Family Structure

Updated: December 2015

Family Structure

December 2015

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The proportion of children living with both parents, following a marked decline

between 1970 and 1990, has fallen more slowly over the most recent two decades,

dropping from 69 percent in 2000 to 64 percent in 2012. By 2015, the proportion

had actually increased, to 65 percent.

Importance

Both mothers and fathers play important roles in the growth and development of children. The number and

the type of parents (e.g., biological, step) in the household, as well as the relationship between the parents,

are consistently linked to a child’s well-being.1 (Nationally representative data on adoptive families are

relatively new, and warrant a separate treatment.2)

Among young children, for example, those living with no biological parents, or in single-parent households,

are less likely than children with two biological parents to exhibit behavioral self-control, and more likely to

be exposed to high levels of aggravated parenting, than are children living with two biological parents.3

Children living with two married adults (biological or adoptive parents) have, in general, better health, greater

access to health care, and fewer emotional or behavioral problems than children living in other types of

families.4

Among children in two-parent families, those living with both biological parents in a low-conflict marriage

tend to do better on a host of outcomes than those living in step-parent families. Outcomes for children in

step-parent families are in many cases similar to those for children growing up in single-parent families.5,6

Children whose parents are divorced also have lower academic performance, social achievement, and

psychological adjustment than children with married parents.7 Reliance on kin networks (for example, living

with grandparents) can provide social and financial support for some families, particularly single-parent

families. However, the evidence suggests that children who live in households with single mothers in some

cases fare better, and in other cases worse, when also living with a grandparent.8

Single-parent families tend to have much lower incomes than do two-parent families, while cohabiting

families fall in-between. Research indicates, however, that the income differential only partially accounts for

the negative effects on many areas of child and youth well-being (including health, educational attainment

and assessments, behavior problems, and psychological well-being) associated with living outside of a

married, two-parent family.9,10

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December 2015

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Trends

Between 1960 and 1996, the proportion of all children under age 18 who were living with two married

parents decreased steadily, from 85 to 68 percent. This share was stable during much of the late 1990s and

into the 2000s, but by 2012 it had decreased to 64 percent. The rate was stable between 2012 and 2015,

and was at 65 percent in 2015. (Figure 1)

In 1960, the proportion of children living in mother-only families was eight percent, but by 1996 that

proportion had tripled, to 24 percent. Since then, it has fluctuated between 22 and 24 percent, and was at 23

percent in 2015. Between 1990 and 2015, the share of children living in father-only families has fluctuated

between three and five percent, and was at four percent in 2015. The proportion living without either parent

(with either relatives or with non-relatives) has remained steady, at approximately four percent. (Figure 1)

87.785.4

76.7

72.5

68.0 69.167.3

64.1

64.7

8.010.7

18.021.6

24.0 22.424.2 24.4

23.1

1.1

4.6

3.73.2

4.1 3.9

0

20

40

60

80

100

1958 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 2014

Pe

rce

nt

Living Arrangements of Children Under 18: 1970-2015

Living with two married parents

Mother only

Father only

Living with no parent

Tables C-2, C-3. Available at: http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/hh-fam/.html.Other Data for 1960-2007: Child Trends calculations using: Living Arrangements of Children Under 18 Years Old: 1960 to Present. Tables CH-1, CH-2, CH-3, CH-4, and Ch-7. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Online. Available: http://www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/children.html.

Figure 1

Note: Children living with two married parents may be living with biological, adoptive, or non-bioligical parents . Children living with mother only or father only may also be living with the parent's unmarried partner. Source: Data for 2008-2015: Child Trends calculations of U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic Suppl ement. "America's Families and Living Arrangements".

