fāṭimid jewelry, its subtypes and influences

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Fāṭimid Jewelry, Its Subtypes and InfluencesAuthor(s): Marilyn JenkinsSource: Ars Orientalis, Vol. 18 (1988), pp. 39-57Published by: Freer Gallery of Art, The Smithsonian Institution and Department of the Historyof Art, University of MichiganStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4629370 .

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FATIMID JEWELRY, ITS SUBTYPES AND INFLUENCES

BY MARILYN JENKINS

IN MOST CULTURES THROUGHOUT THE LONG HISTORY

of art, jewelry crafted from the noblest of all metals was an important element of costume, es- pecially for women but often also for men. As such, gold jewelry was presumably in constant use throughout the life of the cultures where it was made and where it was highly coveted as an element of adornment, and must have been subject to many of the same changes in fashion we have witnessed during our own lifetimes. Jewelry, like ceramics and other media, should therefore be an ever-present yet constantly changing guide to the time and place of manufacture. However, this is not so as regards the gold jewelry of the Islamic world; for although much of the jewelry has sur- vived, dated pieces and those bearing inscriptions that would permit a secure attribution to a particular provenance are practically nonexistant,' and as most of the extant pieces were unearthed in clan- destine excavations, the possibility of determining the age and provenance from context has been lost forever. The would-be historian of Islamic jewelry is thus faced with a relatively large body of material containing few objects of secure date and provenance with which to reconstruct the history of the jewelry of the Muslim world.

This article will first present one of the few groups of Islamic jewelry that can be placed in a firm historical context. Then, with the objects in this group as a basis on which to build, other pieces related either by construction techniques, iconographical motifs, or both will be added to them; and the resulting, considerably enlarged, group will be presented as a series of subtypes heretofore unrecognized. Finally, the influence exerted by this important group on the jewelry of other periods and countries will be briefly discussed.

Fifty-eight years ago, an earthenware vase containing a cache of jewelry and eighty-two gold coins was found in Ifriqiya, present-day Tunisia.2 This important find is presently in the Bardo Mu- seum, Tunis. Each of the coins bears the name of one of three Fatimid caliphs who ruled from Cairo (al-Hakim, al-Zahir, or al-Mustansir) and dates from between 1003-4 and 1044-45. Seventy- three of the eighty-two coins were struck in the province of Ifriqiya during the period in which it was ruled by the Zi-rid dynasty in the name of the

Fatimids (six in the city of Mahdiyya, and sixty- seven in the Zi-ri-d capital, Sabra-al-Mansuriyya); one was minted in Cairo; eight do not bear any mint name. Fifty-seven bear the name of the caliph al-Mustansir and were minted between 1038-39 and 1044-45.

Georges Marsais and Louis Poinssot, the French scholars who published this material, were of the opinion that the treasure was constituted in Ifriqiya, in the region of Qayrawan, and must have been buried at the end of the Muslim year 436 or during the first few months of the year 437, which began on 19 July 1045, as there were fourteen coins dated 436 and none dated 437. They were also convinced that the reason for the burial of this hoard was the ShY 'Ite persecution in Ifriqiya that culminated in 1049-50 in the striking of coins that did not mention the Fatimid overlords at all and in the eventual unleashing of the Arab hordes on Ifriqiya by the Fatimids in 1050-51 to punish their rebellious subordinates. Marpais and Poinssot thought that the owner of the hoard must have been one of the Fatimid faithful fleeing the pogrom of his peers and that he may have been on his way to a refuge in Hammadid territory in present-day Algeria when he was overtaken and forced to bury his treasure.

Whatever the circumstances of the burial, we may assume that the latest coins constitute a terminus ante quem for the jewelry; and since all of the latter is, as we shall see, related by means of construction techniques, iconographical motifs, or both, we may further assume that all the jewelry is more or less contemporary. It also seems quite likely that the jewelry and the coins are closely related in time. As to the provenance, we cannot be certain whether the jewelry was made in Ifriqiya or Egypt, but since we do know from Geniza documents that the Zir-d royal family (specifically, the mother of al-Mu'izz) imported jewels from Egypt in the 1030s, an Egyptian provenance seems a strong possibility.3 Thus, the two bracelets, three earrings, six triangular elements, and eighty-two beads found in the earthenware jar may be seen as having been produced in the Fatimid period before the end of the year 1045, and very likely in Egypt.

