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7/16/2016 Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/wong/BOT135/Lect19.htm 1/12 Poisonous Mushrooms Introduction We have briefly discussed poisonous mushrooms when we covered the eating of wild mushrooms. It was difficult not to since eating wild mushrooms and mushroom poisoning seem to be closely related subjects. This is a rather important topic since mushrooms have apparently been gathered for eating throughout the world, for thousands of years, and it is also likely that during that time many people became ill or died when they inadvertently consumed poisonous mushrooms. Because some mushrooms were known to cause death when consumed, they were also known to be used by assassins. Used as Poison in Assassinations and Murders The most famous of all planned murders was that of Emperor Claudius by his fourth wife, Agrippina, The Younger (also his niece!). The story behind this assassination, as well as the political intrigue that was present during this period of the Roman Empire would have made a great mini series or soap opera. Claudius became emperor, in 41 A.D., following the assassination of his nephew Caligula, and married Agrippina, his fourth wife, after disposing of Messalina, his third wife, for adultery. Agrippina came into the marriage with Nero, a son from a previous marriage and wanted him to follow Claudius as emperor. Agrippina persuaded him to adopt her son so that Nero would be in line to become emperor. Once Nero was adopted, Agrippina plotted to kill Claudius, which involved a number of people. Although Claudius had a son, Brittanicus, by Messalina, and should have succeeded him as emperor, Claudius shielded him from the responsibilities as heir to the throne and promoted Nero as his successor. He believed that the political intrigue that was taking place would eventually lead to the beginning of the fall of Rome as it did under Caligula and that Brittanicus would then step in as emperor to save Rome. However, this never occurred So that Nero could become emperor, immediately, Agrippina planned Claudius' death by preparing his favorite mushroom, Amanita caesarea (Fig. 1a), which was also a favorite of the Roman nobility. However, the dish of mushroom was also laced with the juice of Amanita phalloides, the Death Cap (Fig. 1b) by Locusta, Claudius' trusted (or so he thought) servant. The next day the first symptoms of A. phalloides poisoning had appeared and Claudius called Xenophon, his personal physician and another conspirator in the crime. Xenophon used a large dose of colocynth, an extract obtained from Citrullus colocynthis, Bitter Apple, which contains a toxic alkaloid. The

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Page 1: Poisonous Mushrooms - WordPress.com...Poisonous Mushrooms Introduction We have briefly discussed poisonous mushrooms when we covered the eating of wild mushrooms. It was difficult

7/16/2016 Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms

http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/wong/BOT135/Lect19.htm 1/12

Poisonous MushroomsIntroduction

We have briefly discussed poisonous mushrooms when we covered the eating of wildmushrooms. It was difficult not to since eating wild mushrooms and mushroompoisoning seem to be closely related subjects. This is a rather important topic sincemushrooms have apparently been gathered for eating throughout the world, forthousands of years, and it is also likely that during that time many people became illor died when they inadvertently consumed poisonous mushrooms. Because somemushrooms were known to cause death when consumed, they were also known to beused by assassins.

Used as Poison in Assassinations and Murders

The most famous of all planned murders was that of Emperor Claudius by his fourthwife, Agrippina, The Younger (also his niece!). The story behind this assassination, aswell as the political intrigue that was present during this period of the Roman Empirewould have made a great mini series or soap opera. Claudius became emperor, in 41A.D., following the assassination of his nephew Caligula, and married Agrippina, hisfourth wife, after disposing of Messalina, his third wife, for adultery. Agrippina cameinto the marriage with Nero, a son from a previous marriage and wanted him to followClaudius as emperor. Agrippina persuaded him to adopt her son so that Nero would bein line to become emperor. Once Nero was adopted, Agrippina plotted to kill Claudius,which involved a number of people. Although Claudius had a son, Brittanicus, byMessalina, and should have succeeded him as emperor, Claudius shielded him from theresponsibilities as heir to the throne and promoted Nero as his successor. Hebelieved that the political intrigue that was taking place would eventually lead to thebeginning of the fall of Rome as it did under Caligula and that Brittanicus would thenstep in as emperor to save Rome. However, this never occurred

So that Nero could become emperor, immediately, Agrippina planned Claudius' deathby preparing his favorite mushroom, Amanita caesarea (Fig. 1a), which was also afavorite of the Roman nobility. However, the dish of mushroom was also laced withthe juice of Amanita phalloides, the Death Cap (Fig. 1b) by Locusta, Claudius' trusted(or so he thought) servant. The next day the first symptoms of A. phalloidespoisoning had appeared and Claudius called Xenophon, his personal physician andanother conspirator in the crime. Xenophon used a large dose of colocynth, an extractobtained from Citrullus colocynthis, Bitter Apple, which contains a toxic alkaloid. The

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poison was administered as an enema so that Claudius would not detect its bittertaste. The enema and mushroom poisoning, together, ensured the death of Claudiusand Nero's rise to emperor of Rome.

