final research methodology

8/8/2019 Final Research Methodology

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ResearchResearch

A careful study of a subject A careful study of a subject especially in order toespecially in order to

discover new facts ordiscover new facts orinformation about it.information about it.



ImpressionImpression::

An idea, a feeling or an opinion that An idea, a feeling or an opinion that you get about a thing or a subject.you get about a thing or a subject.

Observation:Observation:

The act of watching carefully for aThe act of watching carefully for aperiod of time, especially to learn.period of time, especially to learn.

Anecdote: Anecdote:

A personal account of an event. A personal account of an event.



Why to undertake researchWhy to undertake research::

To deepen understanding about aTo deepen understanding about aphenomenon, community, society, sector/phenomenon, community, society, sector/

sub sector; find out the pattern andsub sector; find out the pattern andmagnitude of response.magnitude of response.

To develop informed plans, projects andTo develop informed plans, projects and

programs.programs. To formulate informed and responsibleTo formulate informed and responsible

policies.policies.

To evaluate a policy, project or program.To evaluate a policy, project or program.



Research Methodology

Research Methodology

Research can be either:Research can be either:theoreticaltheoretical

Or empiricalOr empiricalor both.or both.



ResearchTypesResearchTypes

ExploratoryExploratory

DescriptiveDescriptive

InvestigativeInvestigative

CausalCausal

A combination of all or A combination of all or

some of the abovesome of the above



Essential Elements of aEssential Elements of a

research study / document.research study / document. Problem Statement Problem Statement

ScopeScope

Review of LiteratureReview of Literature

Hypothesis and objectives of researchHypothesis and objectives of researchstudystudy

MethodologyMethodology Data SourcesData Sources

Analysis (tools of analysis) for hypothesis Analysis (tools of analysis) for hypothesistestingtesting

Research findingsResearch findings



Hypothesis

Hypothesis

An idea or explanation of An idea or explanation of

something that is based onsomething that is based ona few known facts but that a few known facts but that

has yet not been proved tohas yet not been proved tobe true or incorrect.be true or incorrect.



Relational Hypothesis:Relational Hypothesis:It simply states that certain variablesIt simply states that certain variables

are related, but do not spell out are related, but do not spell out nature of relationship.nature of relationship.

Causal HypothesisCausal Hypothesis: : May specify or imply some degree of May specify or imply some degree of influence, causality or determination.influence, causality or determination.

Research Hypothesis:Research Hypothesis:Research hypothesis is which theResearch hypothesis is which theresearcher wishes to substantiate. It researcher wishes to substantiate. It

is the mirror image of the nullis the mirror image of the null



A StatisticalH

ypothesis A StatisticalH

ypothesis that the researcher hopes to reject that the researcher hopes to reject------------

that the experimental and control groupsthat the experimental and control groups

come from populations with the samecome from populations with the samemean.mean.

The statistical hypothesis, called a nullThe statistical hypothesis, called a null

hypothesis, specifies that the populationhypothesis, specifies that the populationmeans are the same and that anymeans are the same and that anyobserved difference between sampleobserved difference between samplemeans is merely the product of samplingmeans is merely the product of samplingerror.error.



Null HypothesisNull Hypothesis Null Hypothesis can neither be provedNull Hypothesis can neither be proved

or disproved.or disproved.

It only enables the researcher toIt only enables the researcher toprovide the probability of an observedprovide the probability of an observed

outcome assuming that the nulloutcome assuming that the null

hypothesis is true.hypothesis is true. If the probability is sufficiently small,If the probability is sufficiently small,

the null hypothesis is rejected.the null hypothesis is rejected.



The null hypothesis is literally aThe null hypothesis is literally a

hypothesis of "no difference"hypothesis of "no difference"among the parameters of two oramong the parameters of two ormore populations.more populations.

For example a null hypothesis mayFor example a null hypothesis maystate that the proportions of sixstate that the proportions of six--yearyear--old children learning to readold children learning to read

will be the same for populationswill be the same for populationstaught by methods A, B, C, D, or E.taught by methods A, B, C, D, or E.



A hypothesis is a plausible but largely A hypothesis is a plausible but largely

untested explanation of howuntested explanation of howphenomena or variables are related.phenomena or variables are related.

It attempts to pinpoint the keyIt attempts to pinpoint the keyvariables in a behavior pattern andvariables in a behavior pattern andto describe how they interact.to describe how they interact.