The six triangular elements (Fig. 1) are all identical.4 Each one consists of two open-work



40 MARILYN JENKINS

triangular pieces connected to one another, as well as separated from one another other, by thin strips of gold. One of the strips is placed around the sides of the triangle and bears nine evenly spaced gold loops. The other strips surround the variously shaped openings in the triangle. The box-like construction of these gold elements and the use of gold loops for supporting strings of pearls or semiprecious stones are hallmarks of Fatimid jewelry.5 An open-work surface, in this case formed of gold wires bent into S-curves, is also, as we shall see, a very common feature of the gold jewelry of this period. It should be noted that the small S-curves must have been supported in the same way as the open-work decoration on another object from this hoard- by an arrangement of small gold strips on the back of the open-work area. The original publication makes no mention of the fact, but a support of some sort would have been needed for any such totally filigree-constructed piece. Since the stick- like strip support is peculiar to Fatimid jewelry, it seems reasonable to assume that these triangular elements were constructed with such supports (the present author, however, has not been able to examine these pieces closely).

One of the three earrings found in the Ifriqiya hoard (Fig. 2) has the same box-like construction seen on the triangular elements as well as the same gold loops on the gold dividing and connecting strip, and there are three additional loops on the two decorated surfaces, from which small pendants may have been suspended. These decorated surfaces, semicircular in form, consist solely of an open-work design formed of twisted gold wires supported by an arrangement of gold strips that in this case is mentioned in the original French publication.6 Furthermore, most of these twisted wires are laid in pairs, giving somewhat the effect of braided gold wire. The other two earrings in the hoard (Fig. 3), forming a pair, also exhibit the box-like construction and gold loops, which, as may have been the case with similar loops on the earrings mentioned above (Fig. 2), may have been for the suspension of small pendants. Here, however, the loops occur only on the faces of the earrings. Each earring is composed of seven crescents formed of gold sheet and sparsely decorated with twisted wires. The two hemispheres decorated with a granule fused to a circle of twisted wires are another decorative device often found on the jewelry of this period.

Five beads are the other pieces from the hoard relevant to the present discussion. Each of

them is composed of two, six-part floral designs constructed of gold wire fused over a domed hexagonal sheet (Figs. 4a-b).

These fourteen objects exhibit a number of characteristic features seen on many gold objects that have not been found in a datable context, namely the following: the box-like construction, the open-work surface with a strip support, the use of gold loops, S-curves, single or paired twisted wires, the crescent shape, hemispheres surmounted by a granule fused to a circle of twisted wires, and the arabesque motif. With these features as a basis on which to build, an attempt will now be made to enlarge considerably this group of datable Fatimid jewelry.7

The six triangular elements, three earrings, and five beads that have just been discussed bear no granulation, their decoration being effected solely in filigree. As such, they represent the "last phase" of what Marc Rosenberg has called "the battle of granulation and filigree," in which the latter, ac- cording to Rosenberg, finally triumphed.8 Further examples of this particular phase may be seen in two pendants now respectively in the collections of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, and the L. A. Mayer Memorial Institute for Islamic Art, Jerusalem (Figs. 5a-b and 6). The pendant in the Metropolitan Museum exhibits the box-like construction, crescent shape, gold loops (though here made of fused coiled wire), open-work design with strip support, S-curves, and paired twisted wires that are seen on the Ifriqiyan objects, as well as a quite highly developed arabesque design. The set stone and cloisonne inset panel, however, are decorative devices that are not found on this material. The Jerusalem pendant also has a cloisonne inset and employs the box-like construction, open-work design with strip support, S- curves, and single and paired twisted wires found on the Ifriqiyan objects; another point of compar- ison is the trilobed floral design, which is found on the five beads.

