faculty of resource science and technology functional

Functional groups and morphological characteristics of sugarcane bagasse

Heng Chie Wei (30360)

Bachelor of Science with Honours

(Chemistry Resource)

2014

Faculty of Resource Science and Technology

Nf E RS lTI MALAYSIA SARAWA J

Glnde

Please t ick (~)

F inal Yea r P roject Report 0 ~lai Lel ~ D PhD D

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FUNCTIONAL GROUPS AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTIS OF

SUGARCANE BAGASSE

HENG CHIE WEI

Project paper is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements the Degree of Bachelor

of Science with Honours

(Resource Chemistry)


UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

2014

I

Acknowledgement

First of all I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Dr Sim Siong

Fong for guiding and provide a lot information to complete this research All the experience

and the knowledge that I had gained during the research are precious

I would also to thank postgraduate seniors Terri Zhuan Ean Lee and Nurul Aida Lu

Mohd Irwan Lu giving me extra information about the conducting and working in the

laboratory

Indebt thanks goes to all laboratory assistants especially Encik Wahap and Encik

Safri for his help and technical support Much regard to my course mates for helping me in

order to guidance and advice of my final year project

Lastly I deepest thanks to my family of their supporting and encouragement me

throughout the year

II

Declaration

I Heng Chie Wei hereby declare that this thesis entitled ldquofunctional groups and

morphological characteristics of sugarcane bagasserdquo is my own work and effort with the

guidance of my supervisor Dr Sim Siong Fong except acknowledge and referenced No

portion of this thesis has previously been submitted for any other university or institution of

higher learning

helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip

(Heng Chie Wei)

Program of Resource Chemistry


Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

III

Table of Contents

List of Abbreviations V

List of Table VI

List of Figure vii

Abstract ix

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

Chapter 2 Literature Review 3

21 Sugarcane Bagasse 3

211 Cellulosehelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip4

212 Polyosehelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip5

213 Hemicellulosehelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip5

214 Ligninhelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip5

22 Biosorption 7

23 Functional group properties of sugarcane bagasse 8

24 Untreated biomass 15

25 Treatment change of material 15

26 The pretreatment different type of agent 18

261 Base treatment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip19

262 Acid treatment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip20

IV

263 Organic acid treatmenthelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip helliphelliphellip22

27 Morphology 25

Chapter 3 Materials and Methods 28

Chapter 4 Result and Discussion 30

41 Functional group of the untreated and treated sugarcane bagasse 30

42 Principal component analysis (PCA) 39

43 Morphology 41

Chapter 5 Conclusion 43

References 43

Appendix 54

V

List of Abbreviations

Citric Acid CA

Degree Celcius oC

Fourier Transform Infrared FTIR

Scanning Electron Microscopy SEM

Sugarcane Bagasse SB

VI

List of Tables

Table 21 The general functional group of raw sugarcane bagassehelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip9

Table 22 Functional group change treated and untreated sugarcane bagassehelliphelliphelliphellip10

Table 23 Effect of different pretreatment methods on lignocellulosic compoundhelliphelliphellip17

Table 24 Transformation of cellulose I into cellulose II cause the bands are shiftedhelliphellip19

Table 41 The absorption bands identified in sugarcane bagasse and the corresponding

functional groupshelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip31

vii

List of Figures

Figure 21 Structure of lignocellulose biomasshelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip3

Figure 22 FTIR spectra of raw sugarcane bagasse helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip14

Figure 23 The effect of the pretreatment of lignocellulose biomass helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip17

Figure 24 FTIR spectrum of sugarcane bagasse treated with HCl helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip20

Figure 25 FTIR spectra of (a) raw bagasse and (b) bagasse treated with acid (HCl amp

HNO3) helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip21

Figure 26 Citric acid anhydride react with hydroxyl group of cellulose produce

carboxylate group materials helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip22

Figure 27 FTIR spectra of raw sugarcane bagasse (A) modification with NaOH (B)

treatment using citric acid (C) treatment with NaOH and citric acid (D) hellip23

Figure 28 The 130 oC treatment at microwave and after sulfuric acid modifiedhelliphelliphellip25