A hypothesis may be formulated on A hypothesis may be formulated onthe basis of informed speculation,the basis of informed speculation,ordinary common sense, logicalordinary common sense, logicalreasoning or observable example.reasoning or observable example.



Hypothesis formulation should beHypothesis formulation should be

undertaken in advance of dataundertaken in advance of datacollection process.collection process.

Supporting evidence for a hypothesisSupporting evidence for a hypothesis

is generally scanty or inconclusive.is generally scanty or inconclusive. It may or may not be widely believed,It may or may not be widely believed,

but it is definitely unproven andbut it is definitely unproven and

thus does not stand as part of thethus does not stand as part of theformally accepted body of knowledge.formally accepted body of knowledge.



Advantages: Advantages: Forces researcher to thinkForces researcher to thinksystematically;systematically;

Helps to focus the research;Helps to focus the research; Clarifies what cross tabulations;Clarifies what cross tabulations;

correlations or regressions should becorrelations or regressions should be

carried out where hypotheses arecarried out where hypotheses arebivariate or multivariate.bivariate or multivariate.

Makes presentation of findings lookMakes presentation of findings look

far more scientific.far more scientific.



Examples of Examples of Hypothesis/research questionsHypothesis/research questions

Cultural differences significantlyCultural differences significantly

effect marketing decision making ineffect marketing decision making interms of choice, decisiveness andterms of choice, decisiveness andadjustment of decision environment.adjustment of decision environment.

Experiences faced by localExperiences faced by localfranchises while trying to implement franchises while trying to implement

the franchise systemthe franchise system



Good research hypothesis/Good research hypothesis/

researchresearch Good research hypothesis/ researchGood research hypothesis/ research

questions should have the followingquestions should have the following

characteristics;characteristics;ClearClearunderstandableunderstandableunambiguousunambiguous

specificspecificanswerable/ testableanswerable/ testableinterconnectedinterconnected

relevant to research problem and therelevant to research problem and theresearch orientation.research orientation.



TheoryTheory

A theory is a widely accepted and presumably A theory is a widely accepted and presumablyvalid explanation of the behavior of real worldvalid explanation of the behavior of real worldphenomena.phenomena.

A theory gains its status from: A theory gains its status from:the process of formulating a hypothesis,the process of formulating a hypothesis,logically deducing predictions from thelogically deducing predictions from thehypothesis, andhypothesis, andtesting and retesting the accuracy of thetesting and retesting the accuracy of the

predictions for a sufficient number of times topredictions for a sufficient number of times toproduce a general confidence in its predictiveproduce a general confidence in its predictivepowerpower..



A hypothesis can cross over the line A hypothesis can cross over the line

to become a theory any time theto become a theory any time theweight of evidence when its accuracyweight of evidence when its accuracyis deemed preponderant enough tois deemed preponderant enough to

accord it a place in the formallyaccord it a place in the formallyaccepted body of knowledgeaccepted body of knowledge

There is no rigid standard as to theThere is no rigid standard as to the

number of tests a hypothesis must number of tests a hypothesis must survive to become a theory.survive to become a theory.



The really significant differenceThe really significant difference

between a hypothesis and a theorybetween a hypothesis and a theorythus concerns the confidence that thus concerns the confidence that may be placed in it.may be placed in it.

A hypothesis is tentative and A hypothesis is tentative anduntested.untested.

Whereas a theory commands moreWhereas a theory commands more

credibility because of its bettercredibility because of its bettersupported predictive and explanatorysupported predictive and explanatorypower.power.



When a theory has been subjected toWhen a theory has been subjected toscrupulous testing and when itsscrupulous testing and when its

explanatory power is deemed sufficientlyexplanatory power is deemed sufficientlyprofound and universal, it may be termedprofound and universal, it may be termeda principle or even a law.a principle or even a law.

Designating relationships as principles orDesignating relationships as principles or

laws implies a very strong degree oflaws implies a very strong degree ofempirical regularity accompanied by aempirical regularity accompanied by apowerful causepowerful cause--effect rationale.effect rationale.

In terms of the predictive and explanatoryIn terms of the predictive and explanatory

confidence that can be placed in it, aconfidence that can be placed in it, atheory ranks between a hypothesis and atheory ranks between a hypothesis and aprinciple.principle.



Variables Variables Demographic variablesDemographic variables

Measure factual properties that tend to be fixed e.g.Measure factual properties that tend to be fixed e.g.age, sex, race, educational background.age, sex, race, educational background.

