Executive AgenciesDepartment of Defense:

Largest of the agencies involved: more than 2 million people, and consumes about 1/5 of the annual budget. In both terms declined in the 1990s, but recently experienced an upturn.During the Cold War was very influential, as the rivalry with the Soviet Union was seen in mostly military terms. With the end of the Cold War its influence diminished as more emphasis is placed on the economic aspects of foreign relations.

Executive AgenciesCurrently it is experiencing a resurgence, as

the importance of traditional national security has increased. But it still shares important functions with other agencies in ways not approached during the Cold War: Example: Department of Homeland Security

Executive AgenciesThe position of Secretary of Defense has almost

always been a managerial position, and this has been even more true after the Cold War with the cut in defense resources. Thus institutionally strong, but its representatives in terms of foreign policy not necessarily strong.

Rumsfeld: a veteran administrator who has strong ideological views, but must compete with the Sec. Of State, NSA, and V.P. in articulating broad policy.

Executive AgenciesOrganization:

Civilian controlReorganized during Clinton administration

to mirror in part the organization of the State Department so it could better compete: offices for regional security, economics, environment, etc.

Also reorganized to give the Secretary greater control over the services.

Executive AgenciesEach service has a secretary (of army, navy, air force,

marines, coast guard) and a chief of staffJoint Chiefs of Staff: heads of all the staffs of the

uniformed services. Have direct access to the President, even though technically under Sec. Of Defense.

Rivalries: between civilians and uniformed employees; among services; between service heads and Joint Chiefs of Staff

Executive AgenciesInterests and Problems: 1990s: how to provide security during a time of

downsizing; now, how to adapt to a new definition of war that involves non-state actors

how to identify threats when the old bipolar world structure is gone

how to carry out tasks like that drug interdiction, peacekeeping, nation-building, and humanitarian missions.

Executive AgenciesCentral Intelligence Agency:

Created by the National Security Act of 1947 as the first peacetime civilian intelligence agency. A response to the onset of the Cold War and the lack of intelligence facilities with the dismantling of the Office of Strategic Services after the war.

Executive AgenciesIs an independent, cabinet level agency.

Headed by the Director of Central Intelligence, who has direct access to the President, but is also technically under the National Security Advisor. Responsible for coordinating all intelligence activities.

Executive AgenciesMilitary Intelligence: intelligence arms that are

attached to each of the services.National Security Agency: a defense-controlled

intelligence agency responsible for intercepting and decoding electronic signals, and to prevent other countries from intercepting our signals.

Defense Intelligence Agency: created to coordinate intelligence and analysis from the service intelligence arms and provide the Sec of Defense with an impartial analysis.

Intelligence AgenciesSeveral cabinet departments also have

intelligence-gathering offices, Energy (nuclear weapons), Treasury (economic, counterfeiting, firearms), FBI (counterintelligence) State Department’s Bureau of Intelligence and

Research: analyzes raw intelligence from State and other sources.

Functions of Intelligence AgenciesFunctions of Intelligence agencies:Gather information, from human,

documentary, visual, and electronic sources.

Interpret and analyze information for purposes of discovering intentions, possible actions, motivations, and political, economic and military capabilities of other countries.

Functions of Intelligence AgenciesUncover possible crises before they occur,

and create information necessary to deal with them. Weak, however, in retrospective analysis, and often not accurate in forecasting.

Clandestine activities meant to further the national interest, but damaging if done publicly.

AgenciesNational Security Council:Headed by the National Security Advisor, who is

responsible for all information and analysis having to do with national security. Is usually closer to the president that secs of defense, state, or director of cia. Usually is someone with experience in State or Defense, or an academic

Council itself consists of President, VP, Secretaries of Defense, State, DCI, as well as other selected cabinet members.

AgenciesStaff is used to coordinate intelligence, sometimes to

gather information, and mostly to create policy options in the national security area.Aspects of national security: threats of violence and terrorism, economic activity, environmental threats, problems with alliances or prospects of opposing alliances.

AgenciesState DepartmentNominally the most important foreign relations

agency. Headed by Secretary of State, who is supposed to be the President’s chief foreign relations advisor.

Power, however, depends on the situation. Some Secretaries have been given the position as a payoff and aren’t taken seriously. Others are eclipsed by very strong National Security advisors.

StatePerceived problems:Liberalism (or conservatism) of career foreign

service members. Always considered too elitist.Bureaucratically complicated, therefore slow and

institutionally conservative. Timid and unimaginative

Very small in budget (about 1/20 of DoD) and employees (1% of DoD)

StateSecretary even more torn than other cabinet officers.

Is charged with providing President with advice, but also must be close to the bureaucracy. Often must make a choice that limits effectiveness:

If stays around WH, then loses effectiveness in leading the department and inflict a loss of confidence and morale in the employees

If stays in Foggy Bottom, loses influence in WH and perceived as having been “captured” by the State bureaucracy.

StateStructure:Deputy Secretary: day to day managerUndersecretaries: in functional departments:

political affairs; global affairs; economics, business and agriculture; international security and arms control; and management.

Assistant Secretaries: in charge of bureaus.16 are functional: Human Rights; Intelligence and

Research; Legislative Affairs; Public Relations, etc.

State6 are geographic and have the most impact in terms

of policymakingDesk Officers: staff in charge of particular countries.

Career officers.Embassies, Consulates, Missions: headed by a

political appointee, but staffed by career professionals. Day to day contacts with foreign

governments. 

StateForeign Service:The professional body of state department

professionals. Entered by competitive examination, and remain in it only by proving oneself worthy of advancement in rank.

Tends to see itself as an intellectual elite, and thus is insular in its contacts and views.

StateBelieves, as with old world diplomats, that the

trained generalist is superior to the more rigid and exact knowledge of the specialist.

Culture tends toward conformity, consensus, avoidance of conflict and controversy, and other hallmarks of diplomacy, even in policy debates

StateInfluence of the State Department:

Has eroded especially since the end of World War II:

Cold War international environment: called for change and imaginative policymaking, which the culture of the Foreign Service was not equipped to deal with.

StateCold War politics: lacked an internal constituency,

and thus an easy target for those looking for scapegoats for early Cold War setbacks (China). Has never really recovered.

Need for different policies and sources of information: Much of Cold War policymaking focused on national security and the military, while the information needed for that policymaking did not come from formal contacts as before, but clandestine or technical sources.

StateContemporary Influence:

As molders of policy: still generate important recommendations and analyses, and manage routine affairs. But in most important areas is mostly eclipsed by NSC, CIA, DoD, as well as Congress and President.As providers of information: must share this role with the various intelligence agencies and with WH bodies.

StateCreators of Personal Diplomacy: still

important for day to day affairs, but greater mobility of President, other important executive officers, and members of Congress means that most important contacts are not made by State.