall.

CAP

GILLS

STEM

RING

Green-gilled mushroom-immature group

Smooth LepiotaLepiota naucina

2 to 4 inches wide; oval when young,later convex to almost flat; surfacesmooth or faintly cracked; whitewith central portion frequentlysmoky

close and white when young, laterturning pinkish and finally palebrown; edge serrate; spores white

2 to 5 inches long; tapering upwardfrom bulbous base; white and hol-low when mature

prominent, sticking out from stem

Grows on the ground in gro.ss-lands and open hardwood types,June to October.

CAP

GILLS

STEM

RING-..

RussulaThe species number in the hundreds. Many

are yet to be described. They are widely dis-tributed and occur in all major cover types.Judging from the use by wildlife, they arequite palatable.

Russula species have no ring or cup. Thestem and cap are continuous. Cap colors rangefrom dingy white through all the colors of the

Smooth lepioto

Parasol MushroomLepiota procera

2 to 6 inches wide; reddish brownwith conspicuous concentric brown-ish scales

close; white, then pinkish or brown-ish; spores white

6 to 9 inches long with brownishscales and bulbous base

movable

A grassland species, July to earlyfall.

rainbow. The spore mass is basically whiteor pale cream, but in several species it is brightyellow. The gills are brittle and easily breakinto small pieces.

This genus resembles Lactarius in manyways. General shape and growth habits aresimilar. During wet weather both may exudedroplets of liquid from their gills and the edges

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of their caps. Russulas will not, however, exudea milky substance from the flesh of the cap,.when broken.

CAP

GILLS

STEM

Typica l russula

Scarlet RussulaRussula borealis

3 to 7 inches wide; spherical whenyoung, later flat or depressed inthe center; dry and not sticky, eas-ily peeled from surface; white fleshtinged red beneath cuticle; scarletor blood-red in center, fading to-ward edge

short, decurrent; spore mass yellow

3 to 5 inches long; uniform in diam-eter; often white, spotted or tingedwith red

Occurs usually in groups of twoto four, August to October.

CAP

GILLS

STEM

CAP

GILLS

STEM

Encrusted RussulaRussula crustosa

2 to 5 inches wide; depressed in cen-ter; margin recurved when young,later upraised and striate; surfacesticky and greenish, appearingcrusted and scaly

white, later buff; spores whitish

2 to 4 inches long; white; thick attip and tapering toward base

Found in summer.

Zoned-Stem RussulaRussula delica

5 to 10 inches wide; at first with cen-tral depression; margin upraisedlater so cap has broad funnel shape;smooth but sometimes faintly hairy;surface dull white with rusty brownpatches, yellowish stains, and con-centric rings

short decurrent; white; short andlong gills alternating; spore masscreamy white with faint pinkishcast

r/2 to 1% inches long; cylindrical;usually with blue-green ring at top

Fruits from August through De-cember.

____--Zoned-stem russula-sectioned

Fetid RussulaRussula foetens

CAP 2 to 5 inches wide; sticky; at firstspherical, later flat or nearly sowith tan to pale brown, coarselystriate margin

GILLS pale yellow; short decurrent or at-tached; usually exudes drops of

Little red russula---sectioned

STEM

CAP

GILLS

STEM

Fetid russulo

liquid from edges when fresh;spores white

2 to 4 inches long; white or palebrown where bruised; quickly hol-lowed out by insect larvae; putridodor when mature

Occurs from July through Sep-tember.

Little Red RussulaRussula roseipes

lY2 to 3 inches wide; convex; flator slightly depressed in center;sticky when young; margin prom-inently striate; cuticle easily peelsoff; surface bright red and may beslightly yellow in center

free or slightly attached; white whenyoung, turning yellow with matur-ity; spores yellow

1 to 2 inches long; cylindrical orslightly tapered upward; white orpale red; spongy

Usually found scattered underconifers but sometimes occurs inpine-hardwood types, August to Oc-tober.

Wildlife apparently prefer little red russulamore than most species.

