everyday agazine, volume 8, 1, 2020 - ghana science

ESS,20EVERYDAY SCIENCE FOR SCHOOLS MAGAZINE, VOLUME 8, NUMBER 1, 2020 1

ESS,20EVERYDAY SCIENCE FOR SCHOOLS MAGAZINE, VOLUME 8, NUMBER 1, 20202

The Basic Science of Coronaviruses‘‘In humans, the virus primarily infects the cells of respiratory system, thus the covering cells of sacs in the lungs. The virus binds to the host receptor and enters the cell where it duplicates its genomic materials and synthesizes the appropriate proteins using the host cellular machinery, and then later buds out new virions from the cell surface.’’


ContentsEditorial Board

Ghana Science Association (GSA)

Genetic Engineering (GE), Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) and Genetically Engineered Organisms (GEOs)

The Prospects of GMOs in a Fast Growing World

The Black Gold: An Option for Improving Agricultural Productivity and Climate Change

Ensuring Safe Drinking Water in Rural Areas

Post-Harvest Management of Fruits and Vegetables in Ghana: Useful Systems and Technologies

The Role of Biotechnology for a Secured Food and Nutrition Supply

The Role of Herbicides in Modern Agriculture

Food and Acne - is there a Relation?

The Basic Science of Coronaviruses

The Role of Ghanaian Herbal Medicine (GHM) in the Fight Against COVID-19 Pandemic

COVID-19: Impact and Implications on Institutions of Higher Learning

The Impact of COVID-19 on Teaching and Learning Online in Ghana. (A Case Study in University of Ghana)

Back to Our Roots: The Healthy Way

Chemistry - Quiz 001

Integrated Science Puzzle

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Dr. Jacob Kwaku AgbenorheviEditorDepartment of Food Science and Technology,Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, KumasiEmail: [email protected]/[email protected]: +233 208 954 233

Prof. Mohammed Muniru IddrisuDeputy EditorDepartment of Mathematics,University for Development Studies, TamaleEmail: [email protected]/[email protected] Tel: +233 243 642 642 / +233 209 962 859

Prof. Elsie Akosua Biraa Effah KaufmannDeputy EditorDepartment of Biomedical Engineering,School of Engineering Sciences,University of Ghana, LegonEmail: [email protected]/[email protected]/[email protected]: +233 244 621 935

Editorial Board

Editorial Disclaimer:

Articles and imagery in this Magazine apart from those referenced, are the sole responsibility/views of their respective authors.


Ghana Science Association (GSA)


IntroductionThe Ghana Science Association (GSA), a voluntary, non-profit making and multidisciplinary organisation of scientists, technologists and mathematicians was formed in 1959. The Association traces its origin to the West African Science Association (WASA) which was formed in 1953 at the University College of the Gold Coast. WASA was formed to provide West African scientists the forum to advocate the importance of Science and Technology as a necessity and bedrock for national development. The formation of GSA broadened the scope of activities from reading of scientific papers to involvement in national and international affairs. The Association was placed on government subvention under the Ministry of Education as far back as 1961 by a Presidential Fiat. Hence the Association is supported through budgetary allocation from the Ghana Government. Other sources of income include membership dues and proceeds from workshops and conferences. The GSA was mandated to promote, popularize and demystify science and create a scientific culture in the country. The Association has made tremendous contributions to National Development, Health and Economic Growth through scientific interventions. The Secretariat is a point where scientific and technological information and research findings are obtained by individuals and corporate bodies.

Membership of the Association is drawn from the Universities, Research Institutes, Industry, Government and Persons interested in the promotion of Science and Technology.

Vision and Mission

Vision

To become a dominant voice in Science and Technology advocacy by promoting and popularizing Science and Technology to meet national developmental needs.

Mission

Advancing Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) through interaction and cross-fertilization of ideas of all interested people to: -

1. Popularize, promote and disseminate scientific information and technology transfer for national development.

2. Contribute to the development of national Science and Technology policy.

3. Collaborate with industry to set national research agenda.

4. Establish linkages with industry to promote the transfer and application of Science.

5. Seek affiliation and foster cooperative links with other national and international organizations.

Activities1. Organization and participation in

scientific conferences, workshops, seminars, symposia, public lectures, quizzes and science fairs.

2. Promotion of carrier development of scientists in Universities and Research Institutes in Ghana and elsewhere.

3. Publication of the scientific journal, magazines and books (e.g. Journal of the Ghana Science Association and Everyday Science for Schools magazine).

4. Training programmes for mathematics and science teachers to improve the teaching and learning of these subjects in schools and colleges of Education

Contribution to National DevelopmentIssues of national importance have been regularly and consistently highlighted at biennial workshops, conferences etc. Communiqués had been submitted to Government and other stakeholders on very topical themes to help shape national policies.

Ghana Science Association


- - - - - - - - - - - -ESSArticles- - - - - - - - - - - -


IntroductionHave you ever imagined a winged horse soaring in the atmosphere? A carnivorous sheep? Or a spider’s web tougher than a nylon rope? Yes! all these are theoretically possible thanks to gene editing.

Just as mechanical engineers assemble, rearrange and fix various parts of a machine to repair faults or improve functionality and efficiency, so is how genetic engineers experts in breaking through cell walls, plasma and nuclear membranes to reassemble and make changes to base and gene sequences of the “secret code of life” (DNA) of macroscopic and

microscopic organisms. The genomes of organisms have the potential to get altered as a result of some conditions including environment, nutrition and health. GE refers to any of the wide range of techniques which alters an organism’s genome, including artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization, sperm banks, cloning, and gene manipulation. A GMO is any organism whose genes are altered due to some factors including nature. GEOs are organisms whose genomes are altered owing to artificial techniques.

Background and History of GE and GMOs.

Earliest forms of GE were artificial selection and selective breeding dating back to over 120 centuries when humans began to domesticate plants and animals. It involved the crossing of organisms with desired trait and others lacking it to produce quality offsprings. These techniques however, relied on probability as there was no certainty in what trait the offspring may inherit. In 1972, Paul Berg, an American professor emeritus of biochemistry and a Nobel Prize co-winner created the first recombinant DNA molecule by combining DNA from a monkey virus with that of the lambda virus. The first genetically modified organism was a bacterium engineered to resist the antibiotic kanamycin by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen in 1973. Boyer later co-founded the world’s first GE company(Genentech) with Robert Swanson. The first transgenic animal and plant were created later. In the early 90’s, genetically modified foods were first approved for public consumption. Until date several advancements and breakthroughs have been made in the science of genetic engineering.

Major developments in GMO’sSeveral important innovations are developed using GE to solve numerous global problems in areas viz. health, agriculture, nutrition and industry.

The Golden rice: a crop engineered to increase nutrient value. It has been engineered with three genes that biosynthesis beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A. It is intended

Genetic Engineering (GE), Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) and Genetically Engineered Organisms (GEOs)Ilyas Ibrahim (BSc.)College of Agriculture Education, Department of science Education, University of Education, Winneba.Address: P. O. Box TA 108 Old-Tafo/ Ashanti.Email: [email protected]: +233 553 424 504.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Boyer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Boyer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_rice

mailto:[email protected]


to produce a fortified food to be grown and consumed in areas with a shortage of dietary vitamin A, a deficiency which annually accounts for about 670,000 deaths of children under the age of 5 and a cause of additional 500,000 cases of irreversible childhood blindness.

Bacteria and other microbes are also engineered with genes for producing specific human proteins with the intention of improving health conditions. For example, the genes for the production of the hormones somatostatin and insulin are engineered in E.coli aiming at mass production.

In China, some species of spider are engineered to produce very tough webs aimed at mass production for domestic and industrial uses. Other animals have also been engineered for medicinal and nutritional purposes.

Viral genomes are engineered to treat genetic disorders such as severe combined immunodeficiency, Leber’s congenital amaurosis, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia and Parkinson’s disease using Gene therapy where genetically modified viruses are used to deliver genes to human cells.

Amid the good impacts of GMOs, some have the potential to cause unintended havocs. For now, the science of GE is an excellent tool to solve some global problems. Personally, I have been thinking of an engineered gene to make malaria a history.

References1. Chilton, M (2016). “Nature, The

First Creator Of GMOs”. Forbes.

2. The new encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, inc. (15th Ed.). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica. 1993. p. 178. ISBN 0852295715.OCLC 27665641.

3. www. Wikipedia.com/Genetically modified organisms.


The world population is growing rapidly and according to the United Nations; it is estimated to reach 9.8 billion by the year 2050. This corresponds to 8.3 million people being added to the world population annually (UN DESA, 2017). This burgeoning rise in population coupled with the continual decrease in available arable lands has driven scientists and other concerned stakeholders to the question of how to feed the world. To many, the solution lies in finding innovative ways which are sustainable enough to produce nutritious foods without compromising on safety: a concept that might have led to the introduction of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs).

Genetic modification refers to the process of altering the genetic traits of living organisms. This is done by using recombinant DNA to transfer a gene(s) from one organism to another by passing through live species (Hino, 2002). Strong scientific debates

have been made both in favour and against innovations in agricultural biotechnology. Individuals in support of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) assert that the use of GMOs can help increase crop yield in countries where hunger persists and there is a large case of malnutrition. It is also asserted that with the growing world population, current technology cannot sustain the food production and thus the need to employ GMOs (Andreas and Beke, 2015).