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December 2015

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In 2015, seven percent of all children lived in the home of their grandparents. In two-thirds of these families,

one or both parents were also present. The proportion living with grandparents increased until the mid-

1990s, from three to six percent of children. After remaining at around five percent until 2006, the proportion

increased until 2010, but has since remained steady, at between six and seven percent. (Appendix 2)

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin11

Black children are significantly less likely than other children to be living with two married parents. In 2015,

34 percent of black children were living with two parents, compared with 83 percent of Asian children, 74

percent of white children, and 60 percent of Hispanic children. (Figure 2)

Most children who live with just one parent, regardless of race or Hispanic origin, live with their mothers.

This is the case for nearly half of all black children, and more than one-quarter of all Hispanic children;

among white and Asian children, smaller proportions (about one in seven, and one in ten, respectively) live

with their mothers only. (Figure 2)

74

15

4 3

34

49

48

60

26

3 4

83

11

2 2

0

20

40

60

80

100

Living with two married

parents

Mother only Father only Living with no parent

Living Arrangements of Children, by Race and Hispanic

Origin: 2015

Non-Hispanic White Black Hispanic Asian

Source: Child Trends Calculations of U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2015. "America's

Families and Living Arrangements: 2015." Table C-2. Available at:

http://www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/cps2012.html

Figure 2

Pe

rce

nt

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December 2015

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In 2015, eight percent of all black children did not live with either parent, compared with four percent of

Hispanic children, three percent of white children, and two percent of Asian children. (Figure 2)

Cohabiting Couples

In 2015, there were 3.3 million cohabiting couples (unmarried) with children under 18. This number has been

steadily increasing: in 1996, it was 1.2 million. However, the number of all unmarried couples (with or without

children) has increased even more during the same time period. (Figure 3)

Compared with married couples with children, cohabiting couples with children tend to be younger, less

educated, lower–income, and have less secure employment. In cohabiting couples with children, just over

four in ten parents are between 25 and 34 years old, compared with less than three in ten parents in married

couples. Less than a third of parents in cohabiting couples are between 35 and 44 years old, compared with

four in ten parents in married couples. (Appendix 3)

8,318

7,913

6,661

6,799

5,012

2,858

3,2553,166

2,5582,505

1,971

1,236

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016

Th

ou

sa

nd

s

Number of Opposite-Sex Cohabiting Couples (in Thousands), With and Without Children under 18:1 1996-2015

Total number of cohabiting couples

Cohabiting couples with biological children

1 Children under 18 include biological children of either partner, who have never been married.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic Supplement . America's

Families and Living Arrangements: Living Arrangements of Adults. Table UC-1. Available athttp://www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/adults.html

Figure 3

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Among women in cohabiting couples, 16 percent have no high school diploma, and another 35 percent have

no college-level education. Among mothers in married couples, nine percent have no high school diploma,

and 21 percent have no college-level education. (Appendix 3)

In cohabiting couples with children, 63 percent of women, and 81 percent of men, were employed,

compared with 66 and 91 percent of mothers and fathers, respectively, in married couples. In eight percent

of unmarried couples with children, neither person was employed in 2015, compared with only four percent

among married couples with children. (Appendix 3) Children born to cohabiting parents are less likely than

children born to married parents to remain in a stable family: two-thirds of children in the former group

experience family instability before age 12, compared with about one-fourth of children in the latter group.12

State and Local Estimates

State and local estimates of children’s living arrangements are available from the KIDS COUNT Data Center

at: http://www.datacenter.kidscount.org/data#USA/2/23/24.

International Estimates

Data for selected countries (1980-2008) are available in the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2010 Statistical Abstract.

See https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2009/compendia/statab/129ed/international-statistics.html

(See tables 1301 and 1302)

Additional data are available from the 2014 World Family Map at:

http://worldfamilymap.ifstudies.org/2014/articles/world-family-indicators/family-structure

National Goals

None.