A pair of earrings now in the Metropolitan Mu- seum of Art (Figs. 7a-c) bears decoration that incorporates some granulation and therefore represents a somewhat earlier phase in Rosenberg's "battle" than either the objects from the hoard or the two pendants that have just been discussed; but how much earlier a phase, assuming his progression, it is impossible to say. In addition to the box-like construction, crescent shape, gold loops (here also of fused coiled wire), open-work decoration with a strip support, S-curves, paired twisted wires, and an arabesque design incorporating the



FATIMID JEWELRY, ITS SUBTYPES AND INFLUENCES 41

same trilobed floral motifs seen on the beads in the hoard, there are hemispheres decorated with a granule fused to a circle of twisted wires similar to the ones on two of the earrings from the Ifriqiyan hoard (Fig. 3).

Another group of objects (Figs. 8-1 1) represents a still earlier phase in Rosenberg's progression; all the objects belong to his "middle phase" when the granules were placed on paired wires with the result that the filigree and granulation could be said to be on an equal footing. All the elements incorporated in these objects have been met with before. The strip support that has been discussed above may be seen very clearly on the obverse of the pendant where the original cloisonne inset has fallen out (Fig. 8a).

The last group of Fatimid jewelry that will be discussed represents the earliest recognizable phase in Rosenberg's "battle" as regards the jewelry of this period. Granulation not only is more prominent on this particular group of objects but also occurs in more than one size and, therefore, vis-a-vis Rosenberg's "battle," still holds the upper hand in this phase. The objects in this group (Figs. 12-17) are also finer in every way than any of the objects discussed so far, and their decoration is the most complex. The characteristic features of Fatimid jewelry mentioned above have been incorporated in these objects, and the hemispheres on the reverse of the earrings (Fig. 12) are closer to those comprising the beads from the hoard than others that have been discussed. The ring in this group of objects (Fig. 13), in addition to the features described above, incorporates figural iconography within the familiar arabesque decoration, in the form of a large-tailed bird that may be seen on the left shoulder of the object. This iconography may also be seen on the necklace element within the group (Fig. 14).

Although Rosenberg's lead in seeing an historical progression in the battle between granulation and filigree has been followed in the preceding discussion, there remains the possibility that the various groups were contemporary but made in different workshops. Even if one accepts the theory that there is an historical progression, the close similarity among the objects in the various groups makes it highly likely that the "battle" was a quick one, at least in the case of Fatimid Egypt.9

Let us now turn to a brief discussion of the influence exerted on the jewelry art of other periods and countries by the Fatimid group that has just been isolated and described.

A bead now in the L. A. Meyer Memorial Insti- tute for Islamic Art (Fig. 18) must be considered if not a later then at least a simpler version of the open-work granulated bead that was part of a cache found in Caesarea and now in the Israel Mu- seum (Fig. 17).1o The former bead, constructed as it is of two cones of gold sheet decorated with twisted wires, leads us directly into the last section of our discussion.

A pendant from a Nasrid Spanish necklace (Figs. 19a-b) now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, exhibits not only the decoration of twisted wires on a gold sheet such as was seen on the Fatimid bead (Fig. 18) but the two most common features of Fatimid goldwork: the box- like construction and the gold loops. On such pieces, which are usually dated to the fifteenth century," not only has the amount of work necessary to execute the front of the pendants been simplified but the decoration on the back has been accomplished by simply burnishing a gold sheet over the decorated frontside of the pendant.

Another pendant in the New York Metropolitan Museum (Figs. 20a-b) is also Spanish. It is a richer version of the one just discussed and perhaps also an earlier one for its open-work and granulated decoration and cloisonne inlays are even closer to the Fatimid prototypes.'2

A bead executed in Nasrid Spain (Figs. 21 a- b) now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art also shows an indebtedness to the earlier Fatimid beads, being similarly constructed of wires fused to a gold sheet.