Figure 29 The 20times amplification (a) raw bagasse and (b) after acid (hydrochloric acid and

nitric acid) modified helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip26

Figure 210 Magnification x 1000(a) raw sugarcane bagasse (b) after modified with

tartaric acidhelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip26

Figure 41 FTIR spectrum of raw (1) reflux (2) and CA in pH3 (3) sugarcane bagassehellip30

Figure 42 The error bar chart with corresponding wavelength of treated and untreated

bagassehelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip38

Figure 43 The score plot of the raw reflux and citric acid sugarcane bagassehelliphelliphelliphellip39

Figure 44 The loading plot according to peak area of different wavenumberhelliphelliphelliphellip40

viii

Figure 45 The times500 magnification (a) raw (b) after reflux and (c) citric acid arrow of F

represented fiber arrow P represented pithhelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip42

ix

Abstract

Sugarcane bagasse is a residues of sugarcane and has unique properties that can act as

biosorbent In this project sugarcane bagasse was modified to serve as biosorbent through

chemical modification with citric acid Sugarcane bagasse was washed and dried at an oven

(105oC)The samples was refluxed for one hour before treated with citric acid The detailed

study of functional group and morphology characteristic of raw sugarcane bagasse and the

pre-treatments were showing by the Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) and Scanning

Electron Microscopy (SEM) After treated the sugarcane bagasse it show the significant

different of the intensity functional group and the morphology with the untreated sugarcane

bagasse

Keywords sugarcane bagasse citric acid Fourier Transform Infrared Scanning Electron

Microscope

Abstrak

Hampas tebu adalah sisa tebu dan mempunyai ciri-ciri unik yang boleh bertindak sebagai

biosorbent Dalam projek ini hampas tebu diubahsuai untuk menjadi biosorbent melalui

pengubahsuaian kimia dengan asid sitrik Hampas tebu telah dibasuh dan dikeringkan di

dalam ketuhar (105oC) Sampel telah direflukskan selama satu jam sebelum dirawat dengan

asid sitrik Kajian terperinci mengenai kumpulan berfungsi dan ciri morfologi hampas tebu

mentah dan pra-rawatan telah ditunjukkan dengan FTIR dan SEM Selepas ubahsuai

hampas tebu menunjukkan perbezaan dengan sebelum diubahsuai

Kata Kunci hampas tebu asid sitrik Fourier Transform Infrared Mikroskop Elektron

Imbasan

1

Chapter 1 Introduction

Sugarcane bagasse is a natural lignocellulosic biomass composed primary of

cellulose hemicellulose and lignin A huge amount of sugarcane residues are generated

from alcohol and sugar industry It has been widely used for variety application for

example sugarcane residues are burn to generate energy and it can be converted into

biogas Other applications of sugarcane bagasse are as sources of feed pulp cloth paper

and board Recycling and reusing of sugarcane bagasse would reduce the issues of waste

disposal and environmental pollution

Sugarcane bagasse can be potentially used as biosorbent due to the presence of

numerous phenolic and hydroxyl functional groups (Yeneneh et al 2011 Mandal amp

Chakrabarty 2011 Pehlivan et al 2012) It has been widely used to removal heavy metals

from waste water (Alomaacute et al 2012 Basso et al 2002 Garg et al 2007 Hoces et al

2011 Khoramzadeh et al 2013 Krishnani et al 2004 Lara et al 2010 Liu et al 2012

Pehlivan et al 2013 Pereira et al 2010 Santos et al 2010 Santos et al 2011 Sud et al

2008 Vinodhini amp Das 2009 Xing et al 2010) dye (Fiorentin et al 2010 Jiang et al

2012 Ong et al 2010 Ong et al 2013 Saad et al 2010 Silva et al 2011 Yu et al

2011 Yu et al 2012a Yu et al 2012b) and gasoline (Brandatildeo et al 2010) As a matter

of fact biomass has been known as potential biosorbent various biomasses have been

examined such as banana peel (Annadurai et al 2002) cattail root (Hu et al 2010)

coriandrum sativum (Karunasagar et al 2005) grape stalk wastes (Villaescusa et al