Figure 1. Amanitacaesarea, an ediblespecies.

Figure 2. Amanita phalloides isquite different in appearance

A more recent use took place at the beginning of the 20th. Century, involving aFrenchman by the name of Girard, who was tried and convicted of murder, in 1918.Girard was knowledgeable about insurance and had some acquaintance withmushrooms. With his wife or mistress, he would make friends with other couples whowere approximately the age of he and his wife and mistress. He and his wife (ormistress) would then pose as that couple, and take out an insurance policy in theirname, naming he and his wife as the beneficiary on the policy. Once the policy wastaken out, the couple was then invited to dinner where they were poisoned. Themushrooms used in some of the murders was Amanita phalloides. However, bacteria,such as anthrax and typhoid were also used in their earlier efforts. Unfortunately,for Girard, he became too greedy with one of his victims. He had taken out fourdifferent insurance policies on a woman and had collected the insurance money fromthree of the companies without incident. The fourth company, however, had asuspicious physician who questioned why such a young and healthy woman wouldsuddenly die. When he went to perform the autopsy, the body that he saw was notthe woman that he had examined earlier when the insurance policy was taken out.Further investigation revealed the trail of murders that Girard and his accompliceshad carried out. Girard was sentence to death, but died of tuberculosis before hisexecution was carried out. His two accomplices, his wife and mistress were sentencedto life.

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Mushroom Toxins and Their Symptoms

It seemed like almost every year, when I lived in California, since I becameinterested in mushrooms, somebody would inevitably die from mushroom poisoning.The reason for this is not because every other species of mushroom is poisonous northat mushrooms are that difficult to identify. As I have mentioned previously,relatively few mushrooms are poisonous and of those that are, only a handful will befatal if consumed. We will go over, in detail, the different types of toxins that areknown to occur in mushrooms. These toxins are summarized in the table below, withspecific examples of the toxins and some fungi that are known to have these toxins.

Mushroom Toxins, Symptoms and Where They May OccurToxin Groups Symptoms Fungi

I. Cyclopeptides, e.g.,Amanitoxins andPhallotoxins

Violent vomiting, diarrheaand abdominal pain,approximately 12 hoursafter consumption, whichlast for days. Remission ofsymptoms, followed byfailure of kidney and liverfunction, coma and usuallydeath.

Species of Amanita inSection: Phalloideae, e.g. A.phalloides, A. verna, A.virosa, Galerina autumnalis,G. marginata and Conocybefilaris

II. Gyromitrin, e.g.,Monomethylhydrazine(MMH)

Bloated feeling, nausea,vomiting and diarrhea, andmay feel dizzy dizzy,lethargic and exhausted,typically 6-12 hours afterconsumption of mushroom. In more severe cases,signs of liver toxicityoccurs 36-48 hours afterconsumption, and deathmay occur.

Species of Gyromitra, e.g.,G. esculenta, G. infula, andspecies of Helvella andPaxina

III. Orellanine

Nausea, vomiting, andanorexia present in mostpatient 12 hours to 3days after consumption.Evidence of renal damage

Some species ofCortinarius, e.g., C.orellanus, C.speciosissimus, C.

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occurs (burning thirst,frequent urination) after alag period of 3-15 days

splendens

IV. Muscarine

“PSL” Syndrome(perspiration, salivation,lachrimation) developsrapidly, within 15 to 30minutes of consumption.Other symptoms includenausea, vomiting anddiarrhea, blurred visionand urge to urinate.