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December 2015

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Related Indicators

Births to Unmarried Women: www.childtrends.org/?indicators=births-to-unmarried-women

Adopted Children: www.childtrends.org/?indicators=adopted-children

Foster Care: www.childtrends.org/?indicators=foster-care

Child Support Receipt: www.childtrends.org/?indicators=child-support-receipt

Child Care: www.childtrends.org/?indicators=child-care

Adverse Experiences: www.childtrends.org/?indicators=adverse-experiences

Definition

For this indicator, unless otherwise specified, a two-parent family refers to parents who are married to each

other and living in the same household. They may be biological, adoptive, or stepparents. The Current

Population Survey identifies all parents who are family or subfamily heads. Where cohabitants are

concerned, until 2007, the CPS did not ask whether that person was also the parent of the child. Single-

parent families refer primarily to families in which only one parent is present, but before 2007 may include

some families where both parents were present but unmarried. No-parent families refer to families where

neither parent of the child lives in the household. Data about children living with grandparents reflect those

living in households headed by their grandparents, and do not include families where a grandparent is in the

household as a dependent. Parents may or may not be present in such cases.

Data Sources

2015 data on cohabiting and married couples: Child Trends calculations of U.S. Census Bureau,

Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic Supplement. "America's Families and

Living Arrangements". Table UC3, FG1, and FG3. Available at:

http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/hh-fam/.html

All other data for 2008-2015: Child Trends calculations of U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population

Survey, Annual Social and Economic Supplement. "America's Families and Living Arrangements".

Tables C-2, C-3. Available at: http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/hh-fam/.html

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December 2015

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Data for non-Hispanic white and Asian children, 2000-2007: Child Trends calculations of U.S.

Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic Supplement. "America's

Families and Living Arrangements". Tables C-2, C-3. Available at:

http://www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/cps2000.html

Other Data for 1960-2007: Child Trends calculations using: Living Arrangements of Children Under

18 Years Old: 1960 to Present. Tables CH-1, CH-2, CH-3, CH-4, and Ch-7. U.S. Bureau of the

Census, Online. Available: http://www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/children.html

Raw Data Sources

March Current Population Survey, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics and the U.S. Census Bureau.

http://www.census.gov/cps/

U.S. Decennial Census.

http://www.census.gov/main/www/cen2000.htmlp

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Appendix 1 - Living Arrangements of Children Under 18 Years Old, Percentages by Race and Hispanic Origin1: Selected Years, 1960-2015

19602 19702 1975 19802 1985 1990 1995 2000 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Living with Two

Married Parents3 87.7 85.0 80.3 76.6 73.9 72.5 68.7 69.1 67.8 67.3 67.4 67.8 66.7 66.8 65.7 65.0 64.1 64.4 64.4 64.7

White 90.9 89.5 85.4 82.7 80.0 79.0 75.8 75.3 74.3 73.5 73.8 73.9 72.9 72.9 71.4 70.9 70.0 70.3 70.1 70.7

White, non- Hispanic - - - - - - - 77.5 76.9 75.9 75.9 76.2 75.4 75.8 75.0 74.6 73.7 74.4 74.5 74.5

Black 67.0 58.5 49.4 42.2 39.5 37.7 33.1 37.6 34.8 35.0 34.6 36.6 34.5 34.7 34.7 33.0 33.4 34.4 34.4 34.0

Hispanic - 77.7 - 75.4 67.9 66.8 62.9 65.1 64.6 64.7 65.9 65.6 64.2 63.7 60.9 60.2 59.0 58.2 57.8 59.8

Asian and Other Pacific

Islander - - - - - - - 80.5 - - - - - - - - - - - -

Asian - - - - - - - - 83.1 83.6 83.8 85.2 83.5 83.8 84.2 85.3 82.4 83.1 84.6 82.6

Living with One

Parent4 9.1 12.0 17.0 19.7 23.4 24.7 27.0 26.7 28.0 28.2 28.0 25.8 26.3 26.2 26.6 27.2 28.3 27.8 27.5 26.8