2004) jute stick powder (Panda et al 2009) lalang (Imperata cylindrica) leaf powder

(Hanafiah et al 2007) leaf powder (Ngah amp Hanafiah 2008a) neem bark (Bhattacharya

et al 2006) neem leaf (Bhattacharyya amp Sharma 2004) maize leaf (Babarinde et al

2

2006) orange peel (Namasivayam et al 1996 Annadurai et al 2002 ) papaya wood

(Saeed et al 2005) peanut hull pellets (Johnson et al 2002) rice husk (Han et al 2008)

rice husk ash (Bhattacharya et al 2006) sago waste (Quek et al 1998) saltbush

(Atriplex canescens) leaves (Sawalha et al 2006 Sawalha et al 2007) sunflower stalk

(Sun amp Xu 1997) teak leaf powder (King et al 2006) tree fern (Ho amp Wang 2004 Ho et

al 2004 Ho 2003) and other agricultural by-products The major advantages of using the

biomass as biosorbent are that they are cheap renewable and available in abundance

(Vaughan et al 2001 Ngah amp Hanafiah 2008b)

The objectives of this study are to determine the functional group and

morphological characteristics of citric acid treated and untreated of sugarcane bagasse to

evaluate their potential as biosorbent

3

Chapter 2 Literature Review

21 Sugarcane Bagasse

Sugarcane bagasse contains low density of fiber Sugarcane bagasse as other

typical biomasses contains cellulose and hemicellulose that are embedded within the

lignin matrix as shown in Figure 21 (Ratanakhanokchai et al 2013) Averagely

sugarcane bagasse contains 50 of cellulose (polymer of six-carbon sugars) 27 of

polyose and 23 of lignin with 35 fat 24 ash 35 wax (Corrales et al 2012

Karnitz et al 2007 Sun et al 2004)

Figure 21 Structure of lignocellulose biomass (Ratanakhanokchai et al 2013)

4

211 Cellulose

Cellulose is linear homopolysaccharide composed of β-D-glucopyranose units

linked together with (14)-glycosidic bonds (Balat et al 2008 Chen et al 2011 Liu et

al 2008) According to Juacutenior et al (2009) the cellulose molecular chains formed by

anhydroglucopyranose units are joined through the β-(14) - glycosidic bonds It also

contains primary and secondary hydroxyl group (Juacutenior et al 2009) According to Klemm

et al (2005) the intramolecular hydrogen bond between cellulose microfibril determines

the straightness of the chain whereas the inter chain may influence the formation of

crystalline or amorphous structure of cellulose

The properties of cellulose are semi-crystalline insoluble in water and organic

solvent (Kumar et al 2013) has low density good mechanical properties and

biodegradable (Zimmermann amp Schwaller 2005) Mosier et al (2005) stated that most of

the cellulose are insoluble in water and cannot depolymerize due to the highly oriented

crystalline structure However the cellulose can undergo hydrolysis broken into small

units using sulfuric acid (Mosier et al 2005) The hydrolysis will not remove lignin and

hemicellulose completely so sodium chloride process is employed in addition to result in

cellulose degradation (Saheb amp Jog 1999)

Anhydro-glucose unit of cellulose can undergo chemical reaction such as nitration

oxidation acetylation and other (Orlando et al 2002 Sun et al 2004)

5

212 Polyose

The homopolymer such as xylan and heteropolymer such as glucomannans are the

main chain of polyose (Juacutenior et al 2009) Same with cellulose it contains primary and

secondary hydroxyl groups (Juacutenior et al 2009) The elimination of xylan will cause the

cellulose structure to be exposed (Guo et al 2009)

213 Hemicellulose

The second abundant components of renewable biomass is the non-cellulosic

heteropolysaccharides- hemicellulose The basic units of carbohydrates such as arabinose

galactose glucose mannose and xylose formed the amorphous polymerized hemicellulose