As might be expected, however, the strong Fatimid influence on Spanish jewelry appears to have begun much earlier than the Nasrid period. A group of jewelry (Figs. 22a-b) now in the Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore, was, accord- ing to the dealer, found at Madinat al-Zahra',13 the Umayyad royal residence outside Cordova destroyed in 1021. This terminus ante quem fits quite well with the one of 1045 established for the Ifriqiyan cache, as the al-Zahra group con- tains seven gold pieces (five fish elements and two crescent-shaped pendants) that are very closely related to the Fatimid objects discussed above. These seven pieces (Fig. 22a), while incorporating many of the features discussed in connection with the Fatimid group, also contain certain peculiar- ities that are not found on objects in this group. At this stage in our knowledge, it is impossible to say for sure whether these seven elements were manufactured in the same center as the Fatimid objects were or in Spain. On the other hand,



42 MARILYN JENKINS

the seven star-shaped elements in the al-Zahra' group (see, for example, Fig. 22b), though show- ing Fatimid influence in the box-like construction and the gold loops, differ enough from the Egyp- tian pieces that they should probably be seen as contemporary Spanish products exhibiting techniques that were continued on the Nasrid work, such as wire decoration on gold sheet, granulation strewn on a surface, and cloisonne insets.'4

A group comprising both coins and jewelry (Fig. 23) was found in Spain and entered the Victo- ria and Albert Museum, London, in 187O.'5 The coins date from the eleventh and twelfth centuries; one element of the jewelry (the uppermost element in Fig. 23) has the same star-shaped con- figuration, wire decoration on gold sheet, hollow hemispheres, and box-like construction seen on the Madinat al-Zahra' group. An object (Fig. 24) from the same period was excavated in the 1880s near Granada at Madinat Elvira,16 which, like al- Zahra', was destroyed in 1021 during a civil war.

This element bears such a close resemblance to the pair of earrings from the Ifriqiyan hoard that one may assume it was imported; if in fact it was, it would be evidence for how Spanish jewelry came to be so strongly influenced by that from Fatimid Egypt.

The strong traditionalism in the Mediterranean basin, as regards jewelry at least, extends in time far beyond the Nasrid dynasty. In nineteenth- century North Africa we find beads, both round and biconical, as well as triangular elements that are very similar to what must ultimately have been their Egyptian prototypes crafted eight hundred years earlier (Figs. 25-27).

The intent of this article has been to provide the reader with a clearer picture of one of the few datable groups of Islamic jewelry as well as some idea of its influence on the jewelry art of other countries, an influence that has persisted into our own time.17




Notes The author wishes to thank Manuel Keene, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, for his valuable suggestions and Dr. Zdenka Munzer for her kind assistance with various sources consulted. This article was originally delivered as a lecture during the annual meeting of the American Research Center in Egypt held in Detroit in May 1977 and subsequently submitted in its present form to Kunst des Orients in the winter of 1978. The following represents and remains the author's first work on the subject of Islamic jewelry in general and Fatimid jewelry in particular, her subsequent work in this medium notwithstanding (Marilyn Jenkins and Manuel Keene, "Djawhar," The Encyclopaedia of Islam, supplement to v. 2, new ed., Lieden, 1982, pp. 250-62; idem, Islamic Jewelry in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1983; Marilyn Jenkins, "Architectural Ornament and Decorative Arts," Treasures of Islam, exhibition catalogue, Musee Rath, Geneva, London, 1985, pp. 200-7; and idem, "Mamluk Jewelry: Influences and Echoes," Muqarnas, v. 5, 1988).

1. The only Islamic jewelry known to the present author that bears such an inscription is a pair of bracelets, divided between the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Ac- cession No. 57.88a-c) and the Freer Gallery, Washington (Accession No. 58.6). The bracelets incorporate in their decoration four thin gold discs with inscriptions created by burnishing the discs over a coin bearing the name of the 'Abbasid caliph al-Qadir billah (991-1031), which, ac- cording to the late George Miles, was probably struck in Nishapur, Iran, and is in the style of those minted during the reign of Mahmud of Ghazna. The only other excep- tion to this statement appears to be the well-documented manufacture of jewelry in India and other Middle Eastern countries during the last two hundred years.

2. G. Marcais and L. Poinssot, Objets kairouanais, notes et documents, v. 1 1, no. 2, Tunis, 1952, pp. 467-93.

3. Norman Stillman, "The Eleventh Century Merchant House of Ibn 'Awkal (A Geniza Study)," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, v. 16, 1973, part 1, p. 57 and table 8.