White 7.1 8.7 12.8 15.1 18.0 19.2 21.2 21.6 22.4 23.1 22.5 23.3 24.2 24.0 25.2 25.9 23.3 22.5 22.6 21.9

White, non- Hispanic - - - - - - - 19.9 20.2 21.2 20.8 21.3 22.0 21.4 21.8 22.4 20.7 19.6 19.8 19.6

Black 21.9 31.8 42.7 45.8 54.0 54.7 56.1 53.3 56.2 55.2 56.0 56.7 57.4 57.0 57.8 59.5 55.2 55.1 54.9 53.6

Hispanic - - 21.1 28.8 30.0 32.7 29.5 30.7 30.2 29.1 30.9 31.9 32.4 35.1 35.9 31.1 31.1 30.7 28.9

Asian and Other Pacific

Islander - - - - - - - 16.5 - - - - - - - - - - - -

Asian - - - - - - - - 14.3 13.9 13.2 12.6 14.1 14.2 13.7 12.5 12.9 13.2 11.3 12.6

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19602 19702 1975 19802 1985 1990 1995 2000 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Living with Mother

Only4 8.0 10.9 15.5 18.0 20.9 21.6 23.5 22.4 23.3 23.4 23.3 22.6 22.8 22.8 23.1 23.6 24.4 23.7 23.6 23.1

White 6.1 7.8 11.3 13.5 15.6 16.2 17.8 17.3 18.0 18.4 17.9 18.9 17.5 17.7 18.3 18.7 19.3 18.5 18.7 18.2

White, non- Hispanic

- - - - - - 15.6 15.9 16.4 16.0 15.3 15.5 15.3 15.5 15.9 16.4 15.3 15.5 15.5

Black 19.9 29.5 40.9 43.9 51.0 51.2 52.0 49.0 50.4 50.2 51.2 51.7 51.1 50.2 49.7 51.3 50.9 50.5 50.8 49.4

Hispanic - - 19.6 26.6 27.1 28.4 25.1 25.4 25.4 25.0 26.8 24.1 24.9 26.3 26.5 28.0 27.9 27.5 25.9

Asian and Other Pacific

Islander - - - - - - - 14.0 - - - - - - - - - - - -

Asian - - - - - - - - 12.3 10.2 9.7 9.0 10.2 10.3 10.2 9.1 10.6 10.7 9.6 10.6

Living with Father

Only4 1.1 1.1 1.5 1.7 2.5 3.1 3.5 4.2 4.6 4.8 4.7 3.2 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.5 4.0 4.1 3.9 3.7

White 1.0 0.9 1.5 1.6 2.4 3.0 3.4 4.3 4.4 4.7 4.6 4.4 3.6 3.4 3.5 3.2 4.0 4.0 3.9 3.7

White, non- Hispanic

- - - - - - 4.3 4.3 4.8 4.8 3.6 4.1 3.8 3.8 3.0 4.3 4.4 4.3 4.1

Black 2.0 2.3 1.8 1.9 2.9 3.5 4.1 4.2 5.8 5.0 4.8 4.9 3.3 3.4 3.6 3.5 4.2 4.6 4.2 4.2

Hispanic - - - 1.5 2.2 2.9 4.2 4.4 5.3 4.8 4.1 4.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.8 3.1 3.2 3.1 3.0

Asian and Other Pacific

Islander - - - - - - - 2.5 - - - - - - - - - - - -

Asian - - - - - - - - 2.0 3.6 3.6 1.6 2.3 2.5 2.2 1.3 2.3 2.5 1.7 2.0

Living with No Parent 3.2 3.0 2.7 3.7 2.7 2.8 4.3 4.2 4.3 4.5 4.6 3.5 3.8 4.0 4.1 3.9 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9

White 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.7 1.5 1.4 2.2 2.0 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.1 2.9 3.1 3.4 3.2 2.9 3.2 3.3 3.2