The cultivation of genetically engineered crops has tremendously increased. In 12 years, thus between the year of 2000 to 2012, the production of GM crops increased from 30 million hectares to 70 million hectares in developed countries and 10 million hectares to 70 million hectares in developing countries according to the European Risk Summit (2013). Officially GM products are yet to be introduced onto the Ghanaian market. On 5th of

October 2018, Dr Amaning Okoree: The Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of the National Biosafety Authority (NBA) announced “We are ready for any promoter or commercial organisation of biotechnology product that wants to release GMO foods. We have strengthened our capacity to effectively regulate and conduct risk assessment of the product to ensure it is safe for consumption” (Abbey, 2018). Spearheaded by the Centre for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), the country is ready also to introduce two main GMO crops — Nitrogen Use Efficient, Water Use Efficient and Salt Tolerant (NEWEST) rice and Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) cowpea. As at February 13 2019, this said release had not seen the light of day because of a filed suit by Food Sovereignty Ghana in what is best described as the country’s first landmark case concerning biotechnology. Perhaps the safety of GM products still cast doubt on the

The Prospects of GMOs in a Fast Growing World.Manuela Tobil 1 (BSc) and Benjamin Nyarko 2 (BSc)Affiliations: 1 Department of Food Science, ISA Lille, Lille France 2 Department of Food Science and Technology, KNUST, GhanaEmail: [email protected] , [email protected] Tel: +233501373551




minds of the Ghanaian public.

There have been a lot of concerns from consumers, the government and other stakeholders on the safety, environmental impact and long term effects of GMOs (Andreas and Beke, 2015). This notwithstanding most GMO activists argue that there is not substantial evidence to warrant these fears. There is almost no neutral standpoint with the prospect of GMOs, it is seen by some researchers as a huge scientific leap whereas others regard it as a high way for acquisition of several chronic organ damages. With the argument getting heated, it is becoming increasingly obvious that consumers have the final decision concerning the consumption of GMOs and GMO containing products. It is imperative that consumers are well educated about GMOs to make informed decisions.

References1. Abbey, E.E. (2018). Ghana ready

to introduce GMOs —Biosafety

Authority. Available at <https://

www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/ghana-ready-to-introduce-gmos-biosafety-authority.html> (Accessed on 20th February 2019)

2. Andras, S. and Beke, J. (2015). Food Security and GMOS. Studia Mundi - Economica, 2(1), pp.94–102.

3. European Risk Summit (2013) Errant GM wheat strain reopens debate about safety of biotech crops [online]. Available at <http://www.euractiv.com/specialreport-risk-hazard-policy/errant-gmo-wheat-strain-reopens-news-528398 > (Accessed on 15th September 2018)

4. Hino, A. (2002). Safety Assessment and Public Concerns for Genetically Modi ed Food Products: The Japanese Experience., 30(1),

pp.126–128.

5. United Nations Department of Economics and Social Affairs (2017) Available at <https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/world-pop-ulation-prospects-2017.html > (Accessed on 20th January 2019)

6. http://gmoawarenessproject.weebly.com/what-are-gmos.html

7. https://passel.unl.edu/pages/printinformationmodule.php?idinformationmodule=1130447280

https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/ghana-ready-to-introduce-gmos-biosafety-authority.html





http://www.euractiv.com/specialreport-risk-hazard-policy/errant-gmo-wheat-strain-reopens-news-528398




https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/world-population-prospects-2017.html




http://gmoawarenessproject.weebly.com/what-are-gmos.html

http://gmoawarenessproject.weebly.com/what-are-gmos.html

https://passel.unl.edu/pages/printinformationmodule.php?idinformationmodule=1130447280




IntroductionAgriculture has to address at the same time three intertwined challenges: ensuring food safety through increased income and productivity, adapting to climate change and contributing to climate change mitigation (Foresight, 2011). This challenge, worsening global pressure on normal resources, mainly on water, will need essential changes in our food classifications. To treat these challenges, feeding systems have to be simultaneously, additional effective and flexible, at each level from the farm to the worldwide level. The concept to use biochar as a soil amendment may seem recent but it really comes from the study of very ancient soils in the Basin of Amazon. It is known that “Terra preta de Indio” was designed by indigenous people thousands of years ago when they amassed charcoal and a different wastes, nutrient trash like animal bones and fish bones (Taylor, 2010).

What is biochar?Biochar is the carbon products, gained while the raw materials, like forest, animal compost, and plant residues, is heated in a closed storage place without air. In many technical and clearer standards, biochar is created by seeming thermal decomposition of organic substance below incomplete supply of (O2) oxygen, and at comparatively low temperature (<700˚C) (Lehmann, 2009).

The feedstocks heats up to the point at which pyrolysis starts. At this point,

the reaction becomes exothermic, that means it starts to create heat and no longer consumes it (Bates, 2010).

Plate 1: Feedstocks for biochar production

used along with applicable sources of nutrients, like animal composts, green manures, composts and fertilizers. It is not a replace for these inputs. Though the ash in biochar fixes improves nutrients to plants, several biochars comprise only small quantities of ash. Also, any nutrients in ash not used by plants in the year after application are finally lost from the soil, sometimes quickly, for instance by leaching.

Many studies have found that biochar stays in soil for centuries to millennia.

This is because the mass of the material is extremely resistant to decomposition by microbes. Throughout pyrolysis, the structure of molecular biomass is reorganized, to a form that is extremely constant in soil. Carbon that was in the atmosphere gets combined into biomass by plant wastes, plants are paralyzed, and biochar placed in soil. Thus biochar can be employed as an instrument to sequester or seize carbon in soil in a safe system. Not just is there no possibility that the carbon in biochar will suddenly “escape or leak” back into the atmosphere, but having biochar in soil also offers advantages in terms of quality of soil.

Biochar can offer additional environmental advantages, including:1. Decrease nutrient pollution

in water bodies;2. Biochar may decrease the

production of greenhouse

The Black Gold: An Option for Improving Agricultural Productivity and Climate ChangeAmmal Abukari (MSc)Department of Forestry and Forest Resources ManagementUniversity for Development StudiesEmail: [email protected] Tel: +233 (0)244622224

Plate 2: Influence of biochar use

Agricultural AdvantagesIn a lot of pot and field studies, biochar has been shown to get better crop yields when compared to suitable controls where biochar was not applied. Biochar has caused in very high yield enhancements on very meagre or poor soils such as acidic humid and tropical soils, in some instance increasing yields by factors of two or more. In more fertile soils, more modest developments in the range of 10% are common. Biochar does not comprise any appreciable quantities of existing nitrogen, but does comprise some decomposable carbon (Bates, 2010; Taylor, 2010). Accordingly, if biochar is applied and deficient nitrogen is supplied, nitrogen immobilization can happen and decrease crop yields. This also occurs with compost, for example: if the ratio of carbon to nitrogen (C: N) is too high. Biochar is a soil improvement that is to be



gases by soil;3. Impacts of biochar on

the bio-availability and movement of heavy metals have been extensively reported (Borchard et al., 2012).

References1. Bates, A. (2010). The Biochar

Solution: Carbon Farming and

Climate Change, New Society.

2. Bruges, J. (2010). The Biochar Debate: Charcoal’s Potential to Reverse Climate Change and Build Soil Fertility. The Schumacher Briefing, Chelsea Green Publisher.

3. Borchard, N., Kautz, T., Prost, K., Moeller, A. and Siemens, J. (2012). Sorption of Copper (II) and Sulphate to Different Biochars Before and after Composting with Farmyard Manure. European Journal of Soil Science, 63, 399-409.

4. Foresight (2011). The Future of Food and Farming; Challenges and Choices for Global Sustainability; Final Project Report. The Government Office for Science, London.

5. Lehmann, J.S. (2009). Biochar for Environmental Management. Earth scan, Oxford, UK.

6. Taylor, P. (2010). The Biochar Revolution; Transforming Agriculture and Environment. Global Publishing G.


IntroductionDrinking water or potable water is water that is considered “safe” to drink and therefore can be used for preparing food, among other domestic uses. The importance of water to humans cannot be put in better words than the popular saying “Water is life”. The United Nations actually considers access to clean water a basic human right. In lieu of this the United Nations did set some targets (the Millennium Development Goals) that were aimed at drastically improving the lives of the world’s poorest by 2015. Water was at the center stage of these targets because water is tied to a whole lot of socioeconomic issues. For example, drinking contaminated water can cause diseases such as cholera and diarrhea, which can lead to death.

So providing access to safe water will prevent people from dying from these avoidable illnesses and ensure that money that is used for treating such illnesses is used for other beneficial purposes. Although the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were not completely achieved by all nations, some improvements were made. In 2015, the MDG Agenda reported that 80% of people globally have access to improved drinking water. Unfortunately, not much improvement was reported for Sub-Saharan Africa. New targets were set via the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) agenda, which practically serves as extension of the MDGs, and aim to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity for all by 2030. Once again, the importance of safe water for all is stressed.

Is Ghana at risk?In Ghana, it is reported that about 22% of the population are still at risk of water-borne diseases as they rely on surface water such as rivers and lakes for drinking and other domestic use (Water.org, 2019). Although Ghana is blessed with abundance of freshwater resources, the quality of surface water is heavily compromised by pollution from human activities. Illegal mining or “Galamsey” activities in particular have led to the pollution of our water bodies with toxic metals. Drinking water contaminated with toxic metals such as mercury and arsenic can cause severe illness and dysfunction of vital organs such as the kidneys. Unfortunately, many people are unaware of the dangers that drinking such polluted water presents, so it is common to find people collecting and drinking water from polluted rivers without any prior treatment, as seen in the picture below.