"Little white or brownmushrooms" that grow ingrassy areas. Two commongenera are Clitocybe andInocybe. Also Omphalotusspecies

V. Ibotenic Acid, Muscimol

Victim exhibits symptomsof alcohol intoxication, i.e.,unable to walk or walk withdrunken gait, confusionbetween 30 and 120minutes of consumption.Alternation betweenlethargy and hyperactivity.Nausea and vomiting mayalso occur if too manymushrooms have beenconsumed. This is followedby a deep sleep withdreams, lasting about twohours

Species of Amanita, e.g. A.cokeri, A. gemmata, A.muscaria and A. pantherinaand Panaeoluscampanulatus.

VI. Coprine (Anabuse-like

Symptoms identical tothose produced bydisulfiram (Antabuse). Hotflushes of the face andneck, metallic taste inmouth, tingling sensation inlimbs, numbness in hands,palpitations, a throbbingheadache, nausea andvomiting. Although

Most commonly known fromCoprinus atramentarius.

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Reaction) unpleasant, consumption ofmushroom is not fatal. Arather unique toxin in thatsymptoms occur only ifmushroom is consumedwith a drink containingalcohol. Symptoms beginapproximately 30-60minutes after consumptionand will continue as long asthere is alcohol in thesystem.

but also known from C.insignis, C. quadrifidus andC. variegatus.

VII. Psilocybin and Psilocin

Variable, affecting thesenses. Some of thecommon symptoms includeuncontrollable laughter,hallucinations, euphoria anddisembodied experience.Symptoms beginapproximately 10-30minutes afterconsumption.

Species from four agaricgenera, Psilocybe,Panaeolus, Conocybe andGymnopilus.

VIII. Gastrointestinalirritant, composed of anumber of unrelatedcompounds, which producesimilar effects

Digestive upset within30-90 minutes ofconsuming mushroom.Commonest symptomsinclude vomiting anddiarrhea, with abdominalcramps. Symptoms clear upwithin 3-4 hours andcomplete recovery a day orso later.

Many species involved;Agaricus, Amanita, Boletus,Chlorophyllum, Entoloma,Hebeloma, Lactarius,Marasmius, Naematoloma,Russula, Scleroderma,Tricholoma and manyothers.

You may noticed that there is are a number of redundant symptoms, i.e. vomiting,diarrhea and abdominal cramps. Thus, these symptoms are not that useful, but doprovide an indicator that some sort of poisoning has occurred.

Group I. Phallotoxins and Amatoxins: This group of toxins is responsible for mostfatalities in mushroom poisonings. Fortunately, they occurs in only a few taxa. The

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most common known species having these toxins belong in the genus Amanita, in thesection Phalloideae, and in the genus Galerina. However, it is estimated that over 90%of mushroom fatalities is due to consumption of only one species, Amanita phalloides.Although the latter species does not occur in Hawai‘i, we do have a common species,Amanita marmorata, which belongs in the same section of the genus. Although therehave not been any incidents of human fatalities, there have been several documentedcases where pets have died as a result of consuming this species. This species formsmycorrhizae and is associated with trees belonging to the genus Casuarina (IronWood), Eucalyptus and Melaleuca (Paper Bark). This association does not mean thatthe mushrooms are necessarily growing directly at the base of these trees. Themushrooms are usually associated with the root tips of the trees. Thus, they may besome distance away from the tree!

The toxins involved are complex polypeptides. It was once believed that both thephallotoxins and amatoxins contributed in poisoning the consumer, but apparently onlythe latter is responsible. When a phallotoxins are directly injected into mice, theyare up to ten times more lethal than cyanide. However, when taken orally, phallotoxinshave no effect. Thus, it is only the amatoxins, which is lethal, when mushrooms withGroup I toxins are consumed.

In cases where A. phalloides has been consumed, the victims described the taste asmild to quite good, which is probably why large amounts of it is normally consumed.The amatoxin rapidly attacks the intestine, liver and kidney. However, any discomfortfrom this toxin is not immediate. It may be as long as 24 hours before any symptomsoccur. This in itself makes treatment of the toxins difficult since the victim oftenwill not connect the sudden illness with the consumption of mushrooms even if theyshould seek medical help. During this period of time the toxins are already actingupon the cells of the liver, kidney and intestine. The victim will experience diarrhea,profuse vomiting and abdominal pains, which usually last from four to six days. Thesesymptoms will then subside and the the victim will feel better and will often believethat whatever caused the illness has passed. However, this is misleading. Because bythis time, the amatoxins will have caused collapse of kidney and liver function. Thevictim will then eventually go into a coma and death usually follows. Even when deathdoes not occur, the illness lasts several weeks and permanent damage to the liver andkidney is likely.