(Sun et al 2003) and generally it is made up of compound of C5 and C6 (Corrales et al

2012) Hemicellulose contains furfural acetic acids arabinose glucuronic and xylose

(Rezende et al 2011) It contains reactive free hydroxyl groups in the basic units of

carbohydrates (Groumlndahl et al 2003) Hemicellulose is linked to cellulose microfibril by

hydrogen bonds (Mosier et al 2005)

Pretreatment using dilute acid could convert hemicellulose into soluble sugar and to

facilitate the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose (Balat et al 2008 Keshwani amp Cheng

2009)

214 Lignin

Lignin is the highly branched and phenolic macromolecules embedding cellulose

and hemicellulose It is formed from aromatic polymer of phenylpropane unit with β-O-4

aryl ether linkages (Liu et al 2008) It is more persistent to enzyme degradation and its

distribution determine the cell wall resistance to hydrolysis (Laser et al 2002 Zhang amp

Lynd 2004 Himmel et al 2007)

6

Dehydrogenative polymerization of monolignols or phenylpropanoid units such as

coniferyl alcohol p- coumaryl alcohol and sinapyl alcohol form lignin (Ralph et al 1992

Sun et al 2003) The phenylpropanoid unit and hydroxyl phenolic group can be found in

the lignin as complex polymer (Fengel amp Wegener 1983 Juacutenior et al 2009)

The rate of delignification is influenced by the structure of lignin such as the ratio

of guaocyl nuclei to syringyl nuclei and the number of ring conjugated carbonyl group

(Gierer amp Noren 1982)

Karnitz et al (2010) states that cellulose and polyses contains primary and

secondary hydroxyl groups Sugarcane bagasse contains hydroxyl group that can react with

chemicals resulting in the surface modification According to Karnitz et al (2010)

hydroxyl and phenolic group of lignin are more selective for Ca2+ and Mg2+ ion

7

22 Biosorption

According to Santos et al (2012) biosorption is the process where adsorbate

example heavy metal are adsorbed using the agro-industry waste Ngah and Hanafiah

(2008b) states that physical and chemical treatment could improve the adsorption ability

of the adsorbent in removing heavy metals from the aqueous solution Crini (2006) states

that this is also a method to remove suspended solids oil in solution organic matter and

odor The biomasses are safe to use and eco-friendly (Arief et al 2008)

During adsorption the complex formation and electrostatic interaction are formed

between the metal ion and the functional groups present in the biomass (Alam amp Ahmad

2011) In removals of dye Van der Waals force and electrostatic interaction are found via

physical mechanisms The chemical binding involving covalent and ionic interactions are

generated between dye and sorbent (Won et al 2008) Other mechanisms of removal

include ion exchange complexation covalent binding and micro-precipitation (Rahmati et

al 2011 Witek-Krowiak 2012)

The functional groups for example phosphate amino and carboxylate group of

biomass are important for adsorption of metal ions (Santos et al 2010 Sen et al 2010)

The biosorption efficiency can be enhanced by chemical modification of the biomass

(Santos et al 2012)

Sugarcane bagasse has been employed to remove chromium in aqueous solution

through the ion exchange and adsorption processes (Krishnani et al 2004 Sharma amp

Forster 1994) Sugarcane bagasse has also been applied to remove nitrate via anion

8

exchange mechanism (Orlando et al 2002) More commonly agricultural by-products is

effective in removing heavy metals from the contaminated effluent (Reddad et al 2003

Selvi et al 2001)

23 Functional group properties of sugarcane bagasse

The main functional group that influences the adsorption of heavy metals are

carboxyl carboxylic anhydrides phenols lactones lactols carbonyls quinones and

quinone-like structures (Boehm 1994) The functional groups properties reported for

sugarcane bagasse is summarized in Table 21

For raw sugarcane bagasse the carboxyl groups present are weak acid (Santos et al