Ensuring Safe Drinking Water in Rural AreasIsmaila Emahi (PhD), Augustine Boakye (BSc), and Thomas K. Fosu (BSc)Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Energy and Natural Resources, Sunyani.Email: [email protected] Tel: 020 924 7259

Figure 1: Picture of a boy drinking dirty water. Source:https://www.facebook.com/MezieBlog/photos/a.285292911568230/1856673151096857/?type=3&theater

Figure 2: Results of experiment conducted to filter dirty water using Moringa seeds. This work was done by Dr. Emahi and his research team at the University of Energy and Natural Resources in Sunyani.


Tel:024


What can we do to help?It is very important that water collected

from rivers and lakes, and even wells are thoroughly treated prior to drinking in order to avoid the health implications. The popular way of treating water in the household is to boil the water, allow it to cool and filter with clean cloth. Whereas this can help kill bacteria that may be present in the water, it cannot be used to remove all contaminants, especially toxic metals in the water. This will require specialized filtration systems, which are very expensive and not affordable for household purposes. It therefore becomes very crucial that we develop cheap and environmentally-friendly technologies for removing these toxic metals form the environment.

Potential home-made solutionThe picture in figure 2 shows the use of Moringa seeds for clarifying dirty water. This filtration does not only remove dirt but toxic metals as well. More research is ongoing to fully assess the right dose of Moringa to use for a particular volume of water. In our next article, we will provide more information and guidelines about how to use Moringa to purify your dirty and toxic metal-contaminated water before drinking or even using it to cook.

Reference1. Water.org. (2019). Our Impact:

Ghana. Retrieved April 2, 2019, from water.org website: https://water.org/


Can you imagine a nation with post-harvest loss rate as low as 5%? Unbelievable as it may seem, this is the existent situation of most developed nations with agricultural sustainability. Sadly, statistics by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) have proven that the poorest nations have the highest rate of post-harvest losses. It is ironical that the poor nations ‘throw away’ a lot of what they produce. This may deceive most farmers in Africa to think that it is impossible to battle post-harvest losses. For the Sustainable Development Goal of Zero Hunger to be achieved, post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables especially, must be tackled head-on. Fruits and vegetables (FV) production is an emerging horticulture sub-sector in Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) even though, almost one-third of the produced FV is lost before reaching consumers’ plate.

FV post-harvest loss in SSA ranges from 30 to 80% depending on the kind of crop (James and Zikankuba, 2017) [1]. Inadequate knowledge on postharvest management skills and technology such as the nature and chemistry of food, temperature control to maintain cold chain, value addition and packaging have caused several economic and food security setbacks, high levels of poverty and malnutrition among others.

(Figure 1A) Fresh Fruits on Market Display (Source Google photo)

Open Sun DryingSun drying or open-air drying, involves

simply laying the product under the sun on mats, roofs or drying floors. Other methods include hanging the crop underneath a shelter, on trees and on racks in the field. This type of drying is the most commercially used and viable technique to dry agricultural products in Africa. As a very ancient way of preserving farm produce, sun drying has been and continues to be one of the effective ways of reducing losses by improving the shelf life of produce.

(Figure 1 B) Waste Fruits and Vegetables (Source Google photo)

Although post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables are on ascendancy, there are methods that can be used to reduce the quantity that go waste in Ghana, thereby improving availability. These methods may be grouped into two types namely: traditional methods and modern methods. The traditional methods focus on the indigenous and pre-existing ways of preservation whilst the modern methods focus on the upcoming technologies and new ideas that help reduce post-harvest losses.

Traditional Preservation Methods

(Figure 2 A) Sun-dried Peppers (Source: Google photo)

(Figure 2B) Sun-dried Tomatoes (Source: Google photo)

Post-Harvest Management of Fruits and Vegetables in Ghana: Useful Systems and TechnologiesDaniel Egyir Walker, Patrick Quayson, Esther Abbah Essel, Faustina Dufie Wireko-Manu,Corresponding author: Faustina Dufie Wireko-ManuEmail: [email protected]


Pickling

The term pickle is derived from the

Dutch word “pekel”, meaning brine.

Pickling also known as brining or corning is the process of preserving food by anaerobic fermentation in brine (a solution of salt in water) to produce lactic acid or marinating and storing it in an acid solution, usually vinegar (acetic acid). The resulting food is called a “pickle”. This procedure gives the food a salty or sour taste. Pickling has been one of the reliable methods of preserving fruits and vegetables and still can be used to cut down losses that occur after harvest.

carbohydrates into organic acids. The processes of fermentation are believed to have been developed and used in order to preserve vegetables and fruits for times of shortage; preserving the food by alcohols and organic acids and also to give the food desirable texture and flavor. Fermentation also aids in reducing toxicity (remove antinutritional factors) and the cooking time.

phytochemicals in food (Volden et al., 2009; Goodrich et al., 1989).

Figure 3: pickled peaches (Source: Google photo)

Figure 4: pickled vegetables (Source: Google photo)

FermentationFermentation is a process which involves slow decomposition of organic substances, induced by enzymes or microorganisms, that basically convert

Figure 4: Fermented Fruits and Vegetables (Source: Google photo)

Blanching

Blanching is an operation in which a raw food material is immersed in water at 88-99 ˚C (190-210 ˚F) or exposed to live steam for a specific period. Blanching is an important intermediate thermal processing step to enhance preservation and quality of foods by inactivating enzymes that can cause loss of flavor and color. Water and steam blanching are the most common blanching methods. Water blanching involves immersion of food into boiled water.

Compared to water blanching, steam blanching or steaming results in better retention of bioactive

Figure 5: Blanching of Fruits and Vegetables (Source: Google photo)

Traditional Storage Methods

Storage PitsStoring vegetables in an outdoor pit is also a good but typically inconvenient way to preserve produce. Burying in the earth allows for a controlled atmosphere because soil temperatures do not fluctuate - they remain cool compared to air temperatures. The most common way to form a pit is by sinking a barrel or galvanized can in the ground and leaving 2 or 3 inches of the rim above the ground so that moisture cannot enter the container. This method helps to store produce for quite a short period of time and prevent losses.

Figure 6: Pit Storage of Vegetables


(Source: Google photo)

Modern TechnologiesZero Energy Cooling ChamberAs it is named, there is no need for electrical and mechanical energy for the functioning of this storage structure. Cooling chambers work on the principle of evaporative cooling. Evaporative cooling is the reduction in temperature resulting from the evaporation of a liquid which removes latent heat from the surface from which evaporation takes place. This process is employed in industrial and domestic cooling systems, and is also the physical basis of sweating. These chambers help to maintain a very high humidity of 95% throughout the year and it also reduces the temperature of the chamber even during summer months. These chambers are ideal for storage for a short period and helpful for small and marginal farmers to store their produce.

Figure 8: ZECC being used to store fruits vegetables

(Figures 7 and 8 - Source: Google Photos)

Figure 10: Coolbot on AC Figure (The use of coolbot in storing leafy vegetables) - Source: Google photo)

Figure 7: Construction of Zero Energy Cooling

Figure 9: Water supply system for the ZECC (Source: Google Photo)

Coolbot TechnologyA fruits and vegetables producer in the United States of America called Ron Khosla invented this technology. He faced series of challenges in storing his harvested fruits and vegetables. The people in the local market rejected his products because the fruits and vegetables did not look very fresh and a number of them were going waste within a few days after harvesting so he thought of finding a solution to that problem. Since it was very difficult finding a refrigerator as big as the size of a normal room, he thought of using an air conditioner to transform a well-insulated room into a walk-in cooler.

Figure 11: Coolbot - Source: (Google photos)

The optimum temperature for fruits and vegetables is 40 °F to 55 °F (4 °C to 13 °C). Apparently, the A/C is electronically limited or designed such that it cannot go below 60 °F (1 °C due to the thermostat fixed inside the A/C. The Coolbot technology is designed such that it overrides the AC’s temperature gauge when fitted unto a standard air conditioner, tricking it to work harder that is, to cool it down further at a lower temperature than the normal AC would. Reducing the temperature below 16 °C in an air conditioner will require lots of power consumption, Coolbot therefore directs the air conditioner’s compressor to cool the room to 36 °F (2 °C) without freezing up thus can be used effectively in the cold storage of fruits and vegetables.


Conclusion and RecommendationsFruits and vegetables still remain the most reliable and leading source of vitamins in our diet, conferring numerous health benefits. There is therefore the need to improve upon the systems available to reduce post-harvest losses, encourage profitable production and utilization at all seasons. With these new and less expensive technologies, it is possible to decrease the post-harvest losses in fruits and vegetables by a significant percentage.

It is highly recommended that farmers who are into production of fruits and vegetables in the country are given the necessary guidelines and aid to help in the reduction of post-harvest losses.

More research needs to be done to acquire more knowledge and efficient technologies to battle the post-harvest losses in fruits and vegetables and hence improve the economy and health status of the people.

References1. Armachius James and Vumilia

Zikankuba (2017). Postharvest management of fruits and vegetable: A potential for reducing poverty, hidden sugar and malnutrition in sub-Saharan Africa, Cogent Food & Agriculture, 3:1, DOI: 10.1080/23311932.2017.1312052

2. Dr. Shishirsinha. (May 2017). Food Preservation by pickling. Module 22.

3. Missouri Botanical Garden, William T. Kemper, Center for home Gardening, (November 2017).

4. Prof. Susanta K. Roy (Professor Emeritus) Directorate of horticulture. ORISSA, October 14, 2017)

5. Thryve. (April 3, 2018).

Introduction to fermented foods and vegetables. http:// www.thryveinside.com. Retrieved on October 23, 2019 at 22:17

6. Devi, S and Singh, Laishram. (2018). Zero energy cool chamber, low cost storage structure for vegetables and fruits in Churachandpur District of Manipur. Journal of Krishi Vigyan. 7. 216. 10.5958/2349-4433.2018.00136.8.