At this time, there is still not an accepted method by which amatoxin poisoning can betreated once it has been in the victim's system for more than several hours. By thetime the symptoms manifest themselves and the victim seeks medical help, massivedamage to the kidney and liver has already been done. Thus, if an unknown mushroom

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has been consumed, it is best to arrive at a correct identification of that mushroom,immediately. Fortunately, amatoxin poisoning is rare in the United States, butbecause it is rare, many doctors do not connect these symptoms with mushroompoisoning unless their patients mention it first, and often are not experienced in theidentification of mushrooms or the effects of their toxins (and this is no discredit tothem). Normally, a mycologist is consulted for the identification of the mushroom. Ifa species containing amatoxins is identified rapidly (within an hour or two afterconsumption), before it can cause any damage, vomiting is induced in the patient toempty the stomach followed by washing out the stomach.

Group II. Gyromitrin: For many year helvellic acid was assumed to be the cause ofblood poisoning. However, we now know that the helvellic acid is harmless. Instead acompound called monomethylhydrazine (MMH), a product produced from hydrolyzedGyromitrin, is responsible. MMH is used in rocket fuel and is known to be extremelytoxic. The toxin is named for the genus Gyromitra from which it was first isolated.Species of Helvella and Paxina are also known to have this toxin. These genera are notknown to occur in Hawai‘i.

This Symptoms of this toxin usually appear approximately 2-12 hours afterconsumption. MMH causes an initial bloated feelings, followed by nausea, and theusual vomiting, diarrhea and abdominal cramps. Severe headaches and pain may alsooccur and linger for some time. If more severe poisoning has occurred, i.e., individualswho have eaten large amounts of mushrooms containing Gyromitrin, symptoms of livertoxicity will occur after between 36-48 hours. Jaundice and convulsion may occur,followed by coma and eventually death after 2-7 days. It is estimated that Gyromitraesculenta is responsible for 2-4% of reported mushroom fatalities. There are,however, reports that some consumers of this species have been unaffected, buttolerance of individuals, amount of MMH present in fungus and method of cookingmay combine to cause widely varying toxic reactions.

The actions of this toxin is somewhat similar to the cyclopeptides in Group I in thatit takes affect at the cellular level and causes liver damage. In addition, it ishemolytic and toxic to the central nervous system and irritates the gastrointestinaltract. Pryridoxine hydrochloride is administered for poisoning by this toxin.

Group III. Orellanin: Consumption of mushrooms containing this toxin has thelongest delayed reaction before the appearance of symptoms. Nausea, vomiting,diarrhea and anorexia present in most patient 12 hours to 3 days after consumption.In cases where poisoning was severe, evidence of renal damage occurs (burning thirst,frequent urination) may not occur until 3-15 days after consumption of mushroom. In

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mild poisoning cases, symptoms sometimes did not appear until 10-17 days aftereating the mushroom.

There is a great deal of variation with respect to the recovery of the poisoned victim.In cases where renal damage has occurred, there may be a period of mild renalfailure followed by complete recovery. However, in some cases, renal failure mayoccur and the victim will require lifelong hemodialysis or a kidney transplant, or insome instances coma, followed by death, will occur.

Species of Cortinarius known to have this toxin belongs to the subgenus Dermocybe.Poisoning from this toxin has so far been restricted to Europe where the species ofmushrooms containing orellanin occurs. In Hawai‘i, there is only one species ofCortinarius, C. clelandii. Although it belongs to the subgenus Dermocybe, it is notknown if it has Orellanin.

Group IV. Coprine (Antabuse-like): Coprinus atramentarius is the most commonspecies known to contain this toxin. Neither this species nor other Coprinus specieswith this toxin is known to occur in Hawai‘i. The effects of this toxin is unusual inthat the physical symptoms occur only if the mushroom is consumed with alcohol(ethanol). The consumption of the mushroom, alone, is not toxic! Followingconsumption of both the mushroom and alcohol, symptoms will begin to occur inapproximately 30-60 minutes, and may occur at any time up to five days afterconsumption of the mushroom.

