Families

Chapter 8

The Family System 275

• Reciprocal Socialization-process by which adolescents/children socialize parents

• Family as a system– Subsystems• Dyadic• Triadic• Polyadic

The Family System

• Interaction can change depending on who is present (research regarding behavior or adolescents depending on mother, father, mother/father presence).

The Family System

Parental Relations 276

• Happily married parents are more sensitive, responsive, warm and affectionate toward their children and adolescents.

Construction of Relationships

• Developmental Construction Views– As individuals grow up, they acquire modes of

relating to others. – There are two main variations within this view:• one emphasizes continuity and stability in relationships

throughout the life span; • the other emphasizes discontinuity and change

Continuity

• Emphasis on early parent-child relationship in constructing a basic way of relating to people throughout life.

• Laid out by early security/insecurity of parent-infant relationship in first years of life

• Function as a model or template of relationships

Continuity

• Research: those with secure attachment from infancy were: – More socially competent– Confident in social situations– In possession of leadership skills

Discontinuity View

• Emphasizes change and growth in relationships over time

• Each relationship is different• Each new type of relationship creates new

modes of relating

Discontinuity View

• Adolescent-Parent relationship is different than adolescent-peer relationship– Adolescent-Parent---unilateral authority– Adolescent-Peer---more equal (egalitarian),

democratic

Question

• What changes do you predict will take place in the family in the 21st century?

Parents as ManagersParents should • Function to help children:

– Find information– Makes contacts– Help structure choices– Provides guidance– Establish routines

• Monitor– Social settings– Activities– Friends– Academic efforts

Parents as Managers

Family management practices are positively related to

• Students grades• Self-responsibilityAnd negatively to school-related problems.

Parenting Styles• Baumrind (1971, 1991)

– Authoritarian-restrictive, punitive (children are socially incompetent, anxious about social comparison, fail to initiate activity and have poor communication skills)

– Authoritative-encourages adolescents to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions. Verbal give and take, parents are warm and nurturing (children are self-reliant and socially responsible)

– Neglectful-uninvolved (lack of self control, do not handle independence well)

– Indulgent-parents are highly involved but place few demands or controls (no self control and always expect their way)

Parenting Styles

Parenting

• Further Thoughts on Parenting Styles– Parenting styles do not capture the important themes of

reciprocal socialization and synchrony (Collins & Steinberg, 2006).

– Many parents use a combination of techniques rather than a single technique, although one technique may be dominant.

– Some critics argue that the concept of parenting style is too broad and that more research needs to be conducted to “unpack” parenting styles by studying various components that comprise the styles (Maccoby, 2007; Vazsonyi, Hibbert, & Snider, 2004).

Parenting

• Gender, Parenting, and Co-parenting– A dramatic increase in research on co-parenting has

occurred in the last two decades (Maccoby, 2007). – Conditions that place children and adolescents at

developmental risk (McHale & others, 2002):• poor coordination• active undermining and disparagement of the other

parent• lack of cooperation and warmth• disconnection by one parenting partner

Parenting• Gender, Parenting, and Co-parenting– Conditions that show clear ties to children’s and

adolescents’ prosocial behavior and competence in peer relations (McHale & others, 2002):• Parental solidarity• Cooperation• Warmth

Parent-Adolescent Conflict

• Conflict results from:– Maturation– Biological changes– Cognitive changes increased idealism and logical

reasoning– Social changes focused on independence and

identify– Changes in parents in middle adulthood

ADOLESCENTS’ AND EMERGING ADULTS’ RELATIONSHIPS WITH THEIR PARENTS

• Parent-Adolescent Conflict– For the most part, the generation gap is a stereotype. – Most adolescents and their parents have similar beliefs about the value of

hard work, achievement, and career aspirations (Gecas & Seff, 1990). – Most adolescents and their parents often have similar religious and

political beliefs.– Early adolescence is a time when parent-adolescent conflict escalates

beyond parent-child conflict (Allison & Schultz, 2004; Collins & Steinberg, 2006; Montemayor, 1982; Weng & Montemayor, 1997).

– About 20 percent of families, parents and adolescents engage in prolonged, intense, repeated, unhealthy conflict (Montemayor, 1982).

ADOLESCENTS’ AND EMERGING ADULTS’ RELATIONSHIPS WITH THEIR PARENTS

• Parent-Adolescent Conflict– About 20 percent of families, 4 to 5 million American families,

encounter serious, highly stressful parent-adolescent conflict.– This prolonged, intense conflict is associated with a number

of adolescent problems:• moving away from home• juvenile delinquency• school dropout rates• pregnancy and early marriage• membership in religious cults• drug abuse (Brook & others, 1990).

ADOLESCENTS’ AND EMERGING ADULTS’ RELATIONSHIPS WITH THEIR PARENTS

• Autonomy – The term autonomy generally connotes self-direction

and independence. – Emotional autonomy• The capacity to relinquish child-like dependencies

on parents. • Gender and Culture – Boys usually given more independence than girls.

ADOLESCENTS’ AND EMERGING ADULTS’ RELATIONSHIPS WITH THEIR PARENTS

• Adolescent Runaways– Unhappy at home– Gradual process– Susceptible to drug abuse

• Attachment and Connectedness – Secure attachment

• Infants use the caregiver, usually the mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment.

• An important foundation for psychological development later in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.