Variable RussulaRussula variata

CAP 2 to 4 inches wide; pinkish to deepwine and lavender; convex to flat,often with depression in center

GiILLS white; finely branched toward out-side

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STEM

CAP 2 to 6 inches wide; flat to slightlydepressed in center; green to gray-ish-green or olive; at maturity solidcolor breaks, showing white fleshbeneath

GILLS white, free; spores white

STEM 1 to 3 inches long; thick and oftentapered near base or on both ends

Grows singly from June throughOctober.

2 to 4 inches long, white, moderatelystout

Found in pine types in the Coast-al Plain and among hardwoods inthe mountains; fruits from May toSeptember and is responsive to fire.

Green RussulaRussula virescens

Green russula

Lactarius

Members of this genus are among the largestand showiest mushrooms in the woods. Theyare highly attractive to insects, rodents, anddeer. An untouched, mature specimen is rarelyfound.

Species range from about 4 inches in diame-ter to as large as a dinner plate. They havewhite spores and attached or decurrent gills.Cap and stem are continuous. The cap is moreoften depressed to funnel-shaped. The singlemost distinguishing character is the presenceof white or colored juice when the cap isbroken. In wet weather, droplets often oozefrom the gills. Droplets are not visibly exudedfrom old dry specimens; a low-power lens maybe required to distinguish their presence.

The genus is well distributed in the moun-tains, the Piedmont, and Coastal Plains, as wellas on flood plains of the major rivers. It ismostly terrestial, sometimes on much decayedwood. Lactarius species often occur in largenumbers in the open woods of higher ground.

CAP

GiiLS

Blue Lactarius

Lactarius indigo

2 to 6 inches wide; convex with cen-tral depression when young, becom-ing broad, funnel-shaped at matur-ity; concentric bands

blue, at times pale green; decurrentand occasionally forked

Blue lactarius

STEM 1 to 3 inches long; stout; blueGrows solitarily, August and Sep-

tember; blue juice exuding fromcap and gills.

Peppery LactariusLactarius piperatus

CAP 4 to 12 inches wide; margin incurvedat first, center later depressed tofunnel-shaped; surface white, dry,smooth

Peppery loctorius

GILLS white, decurrent, crowded, andforked

STEM 1 to 3 inches long; white and stout,often tapering downward; may befinely pubescent

Grows in hardwood stands andoccasionally in pines, August and

September; normally in groups offour to eight but sometimes foundsingly; juice white.

Orange-Brown Lactarius

CAP

GILLS

STEM

Lactarius volemus

2 to 4 inches wide; flat to convexwhen young, later funnel-shaped;golden brown; smooth but some-times with small pinpoint-sizedspots

decurrent; pale cream or brownish;occasionally forked

2 to 4 inches long; colored like capor paler; usually solid and cylindri-cal.

Scattered throughout Southeast,June through August; juice is white.

Cantharellus

CantharelZus species have vase-like, funnel-shaped caps and long decurrent, forked gillsthat, in most cases, are so thick that they re-semble folds rather than gills. The ring andcup are absent and the stem and cap are con-tinuous.

CAP

ChanterelleCantharellus cibarius

3 to 8 inches wide; first convex thenflat, later shallow and funnel-shaped; margin curved down, wavy;

syellowish to buff and orange

12

GILLS yellow; thick and forking; sporespinkish-yellow or cream

STEM 1 to 3 inches long; thick at top andtapering downward, same color asgills, or lighter

Grows scattered or in groups onthe ground, June through August;similar to Craterellus cantherellusbut has true gills instead of folds.

CAP

GILLS

STEM

Shaggy ChanterelleCantharellus floccosus

2 to 4 inches wide; almost cylindricalwith flat top at first, later deeplyfunnel-shaped; yellow to pale or-ange and scaly

ridge-like or folded; forking and paleyellow; spores yellowish-cinnamon

1 to 2 inches long; not distinct fromcap; pale yellow and often coveredwith white mycelium at base

Fruits from May through Septem-ber.

The chanterelle Shaggy chanterelle

Hygrophorus

Gills, the principal means of identification,are soft, waxy, and widely spaced; they arenot brittle. Gills are sharp at the edges butthicken toward the cap; they are triangular incross-section. Spores are white. The stem is CAPhollow at maturity and is sometimes twistedand split lengthwise. Hygrophorus species arenot large mushrooms. The stem and cap are notcontinuous but do not separate easily from GILLSone another.