7. https://classroomclipart.com/images/gallery/Plants/Fruits/Pineapples/TN_variety-fresh-fruit-on-display-at-farmers-market-image-601.jpg. Retrieved on November 4, 2019 at 09:27

8. https:// i2.wp.com/www.greenoptimistic.com/wpcontent/uploads/2017/03/foodwastepic.jpg?resize=660%2C441&ssl=1. Retrieved on November 4, 2019 at 09:35

9. http://www.grandmajuice.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/sun-dried-tomato-300x224.jpg. Retrieved on November 4, 2019 at 10:50

10. https://encryptedtbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTNnx8YyPDP6MW813HSTmPwVGixsWNaRGUHQZknEranzZOKv7hB&s. Retrieved on November 5, 2019 at 10:39

11. http://delightfuladventures.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/picked-peaches-recipe-refrigerator.jpg. Retrieved on November 5, 2019 at 11:20

12. https://tasty-yummies.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/QuickPickledVeggies-28.jpg . Retrieved on November 5, 2019 at 16:17

13. https://blog.thryveinside.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/fermenting-vegetables-300x169.

jpg . Retrieved on November 5, 2019 at 16:20 GMT

14. https://blog.thryveinside.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/e78cafbe-05.-health-benefits-of-fermented-vegetable-juice-300x207.jpg. Retrieved on November 5, 2019 at 16:22 GMT

15. https://eatingisalifestyle.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/tomatoes-blanch.jpg. Retrieved on November 5, 2019 at 16:24 GMT

16. http://garden-tips.info/i/komxa4oz6t1_image_478.jpg. Retrieved on November 5, 2019 at 16:28

17. https://image.slidesharecdn.com/zero-energycoolcham-ber-171014025831/95/zero-energy-cool-chamber-3-638.jpg?cb=1551161153. Retrieved on November 5, 2019 at 16:49

18. https://www.storeitcold.c o m / w p - c o n t e n t /uploads/2016/02/81aTk-9c45L._SL1500_-compressor.jpg. Retrieved on November 5, 2019 at 16:53

19. https://dxkmbl8uwuv9p.c l o u d f r o n t . n e t / k e g -factory/1561711693161/9f56afab-ad32-4d94-9068-73f830df7f0c/IMG_3500.jpg. Retrieved on November 5, 2019 at 16:55

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IntroductionThe origin of food biotechnology can be traced back to our forefathers; though the term “food biotechnology” seems to be of recent origin. The traditional or old biotechnology refers to the conventional techniques used for the production of bread, cheese, pito, vinegar, dawadawa, etc. using microbes in early 5000 BC.

Before we discuss the role of food biotechnology in our food supply, it is important to understand what biotechnology really is. Let us break the word into Bio-techno-logy. “Bio” means “life”, “techno” means “tools” and ology means “the use” or “study of ”. Therefore, biotechnology can be defined as “the use of living cells to create, improve tools, products or process” (Arora, Marwaha, & Bakshi, 2000). For example, when it is used to create or improve food, it is called “food biotechnology”. Thus, food biotechnology is a process that has resulted in improved nutrition, taste, quality, and freshness of many foods today.

Why Use Biotechnology in Food?With an ever-growing world’s population and increasing food prices, the effort of feeding the global population is becoming difficult (Floros et al., 2010). Scientists and farmers over the years have strived to increase the quality and quantity so as to address this problem. Traditional breeding (reproduction) alone will not be able to provide the needed quantity and

quality of food to meet the world’s nutritional requirement. This is because; the traditional methods take a longer time to yield desired results. Therefore, biotechnology when used appropriately can help us address the challenges associated with food and nutrition insecurity with accurate results within a short time (Maryam, Datsugwai, & Shehu, 2017). Thus biotechnology is basically used to achieve/enhance taste, shelf life, nutrition and yield of food (Haroon & Ghazanfar, 2016).

How Genetic Transformation WorksFig. 1 shows a schematic representation of genetic transformation process in plants.

The Role of Biotechnology for a Secured Food and Nutrition SupplyRichard Atinpoore Atuna (MPhil) and Francis Kweku Amagloh (PhD)Department of Food Science & TechnologyUniversity for Development StudiesEmail: [email protected]: 0249078745/0206408627

Fig. 1: Schematic representation of genetic transformation process in plants

Source: http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/how-to-make-a-gmo/



Role of Food Biotechnology in Food ProcessingFermentationFermentation is one of the oldest methods of food processing that makes use of microorganisms or enzymes to enhance the flavour, shelf life, nutritive value and safety of food (Couto & Sanromán, 2006; Floros et al., 2010). Some of the most commonly used fermented food include: banku, kenkey, pito, yoghurt, cheese, bread, just to mention a few. In bread making, yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is to help in the “proving” (rising of the bread) process to make the dough lighter, more digestible, and of better flavour due to the production of organic acids, alcohols and esters by yeast cells. It would have taken a longer time for the bread to prove or rise limiting the quantity that can be produced per time if Saccharomyces cerevisiae has not been synthesize using biotechnological methods.

Enzymes are biological catalysts used to facilitate and speed up metabolic reactions in living organisms, hence their extensive use in the food and beverage industries. Several years ago, enzymes were isolated mostly from plant and animal sources, making them not to be readily available and expensive (Maryam et al., 2017). For example, the enzyme chymosin, found in the stomachs of calves (young cow), is used to coagulate or curdle milk during cheese processing (Fig. 1). This enzyme had to be removed from calves for cheese processing. You can imagine the number of claves that have to be killed to remove the enzyme, chymosin, for large scale cheese production.

However, with the aid of biotechnological methods, chymosin has been cloned into yeasts (Kluyveromyces lactis), bacteria (Escherichia coli) and now readily available for large scale production of cheese as depicted in Fig. 2.

Improved food nutrition and tasteMost of the foods we eat do not have all essential components. That is why every food does not have perfect nutrition. For example, rice is a staple food, enjoyed by many people in Ghana and the world. But cooked white long-grain rice is devoid of vitamin A. Meanwhile many people in Ghana lack vitamin A (World Health Organization, 2009). Foods such as:

carrot, orange-fleshed sweetpotato (the one the inside is orange) and green vegetables that high in vitamin A are either not widely consumed or expensive.

Fig. 2: Schematic representation of genetic transformation process of chymosinSource: https://www.hackteria.org/wiki/images/e/e6/Recombinant_chymosin_scheme.jpg


Colors of Sweetpotato

Therefore, scientists used biotechnological methods to produce golden rice (Fig. 3) with high vitamin A content (Paine et al., 2005).

Biotechnology has also allowed scientists to produce fruits with better taste. Examples of food with better taste include watermelon, tomato, eggplant, pepper and cherries that have been engineered to be seedless leading to more soluble sugar content (Haroon & Ghazanfar, 2016).

Shelf life extensionMost of the juicy fruits have a short shell life. For example, tomato is used all over the world. However, they cannot be kept for a long time. Producers, traders and consumers prefer tomatoes fruits that are hard upon ripening and for that matter stay longer on the shelf (Robinson & Kolavalli, 2010). It is for this reason that tomato traders in Ghana prefer to import tomato from Burkina Faso at the expense of those cultivated in Ghana. According to a newspaper report a market queen in “Makola” market, Accra said “Burkina tomatoes are bigger, harder, far superior in taste and last longer in storage,”(IRIN-Ghana, 2009). The reason why most

of the tomato become soft upon repining is that, an enzyme named polygalacturonase breaks down pectin in the tomato causing ripening and softening. Using biotechnological techniques, the action of this enzyme was silenced to produce a tomato called Flavr Savr (the first genetically modified crop to be commercialized) with slow ripening process, delaying softening and rotting (Haroon & Ghazanfar, 2016).

Potential Risks of Genetically Modified Food

Just as every coin has two sides, there are some potential risks as far as the application of biotechnology in food processing is concern. These can broadly be classified as risk to human health and the environment.

HealthNaturally, some people have allergic reactions to certain foods. For example, some people have allergic reaction when they consume groundnut.

Fig. 3. Picture of Golden rice (left) and untransformed rice (right)

Source:https://cdn.the-scientist.com/assets/articleNo/38680/iImg/20107/94f5ed58-435c-4f2e-920d-8ebf71ec6226-310goldenrice.jpg


Because biotechnology allows for the movement of genes (genetic materials) from one organism to the other, if a gene from groundnut is moved into another crop, example rice, which the consumer is not allergic to, what happens when such a person consumes this modified rice? The person may have an allergic reaction. For instance, there has been evidence of some allergic reaction shown by consumers after eating genetically modified soybean as opposed to the natural soybean (Yum, Soo-Young, Lee, Sohn, & Kyu-Earn, 2005). Another study, using rats as a model, showed uncontrolled cell growth in the small intestines, a condition that may lead to cancer, damaged organs and compromised immune systems (Ewen & Pusztai, 1999) after they have been fed with the genetically modified soybean.

EnvironmentAnother potential risk is gene transfer. Transgenic organisms when exposed to natural environment may transfer genes to other organisms resulting in the spread of transgene everywhere. This unintended spread of transgene can destroy ecosystem and other organisms leading to loss of biodiversity.