– Insecure attachment• Infants either avoid the caregiver or show considerable resistance or

ambivalence toward the caregiver. • Related to difficulties in relationships and problems in later development.

ADOLESCENTS’ AND EMERGING ADULTS’ RELATIONSHIPS WITH THEIR PARENTS

– Individuals are classified as secure-autonomous or as being in one of three insecure categories:• Dismissing/avoidant attachment

– Individuals deemphasize the importance of attachment – Associated with rejection by caregivers

• Preoccupied/ambivalent attachment– Hypertuned to attachment experiences – May occur because parents are inconsistently available

• Unresolved/disorganized attachment– Unusually high level of fear– Disoriented– Can result from traumatic experiences such as abuse or parent’s death

Sibling Roles

• Sibling Roles• Approximately 80 percent of American adolescents have

one or more siblings—that is, sisters and brothers (Dunn, 2007).

• Three important characteristics of sibling relationships:• Emotional quality of the relationship • Familiarity and intimacy of the relationship • Variation in sibling relationships

Sibling Roles

• 65 percent of mothers and 70 percent of fathers show favoritism toward one sibling. – Linked to lower self esteem and sadness

Birth Order

• Birth Order• Firstborns have been described as:

• More adult oriented• Helpful, conforming• Anxious• Self-controlled• Less aggressive than their siblings.

• Birth order also plays a role in siblings’ relationships with each other (Vandell, Minnett, & Santrock, 1987).

• First born can also be anxious, guilt ridden, have difficulty in coping with stressful situations.

Birth Order

• Birth Order• What are later-borns like?

• Characterizing later-borns is difficult because they can occupy so many different sibling positions.

• Overall, later-borns usually enjoy better relations with peers than firstborns

• Last-borns run the risk of becoming overly dependent. • Middle-borns tend to be more diplomatic, often

performing the role of negotiator in times of dispute (Sutton-Smith, 1982).

Divorced Families

• Divorced Families–Changed dramatically in the U. S. and many

countries around the world in the late 20th century (Amato & Irving, 2006).

• Adolescents’ Adjustment in Divorced Families– Show poorer adjustment than their

counterparts in non-divorced families (Amato, 2006; Hetherington, 2005, 2006)–25 percent show emotional problems

Divorced Families

• Adolescents’ Adjustment in Divorced Families– Those who experienced multiple divorces are at greater risk

to have: • Academic problems and /or drop out of school• Externalized problems-acting out• Internalized problems-anxiety, depression• Less-competent intimate relationships• Become sexually active at an earlier age• Drug related problems• Associate with antisocial peers• Lower self-esteem (Conger & Chao, 1996; Hetherington, 2005;

Hetherington & Kelly, 2002).

Fig. 8.5

Divorced Families

• Most kids of divorced parents turn out fine• Should Parents Stay Together for the Sake of the Children and

Adolescents?– The most commonly asked question about divorce

(Hetherington, 2005, 2006). • Unhappy marriage can be harmful to well-being of children.• Diminished resources can be harmful to children.• Marital conflict may have negative consequences for children and

adolescents in the context of marriage or divorce (McDonald & Grych, 2006).

Divorced Families

• What Factors Are Involved in the Adolescent’s Individual Risk Vulnerability in a Divorced Family?• The age of onset of the divorce • Adolescent’s adjustment prior to the divorce• Personality and temperament• Developmental status• Gender• Custody• Relocation

Divorced Families

• What Role Does Socioeconomic Status Play in the Lives of Adolescents in Divorced Families? • The income decrease for divorced mothers is typically

accompanied by increased workloads, high rates of job instability, and residential moves to less desirable neighborhoods with inferior schools (Sayer, 2006).

Divorced Families

THE CHANGING FAMILY IN A CHANGING SOCIETY

• Stepfamilies– Not only are parents divorcing more, they are also getting

remarried more (Stewart, 2006). – The number of remarriages involving children has grown

steadily in recent years. • Stepfamily structure:– Stepfather– Stepmother– Blended or complex

• Types of Stepfamilies– Bray, Berger, & Boethel (1999) found that over time

stepfamilies often fall into three types: • Neo-traditional• Matriarchal• Romantic

• Adjustment – Adolescents in stepfamilies have more adjustment

problems than their counterparts in non-divorced families (Hetherington, 2006).

THE CHANGING FAMILY IN A CHANGING SOCIETY

Adoption– Researchers have found that adopted children and

adolescents often show more psychological and school-related problems than non-adopted children (Brodzinsky & others, 1984).

THE CHANGING FAMILY IN A CHANGING SOCIETY

• Gay Male and Lesbian Parents• Another aspect of the changing family in a changing society

focuses on adolescents raised by gay male and lesbian parents (Patterson, 2006).

• An important aspect of gay male and lesbian families with adolescents is the sexual identity of parents at the time of a child’s birth or adoption (Patterson, 2002).

• Researchers have found few differences in children and adolescents growing up with gay fathers and lesbian mothers (Patterson, 2006; Patterson & Hastings, 2007).

SOCIAL POLICY, ADOLESCENTS, AND FAMILIES

• Parents play very important roles in adolescent development.

• Competent adolescent development is most likely to happen when adolescents have parents who:– show them warmth and respect– demonstrate sustained interest in their lives– recognize and adapt to their changing cognitive and socio-

emotional development– communicate expectations for high standards of conduct and

achievement– display authoritative, constructive ways of dealing with problems

and conflict.