4. Four additional triangular elements found in Algeria may be added to this group of six. Two are in the Musee Stefan Gsell, Algiers; the others are in the Musee Gustav Mercier, Constantine. Only one of the four is appreciably different from the others; the triangles are composed of two gold sheets decorated with wire instead of two open-work pieces.

5. Berta Segall, Katalog der Goldschmiede-Arbeiten, Athens, 1938, pl. 45, no. 240; pl. 48, no. 242.

6. Marcais and Poinssot, Objets kairouanais, p. 484.

7. The various subtypes of Fatimid jewelry are illustrated here with selected examples. The groups presented, therefore, do not profess to be complete.

8. Marc Rosenberg, Abteilung: Granulation, v. 3 of Geschichte der Goldschmiedekunst auf Technischer Grundlage, Frankfurt, 1918, pp. 96-103. See the following discussion for the present author's conclusion as to the validity of Rosenberg's chronology.

9. This flowering of the granulation technique during the first one hundred years of the Fatimid period is an enigma. One is unable to point to other similarly fine granulation in the area after the Hellenistic period; and the technique of filigree construction, not to mention its further elaboration with granulation on the wires, seems to have had no precedent and to have died out after this particular group ceased being made. However, as we shall see in the piece illustrated in Figs. 20a-b, somewhat the same effect is achieved by putting a line of granules between plain wires on a background of pierced and cut- away gold sheet.

10. K. Katz, P. P. Kahane, and M. Broshi, From the Beginning, Archaeology and Art in the Israel Museum, Jerusalem, New York, 1968, p. 131 and fig. 111.

11. P. Muller,Jewels in Spain 1500-1800, New York, 1972, p. 22, fig. 26.

12. Rosenberg, Abteilung: Granulation, p. 154, attributes this pendant to ca. 1325. See also n. 9 above regarding the closeness of this piece to its Fatimid prototypes.

13. M. C. Ross, "An Egypto-Arabic Cloisonne Enamel," Ars Islamica, v. 7, 1968, p. 166.

14. We know that jewelry was made by expert craftsmen at MadTnat al-Zahra' for distribution by the caliph to his wives, favorites, and important visitors; see E. Levi- Provenpal, Historie de l'espagne musulmane, Paris and Leiden, 1950, v. 2, p. 129.

15. Ross, "An Egypto-Arabic Cloisonne Enamel," p. 166.

16. M. Gomez-Moreno, Madina Elvira, Granada, 1888.

17. It will be obvious to those familiar with recent jewelry from the central and eastern Islamic lands that this long chain of continuity in design and construction was not confined to the Maghrib.



44 MARILYN JENKINS

FIG. 1 One of six identical triangular elements from a cache of coins and jewelry found in Ifriqiya (present-day Tunsia). (After Marcais and Poinssot.)

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FIG. 4a. One of five identical beads from a cache of coins and jewelry found in Ifriqiya. (After Marqais and Poinssot.)

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FIG. 5a. Pendant with cloisonne inset. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

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46 MARILYN JENKINS

FIG. 7a. One of a pair of earrings. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

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48 MARILYN JENKINS

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50 MARILYN JENKINS

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FIG. 20a. Pendant. Spainish, Nasrid period. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

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54 MARILYN JENKINS

4 a,

FIG. 21la. Bead. Spainish, Nasrid period. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

444 I

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FIG. 21b Unesd of Fiur 21!a i

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I

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FIG. 21 b. Underside of Figure 21 a.

FIG. 22b. Star-shaped elements from Figure 22a.




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56 MARILYN JENKINS

we ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~... ..... ....w . ....... _..-.;- . W.

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4K

FIG. 24. Element, from Madinat Elvira, destroyed 1021. (After G6mez-Moreno.)

FIG. 25. Bead. North African, nineteenth century. (After J. Besancenot, Bijoux Arabes et Berberes du Maroc, Casablanca, n.d.)

FIG. 26. Bead. North African, nineteenth century. (After Besancenot.)

FIG. 27. Fibula. North African, nineteenth century. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.



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