The status of commercialization of genetically modified crops in Ghana

A few countries in Africa, namely Burkina Faso, South Africa and Egypt have already approved genetically modified food crops (cotton, maize, cowpea) cultivation and commercialization (Wambugu & Kamanga, 2014). Ghana, Kenya and Nigeria have only passed their regulatory acts but are still at the confined field trials (field experiments strictly by research institutions only) by mandated research institutions. Ghana’s venture into the world of genetic modification

and biotechnology began in 1998, when the Government of Ghana set up a National Biosafety Committee (NBC) to advise on biosafety issues and to lead the negotiation to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). With the approval of the CBD in 2004, the Government of Ghana committed to a sustainable use of biological resources, including their genetic material. Since then a proactive programme for biosafety was initiated under the responsibility of the NBC for drafting a Biosafety Bill, produce guidelines for the implementation of the biosafety law with the technical and financial support of the United Nations Environment Program and the Global Environment Facility (UNEP/GEF). Between 2004 and 2008, the Biosafety Bill was drafted as well as the National Biosafety framework. This was to set up the basis for an underlying legal framework for biotechnology and biosafety policy in Ghana. It also included laws, guidelines and regulations over biotechnologies practices, the mechanisms to handle requests for permits, exercise monitoring and inspections, and a system to promote information and public awareness. The Parliament of Ghana approved the Biosafety Act in 2011. The Biosafety Act is a key law regulating biotechnology in Ghana, mandating the establishment of a National Biosafety Authority (NBA). The NBA was just set up in February 2015. Recently, an Accra fast track high court requested the Ministry of Food and Agriculture to stop the processes leading to the commercialisation of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) (https://sustainablepulse.com/2015/03/04/ghana-court-orders-temporary-halt commercialization-gm-crops/). It means that, until the court gives a favourable ruling, biotechnological activities remain at the level of confined field trials in Ghana.

Way forwardEducationSome people are genuinely opposed to biotechnology and GMOs largely due to lack of relevant knowledge. This calls for scientists to conduct seminars to make people aware of pros and cons of food biotechnology; so the Ghanaian populace will be well educated on this matter such that they can make their choice intelligently. It is the responsibility of scientists to make laymen aware of all aspects including potential risks of biotechnology. This will improve confidence in food customers.

Secondly, biotechnology should be introduced in to the curriculum of Senior High Schools to make the youths more aware of advancements and potential advantages and disadvantages of biotechnology. Education is the key thing that can develop a positive attitude toward biotechnology.

Labelling of genetically modified foodFoods derived from biotechnological methods should be labelled properly so that people can make their choice on their own. There is no international labeling system. Consumers all around the world demand transparent system for labeling. This labeling should be positive. Negative labelling (negative wording, example, “GM free”) should be avoided. Details of the major ingredients should be provided so that consumers can make informed choices. For effective labeling, universal standards should be developed.

Collaboration Research When there is no concrete evidence to support a technology, it gives room for speculation, and consequently, development of myths around such


technology. Therefore, ample evidence through research is required to prove or disprove claims on the consumption of genetically modified food. For example, when the general populace ask question about potential risks imposed by genetically modified food against human health and the environment, only a few scientists can give the appropriate response pertaining to our location. This is so because of lack of extensive research activities on transgenes.

Conclusion It is true that the application of food biotechnology has the potential to solve problems of malnutrition, hunger and poverty. However, there are a lot of genuine concerns about its safety that needs to be addressed. It is important that we fully understand the technology and the unintended consequences that are likely to arise as a result of commercialisation of the technology in Ghana. Due diligence should be done and it should not appear that there is a deliberate policy strategy of African governments to please multinational companies and the scientific community in the phase of genetically modified crops. Consumers should be made aware of potential pros and cons through conduction of seminars. Biotechnology should be part of the Senior High Schools curriculum to make the youth more aware of advancements and potential advantages and disadvantages of this technology.

Reference 1. Arora, J. K., Marwaha, S. S., &

Bakshi, A. (2000). Biotechnological advancement in food processing. In S. S. Marwaha & J. K. Arora (Eds.), Food Processing: Biotechnological Applications (pp. 1-24). New Delhi, India: Asiatech Publishers.

2. Couto, S. R., & Sanromán, M. A. (2006). Application of solid-state fermentation to food industry—A review. Journal of Food Engineering, 76(3), 291-302.

3. Ewen, S. W., & Pusztai, A. (1999). Effect of diets containing genetically modified potatoes expressing Galanthus nivalis lectin on rat small intestine. The Lancet, 354(9187), 1353-1354.

4. Floros, J. D., Newsome, R., Fisher, W., Barbosa‐Cánovas, G. V., Chen, H., Dunne, C. P., German, J. B., Hall, R. L., Heldman, D. R., & Karwe, M. V. (2010). Feeding the world today and tomorrow: the importance of food science and technology: An IFT scientific review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 9(5), 572-599.

5. Haroon, F., & Ghazanfar, M. (2016). Applications of Food Biotechnology. J Ecosys Ecograph, 6(215), 2. doi: 10.4172/2157-7625.1000215

6. Maryam, B. M., Datsugwai, M. S. S., & Shehu, I. (2017). The Role of Biotechnology in Food Production and Processing. Industrial Engineering, 1(1), 24-35.

7. Paine, J. A., Shipton, C. A., Chaggar, S., Howells, R. M., Kennedy, M. J., Vernon, G., Wright, S. Y., Hinchliffe, E., Adams, J. L., & Silverstone, A. L. (2005). Improving the nutritional value of Golden Rice through increased pro-vitamin A content. Nature biotechnology, 23(4), 482.

8. Robinson, E. J., & Kolavalli, S. L. (2010). The case of tomato in Ghana: Marketing. Citeseer.

9. Wambugu, F., & Kamanga, D. (2014). Biotechnology in Africa:

Emergence, Initiatives and Future (Vol. 7): Springer.

10. World Health Organization. (2009). Global prevalence of vitamin A deficiency in populations at risk 1995–2005. WHO global database on Vitamin A deficiency. Geneva, World Health Organization. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Press.

11. Yum, H.-Y., Soo-Young, L., Lee, K.-E., Sohn, M.-H., & Kyu-Earn, K. (2005). Genetically modified and wild soybeans: an immunologic comparison. Paper presented at the Allergy and Asthma Proceedings.


IntroductionWeeds are undesirable in agricultural activities since they compete with food crops for available soil nutrients, air, water, sunlight and space. Weeds have been reported to be a very major challenge associated with sweetpotato production and yield reduction of ninety-one (91) % was observed in sweetpotato as a result of weed competition [1].

It has been reported that about 57% of food crops in some parts of Africa are lost due to the presence of weeds, hence the need to effectively apply herbicides [2].

Herbicides are described as a subtype of pesticides which are applied with the intention of killing, controlling or preventing the excessive growth of weeds or unwanted plants.

Source: https://www.nation.co.ke/health/For-Kenyan-farmers-cancer-comes-in-packet-of-herbicide/3476990-4787154-dga1sf/index.html

Reports indicate that when these herbicides are applied, only about 1% is effective whereas the remaining 99% exist as residues in the surroundings thus posing serious threats to human health, the environment, wildlife and other non-target organisms.

A notable characteristic of herbicides is the fact that their biological activities extend beyond their expected effects on target organisms. They are capable of affecting organisms within the same ecosystem or in other habitats and this happens when the herbicides are transmitted mainly by wind currents during the process of application or through rain in some other cases. Once applied to fields, these herbicides get translocated sooner or later into the soil.

The continuous application of these chemicals can lead to a weighty or severe depletion of soils in the long run; and this is so because the balance of microorganisms in the soils as well as the natural processes of converting organic matter have been disrupted [3]. Several concerns have been raised in relation to the excessive application of these herbicides since relevant

The Role of Herbicides in Modern AgricultureYvonne Akorfa Hormenoo (MSc) and Jacob K. Agbenorhevi (PhD),Department of Food Science and Technology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi.Email: [email protected] / [email protected]: +233 (0) 208954223

Source: http://www.tellspecopedia.com/Ingredients/herbicides/

In modern times, agrochemicals form an integral part of agricultural production systems globally. The introduction of agrochemicals in farming not only contributes to the healthy growth of food crops but also the improvement of farm work efficiency as well as stability in the supply of tasty agricultural products [3].

About 87% of Ghanaian farmers, in an attempt to control pests, diseases and weeds during the cultivation of fruits and vegetables, apply chemical pesticides [4]. Furthermore, it has been estimated that vegetable farms proportionally use about 44% herbicides, 33% insecticides and 23% fungicides [5].

Effects of HerbicidesUpon the realization of the effectiveness of these herbicides, farmers tend to increase application consistently to meet their production targets without taking into consideration the negative aspects associated with these herbicides.

https://www.nation.co.ke/health/For-Kenyan-farmers-cancer-comes-in-packet-of-herbicide/3476990-4787154-dga1sf/index.html




http://www.tellspecopedia.com/Ingredients/herbicides/


toxicological amounts may run off into surface water resulting in the potential contamination of surface and ground water as well as other water bodies which when consumed can result in numerous adverse health conditions [6].

Another potential environmental health risk is the bioaccumulation and biomagnification of the herbicides. This phenomenon is described as an increase in the concentration of compounds as they are moved up to higher natural trophic levels through interactions of the food web [7]. Damages to the nervous, immune and reproductive systems as well as other vital organs, interference with hormone functions, developmental and behavioral abnormalities, etc. are some of the adverse health effects of herbicides on humans.