13

Scarlet HygrophorusHygrophorus coccineus

1 to 2 inches wide; conical at first,becoming upturned and wavy; scar-let-red, fading somewhat with age

orange-red or yellow-orange; alter-nately long and short; spores white

STEM 1 to 3 inches long; same color as capbut with white base

Grows on the ground in open,grassy woods, July to November.

Russulo hygrophorus

Grows solitarily on ground? Oc-tober through December; closely re-sembles Russula roseipes, which hasyellow spores.

Scarlet hygrophorus

Russula HygrophorusHygrophorus russula

CAP 2 to 5 inches wide; convex whenyoung, becoming broad and shal-low, funnel-shaped; surface pale redto coral pink; sticky when moist,often spotted with very small scales;margin raised and wavy

GILLS white and later spotted with red; at-tached to stem or short decurrent;spores white

STEM 1 to 3 inches long, tapering down-ward and covered with downy my-celium

Tennessee HygrophorusHygrophorus tennesseensis

CAP 2 to 5 inches wide; convex to slightlyflat; tawny or clay colored; surfacesticky

GILLS white

STEM 2 to 4 inches long; dingy white,tapering downward or occasionallycrooked

Found in wet years, Septemberthrough December.

Tennessee hygrophorus

Clitocybe

Clitocybe have attached or decurrent gills species. The genus is probably best knownand a tough stem that does not separate readily for the jack-o-lantern mushroom, which glowsfrom the cap. To differentiate between cap in the dark. Individuals are not large, but sinceand stem flesh it may be necessary to use a they occur in groups the total mass is largehand lens or let the specimen dry. Spores, enough to attract wildlife. They usually occurthough generally white, are yellow in some on decaying wood.

14

Cartilagenous Clitocybe Jack-O-Lantern MushroomClitocybe cartilaginea

CAP 2 to 4 inches wide; convex; tan tobrown in center, becoming pale atedge; surface slick when moist; capmargin on young plants turned in;skin tough, often wrinkled and canbe peeled from flesh

GILLS short; decurrent or attached; paleyellow to white

STEM 2 to 8 inches long; rather tough andstringy; slick when moist; severalstems often arise from commonbase

Occurs in mixed hardwoods, Oc-tober and November; scattered or indense clumps that resemble fairyrings.

Clitocybe illudens

CAP 2 to 8 inches wide; convex at firstwith margin turned down or in-rolled, becoming flat or shallowfunnel-shaped at maturity; brightyellow or orange-yellow with dullsilky sheen when dry; margin some-times lobed or wavy

GILLS luminescent; spores pale yellow

STEM 4 to 6 inches long; bases often fused;buff-colored; fibrous and usuallycurved

Usually grows in dense clumpson and around old stumps, logs, anddecaying roots; generally found a-mong mature oaks, May to October;luminescent.

.

Jock-o-lontern

Cartilogenous clitocybe

Cartilagenous clitocybe-sectioned

CAP

GILLS

ParilisClitocybe parilis

2 to 4 inches wide; convex whenyoung, becoming shallow funnel-shaped with maturity; surface gray-ish tinged with brown, margincurved down or flat; flesh whiteand thicker near stem

gray to pale yellow; long decurrent

STEM 1% to 2 inches long; tapering down-ward; white or pale gray; base oftencovered with white mycelium

Grows on the ground nearstreams and low sites in the moun-tains, September and October.

Parilis Mycelium on base of parilis stem

CollybiaCollybias of known value to wildlife grow

in groups or clusters on and around hardwoodstumps. They are numerous on the Ocala Na-tional Forest in Florida and are also foundin the upper Coastal Plain and mountains.

Collgbia sp.

CAP 1 to 3 inches wide; not continuouswith stem and difficult to separate;often enrolled in young plants

GILLS vary from almost free to attached;spores white

STEM tough; thick and fleshy Collybia

LaccariaSpecies of Laccaria closely resemble those

of both Hygrophorus and Clitocybc. The waxygills are well separated and thickened at thebase but are pink, which is not a characteristicof Hygrophorus. The gills are not attached tothe stem, nor decurrent as in Clitocybe. Inshort, Laccaria looks like Hygrophorus withpink gills. Laccaria spores are white.