Symptoms include hot flushes of the face and neck, a metallic taste in the mouth,tingling sensations in the limbs, numbness in the hands, palpitations, a throbbingheadache, nausea and vomiting. The symptoms will continue as long as there is anyalcohol in the victim's stomach. With the exception of treatment to controlarrhythmia (irregular heartbeat), recovery is normally spontaneous once the body isrid of the alcohol. This toxin is said to be antabuse-like because Antabuse(disulfiram), is prescribed to discourage alcoholics from drinking alcoholic beveragesand has symptoms almost identical to coprine.

Group V. Muscarine: Mushrooms containing this toxin are very nondescript and areoften referred to as little white or brown mushrooms. Normally, they are found ingrassy areas and belong to two common genera, Clitocybe and Inocybe. The former israre and the latter does not occur in Hawai‘i. Thus, the occurrence of poisoning fromthese mushrooms is unlikely.

Symptoms begin approximately 30 minutes to 2 hours after consumption of toxin. Thetoxin stimulates the exocrine glands where sweat, saliva and tears are produced and

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causes what is referred to as PSL (Perspiration, Salivation, Lachrimation) syndrome.Other symptoms include constriction of pupils, blurred vision, muscle spasms,diarrhea, slow heart-beat and a drop in blood pressure. Although rare, death has beenknown to occur when the victim's heart stops. However, when this has occurred, thevictim usually has had a history of cardiovascular disease. The accepted treatment isintravenous injection of atropine.

Group VI. Muscimol and ibotenic acid: Onset of symptoms in this group may occur30-120 minutes after consumptions. The toxins acts on the central nervous systemcausing the victims to suffer from symptoms similar to alcohol intoxication. Toxinaffects the central nervous system are compared to alcohol intoxication. Onset ofsymptoms usually occurs between 30-120 minutes. These symptoms include nauseaand vomiting, inability to walk or walking only with a drunken gait, alternation betweenbeing uncontrollably active and difficult to rouse, followed by a deep sleep withdreams, lasting about two hours. When large amounts of A. muscaria is ingested, itoften results in severe illness but even then the victim usually recover.

The most well known species of mushroom, having toxins in this group is Amanitamuscaria (Fly Agaric). Although neither the scientific nor common name is familiar tothe layperson, this species, with its scarlet pileus that is covered with yellowish-white spots, is the model for mushrooms used in many children's books and greetingcards. This species forms mycorrhizae with pine trees and is common in temperateareas of the world. However, it is recorded from Hawai‘i, only on the island of Kaua‘i.This mushroom was thought by Wasson (1968) to be the Soma that had been used inreligious ceremonies over 4,000 years ago and is known to have been used by localtribes of Siberia for their religious ceremonies, as well. More information concerningthe above connections to A. muscaria can be seen here.

Group VII. Psilocybin and psilocin: This group of toxins is perhaps the most wellknown. They are in the LSD family of hallucinogenic compounds. The toxins in thisgroup have a strong effect on the central nervous system. Some of the commonsymptoms include uncontrollable laughter, hallucinations, optical distortions, euphoriaand disembodied experience; and some victims have reported experiencing religiousor mystical experiences. However, “bad trips” may also occur causing the victim tobecome anxious to paranoid, and may require considerable reassurance or, morerarely, even tranquilizers. The effects are normally about 4-5 hours, followed bysleep. The quantity ingested, physiological condition, personality and mood of thesubject are all apparently involved in the effect. Since as little as 5 mg. of Psilocybecubensis can cause visual hallucinations in 15 minutes, it is obvious that the ingestionof large quantities of some mushrooms in this group can be fatal or cause severe

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toxic effects. Perhaps the most important factor is the presence of other toxiccompounds in addition to the hallucinogenic agent in a given species. Hallucinationsmay be suppressed by chlorpromazine, and convulsions by diazepam.

Toxins are found in several common genera of mushrooms: Psilocybe, Panaeolus,Conocybe and Gymnopilus, to name a few. Species of these mushrooms as used byNative Americans, in Mexico, for religious ceremonies have been well studied.

Group VIII. Gastrointestinal Irritants: This is a group of unrelated toxins.However, they all cause similar symptoms when consumed. Symptoms from themushroom begin 30-90 minutes following consumption. All cause varying degrees ofdigestive upset. Commonest symptoms are diarrhea, vomiting and abdominal cramps.Normally, symptoms clear up in 3-4 hours and complete recovery several days later.Some cases of fatality have been recorded, but these are usually cases in which largequantities of mushrooms have been consumed or if the victims were young children.There are a number of fungi in Hawai‘i that have these toxins. They include Agaricus,Chlorophyllum, Marasmius, Naematoloma, Pholiota, Scleroderma and probably manyothers. Because the toxins that cause these symptoms have not been identified,treatment has been restricted to emptying the stomach.