2012) In the moderately acid medium carboxyl groups of raw bagasse generate negative

charged sites (Santos et al 2012) This cause interaction with positive charge

Absorption band at 1600 cm-1 1509cm-1 1464cm-1 and 1422cm-1 are indicative of

lignin (Sun et al 2003) At 895 cm-1 the band assigned to β-glycosidic linkages of

cellulose after treatment of temperature 130 and 160 oC (Chen et al 2011) According to

Chen et al (2011) the band is missing in raw sugarcane bagasse due to lignin and

hemicellulose coverage The functional groups observed after chemical treatment of

sugarcane bagasse is shown in Table 22

9

Table 21 The general functional group of raw sugarcane bagasse

Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group

3600-3100 Free and intermolecular bonded hydroxyl group of cellulose (Mandal amp

Chakrabarty 2011 Motheacute amp Miranda 2009 Sadaf et al 2014 Sharma

amp Nandi 2013)

2921 C-H bond (Motheacute amp Miranda 2009 Sadaf et al 2014 Sharma amp

Nandi 2013)

1721 Carbonyl group of hemicellulose (Motheacute amp Miranda 2009)

1700 C=O stretching vibration (Sadaf et al 2014)

1631 C=C bond (Sharma amp Nandi 2013)

1423 CH3 (Sharma amp Nandi 2013)

Symmetric deformation of CH2 group of cellulose (Motheacute amp Miranda

2009)

1243 C-O-C of cellulose (Motheacute amp Miranda 2009)

1160 C- N bond(Sharma amp Nandi 2013)

1155 C-O-C asymmetric deformation of hemicellulose and cellulose (Motheacute

amp Miranda 2009)

1048 C- O bond due to alcohols and carboxylic acids (Sharma amp Nandi 2013)

1704 carboxylic groups of galactouronic acid (Sharma amp Nandi 2013)

10

Table 22 Functional group change treated and untreated sugarcane bagasse

Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group Type of treatment and description

3600-3100 OH stretching of cellulose (Gua et al 2009 Mandal amp Chakrabarty 2011

Motheacute amp Miranda 2009 Mulinari et al 2009 Santos et al 2012 Singh

et al 2005 Soliman et al 2011 Zhang et al2011)

2970-2860 Aliphatic CH stretching of CH2 and CH3 groups in polysaccharides

(Sharma amp Kaur 2011 Soliman et al 2011 Sun et al 2004)

2916 C-H group (Santos et al 2012)

2950 Methoxy group (-OCH3) present in lignin (Gua et al 2009 Xiao et al

2001b)

It reduce band after treated with dilute acid

due to the hydrolysis process occur (Gua et

al 2009)

2925 CH2 asymmetric stretching (Gurgel et al 2008) The intensity increase due to introduction of

succinyl group of treatment with succinic

anhydride(Gurgel et al 2008)

291666 CH stretching of CH2 and CH3 in polysaccharides (Soliman et al 2011)

2900 ndashCH2 group of cellulose (Rungrodnimitchai 2014)

2893 ndashCH2 symmetric and asymmetric stretching (Zhang et al2011)

2888 Axial deformation of C-H group (Motheacute amp Miranda 2009 Mulinari et al

2009 )

Band occur in sugarcane bagasse cellulose

(Mulinari et al 2009)


2001b)



al 2009)

1765-1700 C=O stretching of acetyl or carboxylic acid from xylans pectin

hemicellulose (Mandal amp Chakrabarty 2011 Sain amp Panthapulakkal

2006 Sun et al 2005 Zhang et al 2011)

1750 Free and esterified carboxyl group (Santos et al 2012)

1740 Represent hemicellulosic fraction of water soluble include ferulic group

ester uronic and acetyl group (Sun et al 2004)

The band disappear after treatment with 05M

of NaOH due to ester bond cleavage(Sun et

al 2004)

1730 Present of carboxyl group (Santos et al 2012) C=O stretching vibration Disappeared during treated with NaClO2

11

of acetyl and uronic ester group from pectin hemicellulose or the ester

linkage of carboxylic group of ferulic and p-caumaric acid of lignin or

hemicellulose (Sain amp Panthapulakkal 2006 Sun et al 2005 Mandal amp

Chakrabarty 2011)

sulfuric acid and alkali (Mandal amp

Chakrabarty 2011)