CAP

Waxy LaccariaLaccaria laccata

3/4 to 2 inches wide; brown to cinna-mon, paler when dry or frozen;surface scurfy

GILLS pink; broad; waxy, and free fromstem

16

STEM 1 to s1/2 inches long; usually samecolor as cap; often skin of stem willseparate near upper end and re-semble a ring, which is fake

Most common of the genus inthe Southeast; found mostly in pinetypes, December and January; with-stands freezing well.

CAP 2 to 5 inches wide; grayish when dry,purplish-brown when wet

GILLS bright purple

STEM 1% to 6 inches long; usually samecolor as cap, except lighter

Woxy loccor ia -no te f ake r ing on s tem

Tricholomas have white spores and gillsnotched at the stem. The stem does not sep-arate readily from the cap. The dividing linebetween the cap flesh and the stem is oftendifficult to distinguish. The four species des-cribed here are the ones most commonly eatenbv wildlife.

Yellow-Brown TricholomaTricholoma f lavobrunneum

CAP 2 to 4 inches wide; at first roundedwith an umbo, later flat; reddish-tan, sticky when moist; margin in-curved for some time, later wavy

Waxy loccorio

Purple LaccariaLaccaria ochropurpurea

Fruits during autumn in moun-tains.

GILLS whitish and red-spotted

STEM 2 to 4 inches long; white with redstains

Fruits from August through De-cember.

Tricholoma

17

Yellow-brown tricholoma

Yellowish-Tawny Tricholoma

CAP

GILLS

STEM

Tricholoma flavovirens

2 to 5 inches wide; convex at first,later becoming shallow funnel-shaped; wavy margin; tawny color;slightly scaly with a hint of green

yellow

1 to 4 inches long; white or tingedwith pale yellow

Fruits in October and November.

Yellowish-tawny tricholomo Tricholoma resplendens

Lavender TricholomaTricholoma personatum

CAP 2 to 6 inches wide; at first convex,becoming flat; surface at first cov-ered with fuzz; pale watery gray,later turning to pale lavender andbecoming naked; flesh pale laven-der to gray

Lavender tricholorno

Lavender tricholomo-sectioned

GILLS notched or almost free; same coloras cap

STEM 2 to 3 inches long; thick, with en-larged base; color same as cap

Grows in small groups or singlyamong decaying leaves or brush,September through October.

White-Shining Tricholoma

CAP 2 to 4 inches wide; white and sticky

GILLS white with maturity, faintly flesh-tinted

STEM 2 to 6 inches long; white; slightlybulbous at base or with fleshy crook

Occurs in hardwood stands, Oc-tober and November; usually cov-ered by leaves; squirrels often digup and eat the enlarged, crookedbase, apparently preferring it to thestem or cap.

Ag.arzcus

White-shining tricholomo

The Agaricus species generally have purple- tapers slightly above the bulbous base. Onlybrown spores and a ring. The cap and stem three species are common enough to be con-are easily separated. Gills are free. The stalk sidered as valuable to wildlife.

18

CAP

GILLS

STEM

RING

Meadow mushroom

Meadow MushroomAgaricus campestris

2 to 4 inches wide; flat with smallumbo; surface silky white, tingedwith buff or brown, may be deli-cately scaly

free; at first bright pink, turning todark purple-brown with maturity;spores purple-brown

2 to 4 inches long; white; does nothave bulbous base

white; thin; fragile with persistentremnants often hanging from edgeof cap

Meadow mushroom

CAP

GILLS

STEM

RING

Often cultivated; wild speciesfruits in grassland, meadows, andopen hardwood types in May.

Flat-Capped MushroomAgaricus placomyces

2 to 4 inches wide; oval at first, laterconvex to flat, sometimes with smallumbo; white but covered with softbrown scales often concentricallyarranged from center of cap; pinkishtint in older caps; flesh white

at first white, free, later turningpinkish and finally dark brown;spores smoky-brown in mass

3 to 6 inches long; bulbous base

prominent; white and persistentFruits in deciduous woods and

grassy areas, June through October.