Farmers are aware of the potential health risks associated with these chemicals, however, some still use these chemicals indiscriminately since they are more concerned about minimizing the destructive effects of weeds on their crops and of course, obtaining optimum yield.

Most often, farmers apply herbicides to the target weeds without paying due attention to instructions stated on the labels of the herbicides with respect to the recommended rates of application and the right ways of disposing off excess herbicides after application and this ultimately leads to the presence of more toxic residues [8].

It is important that farmers should be educated on how to effectively apply herbicides.

References1. Nedunchezhiyan, M., Ravindran,

C. S., & Ravi, V. (2013). Weed Management in Root and Tuber Crops in India : Critical Analysis. Journal of Root Crops, 39(2), 13–20.

2. Degras, L. 2003. Sweetpotato (English Ed. by Simon Charter) Macmillan Publishers Ltd. Oxford, English. pp 124.

3. Kughur, P. G. (2012). The Effects Of Herbicides On Crop Production And Environment In Makurdi Local. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 14(4), 206–216.

4. Dinham, B. (2003). Growing vegetables in developing countries for local urban populations and export markets: problems confronting small-scale producers. Pest Management Science, 59(5), 575–582. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.654

5. Ntow, W. J., Gijzen, H. J., Kelderman, P., & Drechsel, P. (2006). Farmer perceptions and pesticide use practices in vegetable production in Ghana. Pest Management Science, 62(4), 356–365. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.1178

6. Ayansina A. D. V., Ogunshe A. A. O. & Fagade O. E. (2003). Environment impact Assessment and microbiologist: An overview. Proc. Of 11th annual national conf. of Environment and Behaviour Association of Nig. (EBAN), pp. 26-27.

7. Ormerod, S. (1997). Pollution science. Environmental Pollution, 97(1–2), 189–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-7491(97)88463-1

8. Adomako, M. O. (2015). Effect Of Some Commonly Used Herbicides On Soil Microbial Population.

https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.654





Food and Acne - is there a Relation?Louisa Danah and Jacob K. Agbenorhevi (PhD),Department of Food Science and Technology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi.Email: [email protected]

Acne is a long term skin disease that occurs when dead skin cells and sebum (oil from the skin or sebaceous gland) clog hair follicles. Oil secretions builds up beneath the blocked pore, providing a perfect environment for the skin bacteria, Cutibacterium acnes, to multiply uncontrollably. In response, the skin inflames, producing a visible lesion.

Acne is estimated to affect about 9.4% (Flaxman AD et al., 2012) of the global population making it the 8th most common disease worldwide. (GBD 2015 Disease injury incidence Prevalence collaborators, 2016) It is also the most common skin related disease. It affects teenagers mostly; teenage girls have a higher risk of being

infected. (Dawson and Dellavalle, 2013; Taylor et al., 2011) As a result of this high cases of infection, dermatologist made an intensive research into the causes. They found many factors that cause acne in human: hormonal factors, bacterial infections, genetic factors, excess sebum production, environmental factors, medications and diet. (Bhate and Williams, 2013; Degitz and Ochsendorf, 2017) For the above mentioned causes, genetic and hormonal factors are the only causes that have been clearly stated to have a direct effect on acne. (Di Landro et al., 2012; Ismail et al., 2012; Di Landro et al., 2016) The other factors are still debatable since there is no high quality evidence.

How does acne come about?The skin is covered in thousands

of pores that sit at the hair follicles.

The pores connect the surface of the skin to an underlying gland known as the sebaceous gland. This gland produces the sebum which is released continually in small amounts into the hair follicles and skin. Dead skin cells are also carried up with the sebum so they can be washed away when you bath. Most times, the sebaceous gland produces too much oil. The excess oil and dead skin cells form a plug in the gland. The pore becomes clogged with oil, dead skin cells and possibly bacteria. The bacteria multiply and leads to an infection, swelling and inflammation around the clogged pores. This creates an acne.

Types of acne.Acne is a broad term for skin diseases caused by this process. The visible symptoms we see on the skin are known as acne lesions or pimples. There are five known types of pimples: blackheads, white heads, papules, pustules, nodules and cysts. Blackheads are categorised by the appearance of black spot pimples on your face, neck or back. This black marking is not as a result of dirt but the oxidation of the sebum on the skin surface. White heads are clogged follicles covered by a thin layer of skin that appear as white spots. Papules are inflamed lesions, appear red, and are sensitive and painful. Pustules are also inflamed pimples but they contain pus and appear as white or yellow. Nodules are pimples that develop under the skin; they do not contain pus but are


hard when touched. Lastly, cysts are inflamed pimples that contain pus. They are very severe and painful, and mostly require professional medical treatment.

this debate still goes on let’s look at how food can affect the above acne process. The first step in the process of formation of acne is the production of excess sebum by the sebaceous gland. Studies have shown that during puberty, the body produces a hormone called Insulin-like growth factor 1(IGF-1) that causes an increase in the production of sebum. (Melnik and Schmitz, 2009) That is why one is likely to have an acne during their teenage years. Similarly, any food that can raise the insulin-like growth factor 1(IGF-1) in the body can indirectly possibly cause and worsen acne. You can then improve the symptoms of acne and prevent acne breakouts by avoiding such foods.

What kind of foods increase the level of Insulin-like growth factor 1 in the blood? Does an increase in the insulin-like growth factor 1 mean I will get acne even if I have a clear face?Studies have shown that dairy products

and foods high in glycaemic index raise the level of IGF-1 in the body.

Cow milk contains amino acids that stimulate the liver to produce more IGF-1(John, 2013) and many dairy farmers give their cows growth hormones to enable them produce more milk. As a result, you get an increase in IGF-1 level when you consume such milk. Also, skim milk has been studied to cause an increase in IGF-1 level as compared to whole milk. This is because the whey proteins added to whole milk to improve its consistency increases the IGF-1 Levels as well. (Angela, 2019). Though dairy products increase the level of insulin-like growth factor 1, research hasn’t proved that milk causes acne, rather it increases

the severity of the acne in most cases. In a research conducted by Aalemi (2019), whole milk and low fat milk had a positive effect on the severity of acne but not all dairy products. Based on his research and other early studies, milk cannot be generally stated to cause acne but can be said to increase the severity of acne (not in all instances). Two studies also found out that teenagers who consume milk or ice cream were four times likely to suffer from acne (Ulvestad et al., 2017; Ismail et al., 2012). Dermatologists advice that you observe yourself and take note of any food that triggers acne and control the intake of such foods, since this research hasn’t been proved generally: it works for some cases only.

Glycaemic index of food determines how the carbohydrate in foods increase the blood sugar level. This means foods with high glycaemic index is easily digested, absorbed and metabolised and increase the blood glucose and insulin levels. Most refined foods like desserts made with white flour, white rice, sugar sweetened beverages and artificial sweeteners have a high glycaemic index. As a result, your blood insulin level rises when you take in these foods. High insulin levels makes androgen hormone more active and increases insulin- like growth factor 1. This contributes to acne development by causing skin cells to grow rapidly and boosting the production of sebum (Cordian, 2005). A study also shows that low glycaemic index foods reduced the severity of acne (Smith et al.,2007). Frequently consuming foods with high glycaemic index is linked to increased severity, but it’s uncertain whether there is a cause and effect relationship.

Myths Surrounding Foods that Cause AcneIt is very common to find mothers

advising you to avoid oily foods so as

Does food really have an effect in this process?

Many expects once thought acne and

food had no relation based on some

surveys held in the past, but results

of recent research proves otherwise. (Aalemi, 2019) There is still an extensive debate about the impact of food and diet in the medical community. While


to reduce acne. This is because many

people link greasy foods with acne, which is not true. The pus found in pimples is not as a result of oil from food but oil in the skin (sebum).

Which Foods Must You Eat Then?While the foods discussed above may contribute to the development of acne, there are other foods that can help keep your skin be clear. The foods that help fight acne all revolves around whole nutritious food that fight inflammation. These include: Omega-3 fatty acids, turmeric, ginger, garlic, fruits and vegetables, plant based diary options, healthy fats, unsweetened vegetables, probiotics, whole grain and vitamins A, D, E and Zinc.

The Bottom LineGenerally, our diet patterns are likely

to have an impact on our skin and

not necessarily eating or avoiding

a particular food. It is important to keep the bigger picture in mind. All the foods linked to acne in this article shouldn’t be avoided totally but rather consume them with the nutritious foods discussed above. Also, keep a food log to help track particular foods that cause or worsen your acne.

Food and Acne-There is a relation but not in all cases.