White, non- Hispanic

- - - - - - 2.6 2.9 2.9 3.2 2.5 2.6 2.8 3.1 3.0 2.8 3.0 3.0 2.9

Black 11.1 9.8 7.9 12.0 6.6 7.5 10.8 9.2 9.1 9.8 9.4 6.8 8.1 8.3 7.5 7.6 6.7 6.1 6.1 7.7

Hispanic - - - 3.5 3.3 3.2 4.4 5.4 4.7 5.1 5.0 3.6 3.9 3.9 4.0 3.9 3.2 3.9 4.4 4.1

Asian and Other Pacific

Islander - - - - - - - 2.9 - - - - - - - - - - - -

Asian - - - - - - - - 2.6 2.5 3.0 2.1 2.4 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.0 1.9 2.0 1.7

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1From 2003 forward, data for race reflect only those who selected a single race.

2 Revised based on population from the decennial census for that year.

3Whether biological, adoptive, or non-biological parents.

4Before 2007, the parent may be residing with an unmarried partner.

Note: Based on Current Population Survey (CPS) (unless otherwise indicated)

Sources: Data for 2008-2015: Child Trends calculations of U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic Supplement. "America's Families and Living

Arrangements". Tables C-2, C-3. Available at: http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/hh-fam/.html. Data for non-Hispanic white and Asian children, 2000-2007: Child Trends

calculations of U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic Supplement. "America's Families and Living Arrangements". Tables C-2, C-3. Available at:

http://www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/cps2000.html. Other Data for 1960-2007: Child Trends calculations using: Living Arrangements of Children Under 18 Years Old: 1960 to Present.

Tables CH-1, CH-2, CH-3, CH-4, and Ch-7. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Online. Available: http://www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/children.html.

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Appendix 2 - Percentage of Children Living in Households Headed by their Grandparents: Selected Years, 1970-2015

1970 1980 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Number of children under 18

(in thousands) 69,276 63,369 64,137 70,254 72,012 72,006 72,321 73,001 73,205 73,494

Living with Grandparents 3.2 3.6 4.9 5.6 5.3 5.3 5.1 5.2 5.5 5.6

With parent(s) present 1.8 2.1 3.5 3.6 3.4 3.5 3.3 3.2 3.5 3.5

Both parents present 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7

Mother only present 1.2 1.5 2.4 2.7 2.4 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.4 2.5

Father only present 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3

Without parent(s) present 1.4 1.6 1.5 2.1 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.2

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Number of children under 18

(in thousands) 73,664 73,746 74,104 74,230 74,718 74,630 73,817 73,910 73,692 73,623

Living with Grandparents 5.1 5.5 5.9 6.1 6.5 6.6 6.2 6.2 6.6 6.7

With parent(s) present 3.1 3.7 3.9 4.0 4.3 4.4 4.3 4.2 4.4 4.4

Both parents present 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3

Mother only present 2.2 2.5 2.6 2.9 2.9 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.8 2.8

Father only present 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.4

Without parent(s) present 2.0 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.0 1.9 2.2 2.3

Source: Child Trends calculations using: Grandchildren Living in the Home of Their Grandparents: 1970 to Present. U.S. Bureau of

the Census, Online. Available: http://www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/children.html.

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Appendix 3 - Men and Women in Cohabiting and Married Heterosexual Couples1 with Children Under 18,2 Percentages by Selected Characteristics: 2015