Flat-capped mushroom

Sylvan MushroomAgaricus sylvicola

CAP 2 to 4 inches wide; at first long andconical, later convex to flat; silkywhite with yellow tinge, no scales;turning yellowish with age or in-jury

1

GILLS

STEM

RING

free; crowded; white at first, thendark brown at maturity; spores pur-ple-brown

3 to 5 inches long; hollow; usuallywhite with bulb at base; flesh turnsyellow with injury

loosely attached; drooping and maybe halfway down stem

Scattered at low elevations indeciduous woods, July and August. Sylvan mushroom

CortinariusCortinarius has yellow-brown spores; cap

and stem are continuous. A distinct cobweb-like inner veil appears on young mushrooms.Remnants of the veil frequently persist onthe gills to maturity. Gills may be notched,attached, or short decurrent. Cortinarius ismost abundant in late summer and fall. Over100 species of the genus have been describedand many are yet to receive attention.

Distant-gilled cortinoriuJ-sectioned

Distant-GiPled CortinariusCortinarius distans

CAP 2 to 4 inches wide; brown and silkywhen dry, bell-shaped and laterconvex or flat with an umbo; mar-gin recurved and often split; fleshpale brown to yellow

GILLS may be short notched to short de-current; often widely spaced

STEM 2 to 4 inches long; brownish withwhite band of veil often apparent

Fruits from May through Decem-ber; rodents feed heavily on thisspecies.

Flourishing CortinariusCortinarius evernius

CAP 2 to 5 inches wide; bell-shaped whenyoung, becoming convex to con-spicuously elevated on central por-tion; brown and radially streakedat maturity; radish-like odor

GILLS brown and notched

Flourishing cortinorius

20

STEM

CAP

GILLS

STEM

4 to 6 inches long; gray-wine color Occurs on ground in low, moistWhite veil frequently leaves woods and along streambanks, Au-

white patches on stem. gust and September.

Scaly CortinariusCortinarius squamulosus

2 to 5 inches wide; convex; reddish-brown to dark brown; scaly

notched, dark grayish-purple; veiloften persistent to maturity

2 to 4 inches long, expanded andbulbous at basei ring (remnant ofveil) frequently noted on stem Scaly cartinarius

Pluteus has free gills and pink spores. Thestem has neither ring nor volva.

The large fawn-colored pluteus, commonlyfound in old sawdust piles and decaying wood,fruits in early spring when food is scarce. Itgrows singly or in clumps of three to eightspecimens.

CAP

GILLS

STEM

Fawn-Colored PluteusPluteus cervinus

1% to 5 inches wide; usually brownto smoky-gray, at times whitish;sticky when wet

white, then flesh-pink

3 to 6 inches long; dingy-white; basesoften fused

Pluteus

Fawn-colored pluteus

ClitopilusSpores are pinkish to rosy. The stem is fleshy

and at times eccentric. Gills are decurrent.There is no ring or volva.

Plum clitopilus (left) with aborted form

Plum clitopilus grows near stumps in moun-tain hardwood types during October and No-vember. It is often associated with an abortedform that appears globular and is intermingledwith normal specimens. Both are eaten byanimals.

21

CAP

GILLS

STEM

Plum ClitopilusClitopilus prunulus

2 to 6 inches wide; at first convex,but later almost flat with wavydecurved margin; surface gray towhite, not sticky; flesh white

long decurrent; white; becomingpink with maturity; pink spore massoften observed on layered caps

3 to 8 inches long; thick at top, taper-ing upward; often slightly woollyat base Evidence thot deer ore fond of this species

BoletaceaeMembers of the Boletaceae are large and

common enough to furnish a substantial a-mount of food to deer as well as to squirrelsand other rodents.

Boletes differ from other parasol-shapedmushrooms in that tubes have replaced gillsas reproductive surfaces. From the outside thetubes resemble pores; thus the boletes areoften referred to as pore mushrooms. Cokerand Beers (1943) list 68 species and six varie-ties in North Carolina; there are probablymany more yet to be described. They occuron many sites, but those that grow in the soilappear most attractiye to wildlife.

Three important- points help to determinegenus and species of boletes: ease with whichthe cap and tubes can be separated, charac-ter of the cap and stem surface, and changesin flesh and tube coloring resulting from in-jury.