After treated with citric acid it cause he band

increase (Santos et al 2012)

1734 ester groups CndashO symmetric and asymmetric stretching (Gurgel et al

2008)

1732 stretching of unconjugated C=O groups present in polysaccharides and

xylan (Mulinari et al 2009)

sugarcane bagasse cellulose (Mulinari et al

2009)

1721 Carbonyl band (C=O) of the hemicellulose (Motheacute amp Miranda 2009)

1720 aldehyde group absorption peak due to acetyl groups in the lignin or

hemicellulose (Gua et al 2009 Sun et al 2003)

The band will absence during treated with

alkali and alkaline peroxide and not oxidize

the glycosidic band and hydroxyl group of

hemicellulose (Sun et al 2004)

1696-1705 C=O unconjugated of ester ketones in carbohydrates (Singh et al 2005)

160486 C=C stretching of aromatic ring in lignin (Zhang et al2011)

1650 ketone group absorption peak involving intramolecular

hydrogen bonds (Gua et al 2009)

Free and esterified carboxyl group (Santos et al 2012)

1650-1630 OH of water (Mandal amp Chakrabarty 2011 Mulinari et al 2009) Band occur of sugarcane bagasse cellulose


1649ndash1641 OndashH bending of the adsorbed water (Sun et al 2004 Troedec et al 2008) Appear during alkali treatment (Mandal amp

Chakrabarty 2011)

1639 Due to CO stretching vibration of carboxylic acid (Santos et al 2012)

1620ndash1595 C=C stretching of aromatic ring of lignin (Mandal amp Chakrabarty 2011

Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050

Aromatic C=C in plane symmetrical stretching vibration of aromatic ring

of lignin (Gua et al 2009)

Disappeared during treated with NaClO2


Chakrabarty 2011)

1600 Vibration aromatic ring of lignin (Singh et al 2005 Zhang et al 2011

Sun et al 2003)

1600ndash1590 skeletal vibrations of benzene ring (Sharma amp Kaur 2011)

1514 Aromatic skeletal vibration and C=O stretch of lignin (Zhang et al2011)

Nf E RS lTI MALAYSIA SARAWA J

Glnde

Please t ick (~)

F inal Yea r P roject Report 0 ~lai Lel ~ D PhD D

DECLARATION O F O RIGINAL WOR K

This decla a tiun o made U11 the ~1 l ay of 1 1 20 12

Student s Declaration

I middot middotmiddot J~middot~middot~3middotmiddotDcg_L0~~ J Q~ s~LE~ T~ (P [EASE INDI CA TE STCDE NTS NAME MATRI C NO AND FA CULTY) he reby d pclar~ th the work ~nt itlpd __ _5~~ rJfX~0 __67JaJ P 1l_I 1~)(_2JJC(lJ _ifllJd~ _ I(__ -__ ~J~~~Y-o l i ~i~a1Q~ work j hae nol t~up led crom any orl e r stllcl ( n 1-~ work or from an~ ot her sources CX (fpl wher( clue r~fcrlnte Or ackuov-]edgpme-nl 18 made pxphcitly In thf tex t nor has ally part b(( l l wnttpll for me by

nnol her person

Date 5ubmitt cmiddot d Ia me orl he slude nt (1al-lt No)

Supervisors Declaration

1 _5M bullfUr L~ (Sl1 PERVISOR S NAME) helbmiddot cer l r~~ th1 he [u crlc ltJ~- ~~ISA-- MampN~l()viC4-L

ormiddotk enlllld middotmiddot ~cmiddot--tmiddotmiddotmiddotjmiddotrQmiddot-middotZmiddot~ltuE middotmiddot6AmiddotmiddotfrTrEmiddot middot middot (1 ITLE) 8 prepared by I he ahove na Oled bull iuiel1t ~J~ was sebITl1tted to lhe F ACt LlY as n bull Il ar t ia llfull fulfill m ent [01 the

b A -IfElt-O (Itt robVCC TN tfCI confelmenl of - ~ __ _ (PLEASE INDI CA1 E THE

DEGREE) and the arorEgt menlmll cd work to the best of my knowlrdge is the saId sl ude nt work

bull r i M ~ 1 0-1 ~ H ([shyRectived for xaminatlOl1 by Da le

(Na me OI~8 Ife rvisor) I)r _ IU Il

110 D __ I ~

-


resen rt h as don~)