Cohabiting Married

Men Women Men Women

Currently Cohabiting or Married

(numbers in thousands) 3,255 3,255 24,857 24,857

Age

15-24 years 10.9 18.8 1.6 3.1

25-34 years 42.9 44.9 22.4 29.0

35-44 years 30.8 27.0 39.2 41.0

45 years or more 15.3 9.3 36.7 26.9

Education

No high school diploma or GED 18.9 15.9 10.8 9.2

High school diploma or GED 43.0 34.7 24.8 20.6

Some college, no bachelor's degree 28.1 37.1 24.0 26.1

Bachelor's degree or higher 10.0 12.3 40.3 44.0

Annual Income

Under $5,000, without income, or

loss 15.4 35.4 7.6 35.6

$5,000 to $14,999 11.5 14.8 4.4 9.7

$15,000 to $29,999 27.9 25.5 13.8 14.8

$30,000 to $74,999 37.0 21.2 42.8 30.1

$75,000 and over 8.2 3.1 31.4 9.8

Race/Hispanic origin

White only, not Hispanic 51.4 54.0 63.5 62.9

Black only, not Hispanic 15.8 12.7 7.5 6.7

Hispanic 26.5 26.2 19.4 19.7

Labor Force Status

In Labor Force 89.2 68.2 93.7 67.6

Employed 81.3 62.9 90.8 65.7

Unemployed 7.9 5.3 2.9 1.9

Not in Labor Force 10.8 31.8 6.3 32.4

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Cohabiting Married

Employment Status of Household

Adults

Both are employed 51.9 60.2

Man only is employed 29.5 30.5

Woman only is employed 11.0 5.5

Neither is employed 7.7 3.7

1Same-sex couples with children are excluded from the analysis because, due to differences in state

laws, the distinctions between married and unmarried couples are less clear, and vary by state.

Additionally, due to the relative rarity of same-sex couples with children, heterosexual married or

cohabiting couples with a misidentified gender have an outsize influence on this population.

2 Excludes children who have been married.

Sources: Cohabiting data: Child Trends calculations of U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population

Survey, Annual Social and Economic Supplement. "America's Families and Living Arrangements."

Table UC3. Available at: http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/hh-fam.html. Married

data: Child Trends calculations of U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, Annual Social and

Economic Supplement. "America's Families and Living Arrangements." Tables FG1 and FG3. Available

at: http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/hh-fam.html

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Endnotes

1 Amato, P. R. (2005). The impact of family formation change on the cognitive, social, and emotional well-being of the next

generation. The Future of Children, 15(2), 75-96.

2 For a first nationally representative look at adopted children and their families, see Vandivere, S., Malm, K., and Radel,

L. Adoption USA: A chartbook based on the National Survey of Adoptive Parents. Washington, DC: Child Trends.

Available at http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/09/NSAP/chartbook/.

3 Manning, W. D. and Lamb, K. A. (2003). Adolescent well-being in cohabiting, married, and single-parent families.

Journal of Marriage and the Family, 65(4), 876-893.

4 Blackwell, D. L. (2010). Family structure and children’s health in the United States: Findings from the National Health

Interview Survey, 2001-2007. National Center for Health Statistics. Vital Health Statistics, 10(246).

5 Moore, K. A., Jekielek, S. M., and Emig, C. (2002). Marriage from a child’s perspective: How does family structure affect

children, and what can we do about it? (Research Brief). Washington, DC: Child Trends. Available at:

http://www.childtrends.org/Files/MarriageRB602.pdf

6 Manning, W. D. and Lamb, K. A. (2003). Op. cit.

7 Amato, P. R., (2001). The consequences of divorce for adults and children. In Robert M. Milardo (ed.), Understanding

Families into the New Millennium: A Decade in Review. (Lawrence, KS: National Council on Family Relations), 488-506.

8 Dunifon, R. & Kowaleski-Jones, L. (2007). The influence of grandparents in single-mother families. Journal of Marriage

and Family, 69(2), 465-48.

9 Brown, S. L. (2004). Family structure and child well-being: The significance of parental cohabitation. Journal of Marriage

and the Family, 66(2), 351-67.

10 The Urban Institute. (2006). Parents and children facing a world of risk: Next steps towards a working families agenda.

Available at: http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/311288_parents_and_children.pdf

11 Hispanics can be any race. Estimates for whites in this report do not include Hispanics.

12 Manning, W. (2015). Cohabitation and child wellbeing. The Future of Children, 25(2), 51-66.