Summary of Toxins

The seven group of toxins can be divided into four categories according to thematter in which they affect the consumer:

Toxins belong to Groups I, II, and III. Toxins that cause extensive cellulardamage, followed by physical symptoms, which appear only after cellular damagehas occurred and is often no longer treatable.

Toxins belong to Groups IV and V. Toxins affect the autonomic system, withsymptoms appearing shortly after consumption or when the appropriatesubstrate enters the system.

Toxins belonging to Groups VI and VII. Toxins affecting the central nervoussystem and causing hallucination. Symptoms appear shortly after consumption.

Toxins belonging to Group VIII. The unidentified toxins, which causegastrointestinal discomfort as soon as they are consumed.

There is a lot of information in this lecture, especially with respect to details ofsymptoms. What you should emphasize are the specific terms and questions

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below:

Some Poisonous Mushroom Terms

Amatoxins: One of two categories of Class I toxin that may be lethal when consumed.

Antabuse: Prescribed medicine for alcoholics that give its consumer symptomsidentical to those of coprine in order to discourage them from consuming alcohol.

Coprine: Toxin that affects the consumer with symptoms only if alcohol (ethanol) isconsumed with the toxin. Symptoms include hot flushes of the face and neck, ametallic taste in the mouth, tingling sensations in the limbs, numbness in the hands,palpitations, a throbbing headache, nausea and vomiting. The symptoms will continueas long as there is any alcohol in the victim's stomach.

Ibotenic acid: One of the two main toxins in Class VI toxins. The other beingMuscimol. This toxin is the weaker of the two. Toxin affects the central nervoussystem are compared to alcohol intoxication. Onset of symptoms usually occursbetween 30-120 minutes. These symptoms include nausea and vomiting, inability towalk or walking only with a drunken gait, alternation between being uncontrollablyactive and difficult to rouse, followed by a deep sleep with dreams, lasting about twohours.

Muscimol: One of the two main toxins in Class VI toxins. The other being Ibotenicacid. This toxin is much more potent than the latter. Toxin affects the centralnervous system are compared to alcohol intoxication. Onset of symptoms usuallyoccurs between 30-120 minutes. These symptoms include nausea and vomiting,inability to walk or walking only with a drunken gait, alternation between beinguncontrollably active and difficult to rouse, followed by a deep sleep with dreams,lasting about two hours.

Phallotoxins: One of two categories of Class I toxin. It was once believed that thephallotoxins contributed in poisoning the consumer, but apparently only the amatoxinsare responsible. When a phallotoxins are directly injected into mice, they are up toten times more lethal than cyanide, but when taken orally, phallotoxins have noeffect.

Psilocin: The toxin has a strong effect on the central nervous system. Some of thecommon symptoms include uncontrollable laughter, hallucinations, optical distortions,euphoria and disembodied experience; and some victims have reported experiencingreligious or mystical experiences. Symptoms begin approximately 10-30 minutesafter consumption. The effects are normally about 4-5 hours, followed by sleep.

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after consumption. The effects are normally about 4-5 hours, followed by sleep.

Psilocybin: The toxin has a strong effect on the central nervous system. Some of thecommon symptoms include uncontrollable laughter, hallucinations, optical distortions,euphoria and disembodied experience; and some victims have reported experiencingreligious or mystical experiences. Symptoms begin approximately 10-30 minutesafter consumption. The effects are normally about 4-5 hours, followed by sleep.

Questions to Think About

1. What are some of the common symptoms that most of the classes of toxins havewhen consumed?

2. What group of toxins is responsible for most of the mushroom fatalities in theworld? What species of mushroom is responsible for over 90% of all fatalities?

3. What are the toxins where there is a relatively long period between the time ofconsumption of the mushrooms and the onset of symptoms and eventually mayresult in death?

4. What is an unusual property of the coprine toxin?5. What are the toxins that cause hallucinations?6. The class of toxins labeled gastrointestinal toxins is all made up of a number of

different toxins, some of which are unknown. However, there is an acceptedtreatment that is usually successful. Describe what is done for the victim.

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