Behavioral variablesBehavioral variablesMay relate to what people actually did in the recent May relate to what people actually did in the recent

past, what they usually or currently do, or what theypast, what they usually or currently do, or what theymight do in future.might do in future.

Cognitive variablesCognitive variablesRelate to mental processes that go on within theRelate to mental processes that go on within theindividual and include attitudes , opinions, beliefs andindividual and include attitudes , opinions, beliefs and

images.images. Independent Variables.Independent Variables. Dependant VariablesDependant Variables..



Roles Played by VariablesRoles Played by Variables::

Descriptors : Descriptors :

Demographic variables are often used to:Demographic variables are often used to:Provide a framework for defining andProvide a framework for defining anddescribing a range of characteristics of thedescribing a range of characteristics of the

respondents in a surveyrespondents in a survey..



Panel DataPanel Data : :

Refers to repeated measurements from theRefers to repeated measurements from thesame respondents relating to different timesame respondents relating to different timeperiods.periods.

Trend dataTrend data : :

Refers to repeated measurements from different Refers to repeated measurements from different respondent's overtime.respondent's overtime.

CrossCross--sectionalsectional

Time seriesTime series

Quantitative,Quantitative,

QualitativeQualitative

Or both qualitative & quantitativeOr both qualitative & quantitative



Steps in Data CollectionSteps in Data Collection

Sampling FrameSampling Frame

Sample SizeSample SizeSampling MethodSampling Method

Sample for the Survey/StudySample for the Survey/Study



Frequently ExperiencedFrequently ExperiencedProblems in

Data

Collection

:Problems in

Data

Collection

:

NonNon--Availability of respondents Availability of respondents

Wrong selection of respondentsWrong selection of respondents

Difficulty in understanding questionsDifficulty in understanding questions Wrong/Inaccurate answersWrong/Inaccurate answers

Incomplete answersIncomplete answers

Wrong/Incomplete/Illegible entriesWrong/Incomplete/Illegible entries Incomplete responses/partly filledIncomplete responses/partly filled

questionnairesquestionnaires

NonNon--submission of filled questionnairessubmission of filled questionnaires



Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Listing of relevant variablesListing of relevant variables

Formulation of clear and easilyFormulation of clear and easilyunderstandable questions onunderstandable questions oneach variableeach variable



Other Steps in QuestionnaireOther Steps in Questionnaire

preparationpreparationPrePre--test test

Editing and revisionsEditing and revisionsCodingCoding

PrintingPrinting



Options for administering aOptions for administering a

questionnairequestionnaireThrough MailThrough Mail

By telephoneBy telephone

Through interviewsThrough interviews



Process of data collection:Process of data collection:

Training of interviewers and supervisoryTraining of interviewers and supervisorystaff staff

Organizing of logisticsOrganizing of logistics

Fielding of Survey TeamsFielding of Survey Teams

Supervision of enumerators/interviewersSupervision of enumerators/interviewers

Editing of filled questionnairesEditing of filled questionnaires

Revisiting the respondents to removeRevisiting the respondents to removeambiguities/collect missingambiguities/collect missing

information/correct wrong entriesinformation/correct wrong entries



Quality Assurance.

Quality Assurance.

Data CleaningData Cleaning

Data EntryData EntryData TabulationData Tabulation

Data AnalysisData AnalysisStatistical Packages (SPSS)Statistical Packages (SPSS)



Research/surveyResearch/survey To estimate, to explain, to predict, toTo estimate, to explain, to predict, to

evaluate, and to gauge change.evaluate, and to gauge change.

Surveys are not good for estimatingSurveys are not good for estimatingnational aggregates, particularly of national aggregates, particularly of skewed distributions where a few peopleskewed distributions where a few peopleaccount for a large fraction of theaccount for a large fraction of theaggregate. They are not useful inaggregate. They are not useful inestimating the asset of a country or evenestimating the asset of a country or even

its aggregate income.its aggregate income.



It is sometimes stated that a surveyIt is sometimes stated that a survey

design should specify a formal theoreticaldesign should specify a formal theoreticalstructure that is to be tested.structure that is to be tested.

On the contrary, in the present state of On the contrary, in the present state of knowledge in economics we areknowledge in economics we arenecessarily selecting among competing ornecessarily selecting among competing oralternative hypothesis.alternative hypothesis.

A good research design must encompass a A good research design must encompass a

variety of alternative hypothesis orvariety of alternative hypothesis ortheoretical constructs/structures andtheoretical constructs/structures andattempt to provide the critical informationattempt to provide the critical information

necessary to choose among them.necessary to choose among them.

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