)2fuP EN ACCESS




as follows











------------~--




SUGARCANE BAGASSE

HENG CHIE WEI






2014

I

Acknowledgement






laboratory





throughout the year

II

Declaration





higher learning


(Heng Chie Wei)




III

Table of Contents


List of Table VI

List of Figure vii

Abstract ix








22 Biosorption 7







IV


27 Morphology 25





43 Morphology 41


References 43

Appendix 54

V


Citric Acid CA

Degree Celcius oC




VI

List of Tables







vii

List of Figures





















viii



ix

Abstract









bagasse


Microscope

Abstrak









Imbasan

1
























2












3










4

211 Cellulose



















5

212 Polyose





213 Hemicellulose











2009)

214 Lignin






6












7

22 Biosorption

















(Santos et al 2012)




8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



-


resen rt h as don~)

)2fuP EN ACCESS




as follows











------------~--




SUGARCANE BAGASSE

HENG CHIE WEI






2014

I

Acknowledgement






laboratory





throughout the year

II

Declaration





higher learning


(Heng Chie Wei)




III

Table of Contents


List of Table VI

List of Figure vii

Abstract ix








22 Biosorption 7







IV


27 Morphology 25





43 Morphology 41


References 43

Appendix 54

V


Citric Acid CA

Degree Celcius oC




VI

List of Tables







vii

List of Figures





















viii



ix

Abstract









bagasse


Microscope

Abstrak









Imbasan

1
























2












3










4

211 Cellulose



















5

212 Polyose





213 Hemicellulose











2009)

214 Lignin






6












7

22 Biosorption

















(Santos et al 2012)




8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)




SUGARCANE BAGASSE

HENG CHIE WEI






2014

I

Acknowledgement






laboratory





throughout the year

II

Declaration





higher learning


(Heng Chie Wei)




III

Table of Contents


List of Table VI

List of Figure vii

Abstract ix








22 Biosorption 7







IV


27 Morphology 25





43 Morphology 41


References 43

Appendix 54

V


Citric Acid CA

Degree Celcius oC




VI

List of Tables







vii

List of Figures





















viii



ix

Abstract









bagasse


Microscope

Abstrak









Imbasan

1
























2












3










4

211 Cellulose



















5

212 Polyose





213 Hemicellulose











2009)

214 Lignin






6












7

22 Biosorption

















(Santos et al 2012)




8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



I

Acknowledgement






laboratory





throughout the year

II

Declaration





higher learning


(Heng Chie Wei)




III

Table of Contents


List of Table VI

List of Figure vii

Abstract ix








22 Biosorption 7







IV


27 Morphology 25





43 Morphology 41


References 43

Appendix 54

V


Citric Acid CA

Degree Celcius oC




VI

List of Tables







vii

List of Figures





















viii



ix

Abstract









bagasse


Microscope

Abstrak









Imbasan

1
























2












3










4

211 Cellulose



















5

212 Polyose





213 Hemicellulose











2009)

214 Lignin






6












7

22 Biosorption

















(Santos et al 2012)




8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



II

Declaration





higher learning


(Heng Chie Wei)




III

Table of Contents


List of Table VI

List of Figure vii

Abstract ix








22 Biosorption 7







IV


27 Morphology 25





43 Morphology 41


References 43

Appendix 54

V


Citric Acid CA

Degree Celcius oC




VI

List of Tables







vii

List of Figures





















viii



ix

Abstract









bagasse


Microscope

Abstrak









Imbasan

1
























2












3










4

211 Cellulose



















5

212 Polyose





213 Hemicellulose











2009)

214 Lignin






6












7

22 Biosorption

















(Santos et al 2012)