References1. Vos T, Flaxman AD, Naghavi M,

Lozanao R, Michaud C, Ezzati M,

et al. (December 2012). “years

lived with dissabiltity (YLDs) for 1160 seqelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Diseases study 2010” .Lancet. 380 (9859):2163-96

2. Dawson AL, Dellavalle RP (May 2013). ”Acne Vulgaris” BMJ(Review). 346 (5): 30-33

3. Taylor M, Gonzalez M, Porter R (May-June 2011). “Pathways to Inlammation: acne physiology” European Journal of Dermatolgy

(Review). 21(3): 323-33

4. Bhate K, Williams HC. Epidemiology of acne vulgaris. Br J Dermatol. 2013; 168(3): 474 – 485

5. Degitz K, Oschsendorf F. Acne. JDDG. 2017; 15(7): 709-722

6. Di Landro A, Cazzaniga S, Parazzini F, et al. Family history, body mass index, selected diary factors, menstrualhistory, and risk of moderate to severe acne in adolescents and young adults. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2012; 67(6): 1129-1135

7. Ismail NH, Manaf ZA, Azizan NZ. High gylcemic load diet, milk and ice cream consumption are related to acne vulgaris in Malaysian young adults: a case control study BMC Dermatol. 2012; 12-13

8. Ahmad Khalid Aalemi, Idris Anwar, Hongxiang Chen(2019) Diary consumption and acne: a case control study in Kabul, Afghanistan. Volume 2019:12 pages 481-487

9. Melnik BC, John SM, Schmitz G, Nutr J. (2013) Milk is not just food but most likely a genetic transfection system activating mTORC1 signaling for postnatal growth. 12:103

10. Angela Palmer (2019). “The link between milk and acne”: verywellhealth.com

11. Ulvestad M, Bjertnes E, Dalgard F, Halvorsen JA. (2017) Acne and diary products in adolescence: results from a Norwegian longitudinal study 31(3): 530-535


Coronaviruses (CoVs) belong to the subfamily Orthocoronavirinae in the family Coronaviridae and the Order Nidovirales. The Orthocoronavirinae contains four genera, namely Alpha- coronavirus (α-CoV), Beta-coronavirus (β-CoV), Gamma-coronavirus (γ-CoV) and Delta-coronavirus (δ-CoV) [1, 2]. The CoV genome is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA with a varying size of 26 kb to 32 kb; thus, the largest genome of any known RNA viruses [3]. Both α- and β-CoV genera are known to infect mammals, whilst γ- and δ-CoVs infect birds. Two previous outbreaks of viral pneumonia caused by β-CoVs are severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS).

Like SARS-CoV and MERS- CoV, the newly emerged severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) which causes Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) also belongs to the β lineage of CoVs. The World Health Organization (WHO) has already declared COVID-19 as a pandemic with currently no specific treatment or vaccines. A better understanding of SARS-CoV-2, the mode of transmission and its control will therefore be prudent in fighting against this deadly disease. In the present report, the basic science on SARS-CoV-2 is provided to enlighten people on COVID-19 pandemic.

Structure of SARS-CoV-2

The SARS-CoV-2 genome (30 kb in size) encodes a large non-structural polyprotein (ORF1a/b), four structural proteins and 5 accessory proteins (ORF3a, ORF6, ORF7, ORF8 and

ORF9) [4-6]. The four structural proteins (Fig. 1). consist of the spike (S) surface glycoprotein, the membrane (M) protein, the envelope (E) protein and the nucleocapsid (N) protein, which are essential for SARS-CoV-2 assembly and infection [3]. The spike surface glycoprotein also plays a key role in the attachment of SARS-CoV-2 to the host cells [7].

Life cycle of SARS-CoV-2In humans, the virus primarily infects the cells of respiratory system, thus the covering cells of sacs in the lungs. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is the cellular receptor for SARS-CoV [8]. The virus binds to the host receptor and enters the cell where it duplicates its genomic materials and synthesizes the appropriate proteins using the host cellular machinery, and then later buds out new virions from the cell surface [9]. The SARS-CoV also multiplies in the infected cells using the host cellular machinery for viral RNA

synthesis, as well as protein synthesis required for new viral generation. The complete mechanism for the SARS-CoV-2 is yet to be understood; however, the preliminary data of other coronaviruses like SARS could serve as a useful guide in establishing the true life cycle of the novel coronavirus.

Origin of SARS-CoV-2

There have been several conflicting reports on the origin of SARS-CoV-2. The initial cases were linked to the Huanan seafood market in Wuhan city. Later, it was also reported via social media that some wild animals including birds, snakes, marmots and bats sold at the same Huanan seafood market were the cause of the disease. Studies have further shown that environmental samples taken from the marketplace revealed a positive result for the SARS-CoV-2, but failed to identify the exact animal as the original source [10]. The search for the appropriate source of SARS-CoV-2 will make it possible to ascertain the

The Basic Science of CoronavirusesCaleb K. Firempong (PhD)Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi.Email: [email protected]: +233 (0) 208243995



zoonotic transmission patterns in order to effectively manage the pandemic.

Infection Transmission

The human-to-human spread is now the primary way of transmission of the infection; thus, the virus may be transmitted from symptomatic or asymptomatic persons to normal individuals [11]. The transmission of SARSCoV-2 usually occurs via respiratory droplets generated by sneezing and coughing by infected person when present in close proximity. The spread may also occur by manual touching of infected surfaces which is usually followed by touching the mouth, nose or eyes with the infected hands. The SARSCoV-2 cannot be transmitted via simple air and vertically from mother to child during pregnancy. The transmission of SARS-CoV-2 via breast milk has also not been established.

Susceptible population All populations are generally susceptible

to SARS-CoV-2; however, the elderly and people with underlying diseases or low immune function are most likely to have the severe form of the disease [12, 13]. Additionally, pregnant women and newborns infected with SARS-CoV-2 are also prone to developing severe pneumonia [14]. Thus, these vulnerable patients should be considered as a focus in the prevention and management of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Incubation period of SARS-CoV-2The mean incubation period of

SARS-CoV-2 is estimated to be 3–7

days (range, 2–14 days) [15, 16],

which indicates a long transmission period of the virus. It is estimated that SARS-CoV-2 latency is consistent with other known human CoVs, including

non-SARS human CoVs (mean of 3 days, range 2–5 days) [17], SARS-CoV (mean of 5 days, range 2–14 days) [18] and MERS-CoV (mean of 5.7 days, range 2–14 days) [19]. Several studies have also shown that asymptomatic COVID-19 patients during the incubation periods can effectively transmit SARS-CoV-2 [20, 21], which is different from SARS-CoV because most SARS-CoV cases are infected by ‘superspreaders’ and SARS-CoV cases cannot infect susceptible persons during the incubation period [22]. These findings fully support the current period (14 days) of active monitoring recommended by the WHO.

Reproduction number (R0) of SARS-CoV-2

The basic reproduction number is a

very important threshold related to the

transmissibility of the virus, which is

usually expressed as R nought (R0) [3]. The R0 represents the average number of secondary infections produced by an infectious person. Generally, if R0 >1, the number of infected cases will increase exponentially and cause an epidemic or even a pandemic. A review analysis on the R0 of SARS-CoV-2 showed that the estimates ranged from 1.4–6.49, with a mean of 3.28 [23], which is higher than SARS-CoV (R0 of 2~5).

Clinical manifestationThe common signs of SARS-CoV-2

infection include fatigue, fever, dry cough, shortness of breath, myalgia and dyspnoea, with less common symptoms being nasal congestion, headache, runny nose, sore throat, vomiting and diarrhea at the onset of the disease [3]. Patients with severe conditions could also have pneumonia, dyspnoea, hypoxemia, metabolic acidosis, coagulation dysfunction,

kidney failure and even death in some cases. There are some people with high viral load but do not manifest any COVID-19 symptoms such as coughing or sneezing. These asymptomatic people serve as hidden viral carriers and can easily transmit the infections to others.

Laboratory diagnosis of COVID-19Rapid and accurate detection of

SARS-CoV-2 among the population

is a very important step in preventing

and treating COVID-19. The viral nucleic acid detection is a major method of laboratory diagnosis based on nucleic acid sequences. Thus, the nucleic acid of SARS-CoV-2 can be detected by Reverse transcription quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-qPCR) or by viral gene sequencing of nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal swabs, stool, sputum or blood samples [24, 25]. Computed tomography (CT) is often found to be positive when patients with SARS-CoV-2 develop a persistent cough, fever and unexplained fatigue. Antibody assays (ELISA) can also be employed using a blood serum sample, with results being obtained within a few days.

PreventionThe general preventive measures for COVID-19 include appropriate hygienic practices, correct lifestyle modifications, adopting healthy diet, robust contact tracing, vigorous laboratory testing and massive education among the populace. The most important activity includes regular hand washing, thus a simple practice but very effective. Other practices include covering the mouth and nose when coughing and sneezing to prevent the spread of the disease. One should also avoid close contact with anyone showing symptoms of respiratory illness such as


coughing and sneezing. It is also crucial to interrupt the spread of the virus through epidemic preventive protocols such as isolating infected patients and controlling the source of infection. The containment of the infected persons has been further recommended as another step in controlling the indiscriminate transmission of the disease. The proper use of medical masks could be of help to prevent the direct exposure to respiratory droplet from infected people.

Treatments Suspected and confirmed cases should

be treated in designated hospitals

with effective isolation and protective

conditions. The critical cases should be admitted to the intensive care unit as soon as possible. General treatment strategies include bed rest and supportive treatments, ensuring sufficient energy intake, maintaining a constant internal environment (water, electrolytes and other internal environmental factors) and monitoring vital signs (heart rate, pulse, blood pressure, oxygen saturation, respiratory rate, etc.) [3], Specific treatments may include the use of antiviral therapy (Interferon-alpha, IFNα; Lopinavir/ritonavir; Ribavirin; Chloroquine; Arbidol; Remdesivir), Cellular therapy (Natural killer (NK) cells; Mesenchymal stem cells,MSCs), Immunotherapy (Convalescent plasma therapy-antiviral antibodies (IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE and IgD; Monoclonal antibodies) and herbal medicine.

ConclusionThe SARS-CoV first appeared in 2002

and later another viral-related outbreak, MERS-CoV in 2012. Currently, the newly emerged SARS-CoV-2 is undoubtedly sending a warning signal and a wakeup call for us to fully prepare ourselves for future cases.