Most species of boletes are brilliantly col-ored. Certain species are noted for their my-corrhizal relationship with several tree species-principally conifers.

Boletes described here are usually found inpine and hardwood forests from the CoastalPlain to the mountains.

Boletellus betula

CAP 2 to 4 inches wide; convex, oftenpitted and sticky; yellow with red

center when young, becoming or-ange with maturity

TUBES yellow at first, later becoming darkolive-brown

STEM 4 to 8 inches long; slender, oftentwisted; prominent reticulationsyellow; reddish-tinted flesh evidentbetween yellow ridges

(SYN.: Boletus betula)Fruits mainly from July through

September.

Typical boletellus betulo

Painted BoleteBoletinus pictus

CAP 2 to 6 inches wide; flat, convex, andslightly sticky; dark red; scaly atfirst; scales later gently raised at

2 2

Painted balete

edges; yellow upper skin presentsmosaic appearance with red scales;flesh creamy yellow, turning red-dish when cut

TUBES light brown; cap flesh and tubes donot separate easily

STEM 2 to 3 inches long; same color ascap; may be slightly bulbous at base

Fruits mostly from July throughSeptember.

Typical boletus

Two-Colored BoleteBoletus rubelus

CAP 2 to 6 inches wide; convex; darkrosy red, becoming yellowish andmottled with age; thick flesh whit-ish at first, later yellow, turninggolden with exposure

Two-colored bolete

23

TUBES depressed around stem; yellow, fi-nally olive or brownish, turningblue very slowly when injured

STEM 3 to 4 inches long; yellow band attop, red below

Fruits in moist sites, August andSeptember.

Gyroporus cyanescens

Gyroporus cyanescens

CAP 3 to 5 inches wide; flat, pitted, andfrequently with brownish splotches;flesh pallid but rapidly turning in-digo when injured

TUBES brownish-yellow, rapidly turning in-digo when injured

STEM 2 to 4 inches long; stout, smooth,and hollow, but loosely filled withfibrous material

(SYN.: Boletus cyanescens)Occurs mainly in young timber

stands, July and August.

Pulverboletus retipes

CAP 3 to 7 inches wide; convex; dry;dull yellow to golden; -often coveredwith yellow powder, stains handsif handled; firm flesh light yellow,turning golden when cut

TUBES yellow, turning golden when injured;varying length gives pitted appear-ance

STEM 3 to 6 inches long; slender and oftengently curving; same color as tubesand also powdery; surface stronglyreticulated

(SYN.: Boletus retipes)Usually fruits from July through

September.

Granulated BoleteSuillus granulatus

CAP 2 to 3 inches wide; flat, convex;slimy and sticky when moist; pink-ish-gray to reddish-brown to yel-lowish or reddish; may have minutescales under slimy surface whenwet

TUBES whitish or pale yellow at first, be-coming dingy ochre-colored withglandular dots

STEM 1 to 2 inches long; often crooked atlower end; slightly sticky spots

-darker in color than rest of stalk

(SYN.: Boletus granulatus)

Commonly found in pine types,May through November; particular-ly important to deer on the OcalaNational Forest and other sand pineareas in Florida; responsive to fire.

Pulverboletus retipes

Cone-Like BoleteStrobilomyces floccopus

CAP 3 to 7 inches wide; convex, dry andcovered with large brownish-blackwarts and scales; intervening fleshgrayish white; remnants of veil fre-quently found on cap margin; fleshwhite but rapidly turning nearlyblack when cut

TUBES grayish white when young, becomingnearly black with age

STEM 4 to 6 inches long; cylindrical; cov-ered with scales same as cap

(SYN.: Strobilomyces strobilaceusjUsually found in pairs, August to

October.

Cone-like bolete

Granulated bolete

Slippery JackSuillus luteus

CAP 3 to 5 inches wide; convex; shinyand brownish to reddish-yellow,may be mottled and streaked withdarker hues; flesh pale yellow orcream-colored, does not changecolor when injured

TUBE mouths dotted with sticky particles;spores yellowish-brown or olive-colored

24

STEM

(SYN.:

2 to 4 inches long with conspicuouspersistent ring; spotted with slimymucus and droplets of clear liquid

Boletus luteus)Found mainly in pine woods, Au-

gust through October.