8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



III

Table of Contents


List of Table VI

List of Figure vii

Abstract ix








22 Biosorption 7







IV


27 Morphology 25





43 Morphology 41


References 43

Appendix 54

V


Citric Acid CA

Degree Celcius oC




VI

List of Tables







vii

List of Figures





















viii



ix

Abstract









bagasse


Microscope

Abstrak









Imbasan

1
























2












3










4

211 Cellulose



















5

212 Polyose





213 Hemicellulose











2009)

214 Lignin






6












7

22 Biosorption

















(Santos et al 2012)




8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



IV


27 Morphology 25





43 Morphology 41


References 43

Appendix 54

V


Citric Acid CA

Degree Celcius oC




VI

List of Tables







vii

List of Figures





















viii



ix

Abstract









bagasse


Microscope

Abstrak









Imbasan

1
























2












3










4

211 Cellulose



















5

212 Polyose





213 Hemicellulose











2009)

214 Lignin






6












7

22 Biosorption

















(Santos et al 2012)




8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



V


Citric Acid CA

Degree Celcius oC




VI

List of Tables







vii

List of Figures





















viii



ix

Abstract









bagasse


Microscope

Abstrak









Imbasan

1
























2












3










4

211 Cellulose



















5

212 Polyose





213 Hemicellulose











2009)

214 Lignin






6












7

22 Biosorption

















(Santos et al 2012)




8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



VI

List of Tables







vii

List of Figures





















viii



ix

Abstract









bagasse


Microscope

Abstrak









Imbasan

1
























2












3










4

211 Cellulose



















5

212 Polyose





213 Hemicellulose











2009)

214 Lignin






6












7

22 Biosorption

















(Santos et al 2012)




8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



vii

List of Figures





















viii



ix

Abstract









bagasse


Microscope

Abstrak









Imbasan

1
























2












3










4

211 Cellulose



















5

212 Polyose





213 Hemicellulose











2009)

214 Lignin






6












7

22 Biosorption

















(Santos et al 2012)




8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



viii



ix

Abstract









bagasse


Microscope

Abstrak









Imbasan

1
























2












3










4

211 Cellulose



















5

212 Polyose





213 Hemicellulose











2009)

214 Lignin






6












7

22 Biosorption

















(Santos et al 2012)




8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



ix

Abstract









bagasse


Microscope

Abstrak









Imbasan

1
























2












3










4

211 Cellulose



















5

212 Polyose





213 Hemicellulose











2009)

214 Lignin






6












7

22 Biosorption

















(Santos et al 2012)




8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



1
























2












3










4

211 Cellulose



















5

212 Polyose





213 Hemicellulose











2009)

214 Lignin






6












7

22 Biosorption

















(Santos et al 2012)




8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



2












3










4

211 Cellulose



















5

212 Polyose





213 Hemicellulose











2009)

214 Lignin






6












7

22 Biosorption

















(Santos et al 2012)




8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



3










4

211 Cellulose



















5

212 Polyose





213 Hemicellulose











2009)

214 Lignin






6












7

22 Biosorption

















(Santos et al 2012)




8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



4

211 Cellulose



















5

212 Polyose





213 Hemicellulose











2009)

214 Lignin






6












7

22 Biosorption

















(Santos et al 2012)




8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



5

212 Polyose





213 Hemicellulose











2009)

214 Lignin






6












7

22 Biosorption

















(Santos et al 2012)




8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



6












7

22 Biosorption

















(Santos et al 2012)




8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



7

22 Biosorption

















(Santos et al 2012)




8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



8



Selvi et al 2001)















9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



9


Wavenumber

(cm-1)

Functional group



amp Nandi 2013)


Nandi 2013)






2009)




amp Miranda 2009)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



10


Wavenumber

(cm-1)









2001b)



al 2009)








2009 )




2001b)



al 2009)









al 2004)


11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



11




Chakrabarty 2011)


Chakrabarty 2011)




2008)




2009)
















Chakrabarty 2011)



Zhang et al2011)

1602 and weal

1050





Chakrabarty 2011)


Sun et al 2003)



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