Slippery Jack

Other Fleshy FungiThe other fleshy fungi that are commonly lies : Lycoperdaceae, Clavariaceae, Hymeno-

eaten by wildlife belong mainly to four fami- gastraceae, and Helvellaceae.

Calvatia

This genus belongs to the family Lycoper-daceae, a group of fungi known as puffballs,smokeballs, and devil’s snuffboxes. These fungihave spores enclosed until maturity in cham-bers surrounded by a continuous skin. Theyspend most of their lifetime underground, get-ting food from decaying vegetable matter.When about ready to scatter their spores, theyemerge from the ground.

The balls have a fleshy interior; cheesy andwhite at first, they turn yellowish or pinkish,gradually darkening until part or all of theinterior .becomes filled with dust-like spores.

In Calvatia, the wall of the upper part ofthe fruit body breaks up and disappears atmaturity, thus exposing the spore mass. Thestalk-like base, with a structure suggesting ahoneycomb, may remain in place long after thespores have been blown away.

The giant puffball has a thick tapering basecomposed of spongy mycelium, distinct fromthe spore-bearing part above. It occurs in allprovinces from August to November.

Giant Puff ballCalvatia gigantea

Immature giant puffball

Mature giant puffball

FRUITING 6 inches in diameter or larger;BODY smooth exterior; white at first,

becoming tan to brown at ma-turity

25

Clavaria

This genus belongs to the family Clavaria-ceae, the club fungi. It includes a large num-ber of species, many of which are identifiableonly by microscopic details. Those eaten bywildlife are fleshy, erect, and repeatedlybranched. They are commonly referred to as“coral fungi,‘.’ because of their resemblance tostructures built by this marine animal.

Deer, in particular, graze on the succulentfleshy tops of the coral fungi. Groups of thefungi ranging from 4 to 8 inches in diameteroccur in pine and hardwood types. Often thesegroups number in the hundreds. Clavariasoccur from the mountains to the Coastal Plainsand fruit during July and August. They donot appear to do well in the fall months.

Clavaria sp.

FRUITING 4 to 8 inches in diameter, usuallyBODY branched, erect

RhizopogonRhizopogon belongs to the family Hymeno-

gastraceae. The fruiting bodies, commonlyknown as false truffles, form just beneath thesurface of the ground. While in the under-ground stage they are eaten by squirrels andother rodents. They appear to have no attrac-tion once they emerge from the ground.

False truffles generally occur in grassy areasor under pine straw at the edges of pine standsin fall and winter. Careful searching whererodents have been digging may reveal an un-derground portion that is often from 6 to 12inches below the surface.

False TruffleRhizopogon sp.

FRUITING 1% to 3 inches in diameter; flatBODY spherical; brownish-black with

tough, hard cover over purplishinterior

Typical clovaria

R h i z o p o g o n

26

MorchellaThis genus belongs to the family Helvella-

ceae, a group that has a fruiting body con-sisting of a stalk and an enlarged cap that ispitted. Some species fruit in recent burns,others in cultivated soil.

In MorcheZZa, the morels, the surface of thebell-shaped cap has prominent irregular ridgesthat resemble the surf,ace of a sponge. Thestem is fluted and hollow, often containingholes where insects have emerged; it is lighterin color than the head. The head, or cap, like-wise is hollow; darker in color, it is composedof folded, narrow, long, sac-like cells in whichthe spores are contained. The spores are“squirted” out at maturity.

There are several species of morels in theSouth. The common morel has the widestdistribution and is probably best known. Itfruits in March and early April.

Morels grow in deep soils along streamsunder hardwoods-usually oaks-and in oldapple orchards from the Coastal Plain to themountains. They are readily taken by mostmammals.

CAP

STALK

Common MorelMorchella esculenta

elongated or nearly globose; has deeppits and ridges about 1% to 3 incheslong and about 1 to 2 inches indiameter; gray-brown to yellowish-brown

1% to 2 inches long; whitish or yel-lowish

Common morel

27

Common morel sectioned

1 .

2.

3 .

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Atwood, E. L.1941. White-tailed deer foods of the

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