The COVID-19 has now spread over a large geographical area, causing severe respiratory diseases and in some instances death. The surging spread of the virus via human-to-human transmission call for the need to develop approved standard preventive and therapeutic protocols. So in the absence of specific treatment or vaccines, people should consciously follow the precautionary measures rolled out by policy makers and stakeholders. The preventive measures still remain the only prominent tool to control the SARS-CoV-2 infections. As the knowledge on the virus advances, specific treatment options including vaccines and novel drugs could be made available to humans.

References1. Banerjee, Arinjay, et al. “Bats

and coronaviruses.” Viruses 11.1

(2019): 41.

2. Yang, Dong, and Julian L. Leibowitz. “The structure and functions of coronavirus genomic 3′ and 5′ ends.” Virus research 206 (2015): 120-133.

3. Li, Heng, et al. “Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): current status and future perspective.” International journal of antimicrobial agents (2020): 105951.

4. Ramaiah, Arunachalam, and Vaithilingaraja Arumugaswami. “Insights into cross-species evolution of novel human coronavirus 2019-nCoV and def ining immune determinants for vaccine development.” bioRxiv (2020).

5. Chan, Jasper Fuk-Woo, et al. “Genomic characterization of the 2019 novel human-pathogenic coronavirus isolated from a patient with atypical pneumonia

after visiting Wuhan.” Emerging microbes & infections 9.1 (2020): 221-236.

6. Wu, Aiping, et al. “Genome composition and divergence of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) originating in China.” Cell host & microbe (2020).

7. Yuan, Yuan, et al. “Cryo-EM structures of MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV spike glycoproteins reveal the dynamic receptor binding domains.” Nature communications 8 (2017): 15092.

8. Yan, Renhong, et al. “Structural basis for the recognition of SARS-CoV-2 by full-length human ACE2.” Science 367.6485 (2020): 1444-1448.

9. Liu, Ying, et al. “The reproductive number of COVID-19 is higher compared to SARS coronavirus.” Journal of travel medicine (2020).

10. Gralinski, Lisa E., and Vineet D. Menacher y. “Return of the Coronavirus: 2019-nCoV.” Viruses 12.2 (2020): 135.

11. Li, Heng, et al. “Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): current status and future perspective.” International journal of antimicrobial agents (2020): 105951.

12. Huang, Chaolin, et al. “Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China.” The lancet 395.10223 (2020): 497-506.

13. Chen, Nanshan, et al. “Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study.” The Lancet 395.10223 (2020): 507-513.


14. Chen, Huijun, et al. “Clinical characteristics and intrauterine vertical transmission potential of COVID-19 infection in nine pregnant women: a retrospective review of medical records.” The Lancet 395.10226 (2020): 809-815.

15. Backer, Jantien A., Don Klinkenberg, and Jacco Wallinga. “Incubation period of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) infections among travellers from Wuhan, China, 20–28 January 2020.” Eurosurveillance 25.5 (2020): 2000062.

16. Lauer, Stephen A., et al. “The incubation period of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) from publicly reported confirmed cases: estimation and application.” Annals of internal medicine 172.9 (2020): 577-582.

17. Lessler, Justin, et al. “Incubation periods of acute respiratory viral infections: a systematic review.” The Lancet infectious diseases 9.5 (2009): 291-300.

18. Varia, Monali, et al. “Investigation of a nosocomial outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Toronto, Canada.” Cmaj 169.4 (2003): 285-292.

19. Assiri, Abdullah, et al. “Epidemiological, demographic, and clinical characteristics of 47 cases of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus disease from Saudi Arabia: a descriptive study.” The Lancet infectious diseases 13.9 (2013): 752-761.

20. Rothe, Camilla, et al. “Transmission of 2019-nCoV infection from an asymptomatic contact in Germany.” New England Journal of Medicine 382.10 (2020): 970-971.

21. Lipsitch, Marc, et a l . “Transmission dynamics and

control of severe acute respiratory syndrome.” Science 300.5627 (2003): 1966-1970.

22. Huang, Chaolin, et al. “Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China.” The lancet 395.10223 (2020): 497-506.

23. Corman, Victor M., et al. “Detection of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) by real-time RT-PCR.” Eurosurveillance 25.3 (2020): 2000045.

24. Chu, Daniel KW, et al. “Molecular diagnosis of a novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) causing an outbreak of pneumonia.” Clinical chemistry 66.4 (2020): 549-555.

25. Chhikara, Bhupender S., et al. “Corona virus SARS-CoV-2 disease COVID-19: Infection, prevention and clinical advances of the prospective chemical drug therapeutics.” Chemical Biology Letters 7.1 (2020): 63-72.


A deadly infectious disease of unknown etiology earlier referred to as ‘Wuhan pneumonia’ was reported in Wuhan city of the Peoples Republic of China in December 2019, and by January 7, 2020, it was confirmed as a new type of coronavirus called “Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)”. In February, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) named the pneumonia as Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). The sudden and rapid unexpected spread of COVID-19 from China to several other countries compelled the WHO to officially declare a global pandemic on March 11, 2020. People infected with SARS-CoV-2 usually show respiratory symptoms of cough, fever and lung damage, and other related conditions such as fatigue, myalgia and diarrhea. The reported cases continue to rise because of the rapid spread of SARS-CoV-2 via human-to-human transmission.

Coronaviruses belong to a big family of viruses that cause wide range of diseases mainly related to respiratory system and infection may vary from common cold to more severe respiratory diseases. The Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS-CoV) and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS-CoV)

are the two previous prominent infections caused by coronaviruses with COVID-19 being the most recent. These viruses are zoonotic because they are mostly present in animals and then transmitted to humans. For instance, the earlier coronavirus SARS-CoV was transmitted from civet cats to humans; MERS-CoV transmitted from dromedary camels to humans and the current SARS-CoV-2 is also believed to have been transmitted from bats to humans. There are several other coronaviruses that are known to be present in animals but are harmless for humans or have not yet infected human beings.

The SARS-CoV-2 is an enveloped single stranded RNA-type beta-coronavirus and its genome sequences shared 79.5% sequence identity to SARS-CoV [1]. The infection of host cells by SARS-CoV 2 is initiated by the interaction of the viral spike (S) protein with receptors on the cell surface which is an important step

The Role of Ghanaian Herbal Medicine (GHM) in the Fight Against COVID-19 PandemicCaleb K. Firempong (PhD)Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi.Email: [email protected]: +233 (0) 208243995



for viral replication. The COVID-19 can be diagnosed by either laboratory testing (real-time Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction, rRT-PCR; Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, ELIZA) or chest computed tomography scan (CT scan), but sadly, as of now, there are no approved specific antiviral drugs or vaccines available for its treatment or prevention. The general case treatment and prevention plans globally involve supportive care, hygienic practices, lifestyle modification and healthy diet.

The clinical protocols for COVID-19 treatment in Ghana are solely orthodox and are yet to fully incorporate Ghanaian Herbal Medicine (GHM) regimen. It is expected that in the wake of COVID-19 pandemic, mandatory institutions, such as the Centre for Plant Medicine Research (CPMR), Traditional and Alternative Medicines Directorate (TAMD), Ghana, Food and Drugs Authority (FDA), Ghana Federation of Traditional Medicine (GHAFTRAM) and medicinal plants and natural product drug discovery experts in research institutions across Ghana would team up to develop a concerted framework and suitable natural product remedies towards integration of GHM into both current and future therapeutic options for the treatment of COVID-19. Ghana is endowed with experienced and accomplished researchers in medicinal plant and natural product resources across universities and research institutes. In addition, the country has a rich diversity of medicinal plants with a large group of herbal and folk medicine practitioners. Therefore, collaborative effort in harnessing the diverse expertise, scientific knowledge and anecdotal reports of the teams earlier mentioned can provide the required synergies to make strides in the discovery and development of plant medicine against COVID-19. It is considered that the time to act is now!

Ethnobotanical and pharmacological studies on some indigenous medicinal plants (Paullinia pinnata, Solanum torvum, Alstonia boonei, Sutherlandia frutescens, Celtis mildbraedii, Acacia kameruneensis) have effectively been used to treat a plethora of viral infections such as common cold, pneumonia, measles, small pox, hepatitis and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in Ghana [2-5]. Unfortunately, the clinical application of these potential antiviral medicinal plants has not been sufficiently explored partly due to lack of standardized product development and reasonable scientific data on traditional formulations to support safety and efficacy in humans. However, studies have demonstrated that the aforementioned medicinal plants are capable of preventing or destroying viral replication. The objective of this write up therefore is to sensitize a national discourse on the development and use of standardized herbal medicines as complementary therapy in public health diseases including COVID-19. For this purpose, the experience of China (home of traditional medicine) in the development of traditional medical practice and the therapeutic benefits of herbal medicines can inform a national strategic agenda towards the effective integration of GHM into the health delivery system.

As earlier mentioned, the main treatment protocol for COVID-19 has been a supportive care package, which includes the combination of broad-spectrum antibiotics, antivirals, corticosteroids and convalescent plasma [6]. HIV protease inhibitors such as ritonavir and lopinavir have also been used, and very often in combination with other appropriate antibiotics to treat COVID-19 patients [7, 8]. Nucleoside analog, favipiravir (T-705) has demonstrated to effectively inhibit the activity of RNA polymerase of RNA viruses such as influenza [9]. A recent report revealed that

favipiravir had significant in vitro anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity [10], but the in vivo effect remains elusive. It has been reported that remdesivir may be the most promising antiviral drug for treating COVID-19 since it has both in vitro and in vivo antiviral activity against a wide array of RNA viruses including SARS, Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) [11], and Ebola virus, and could decrease viral loads and pathology of lungs in animal models [12]. Currently, it is under clinical trial to evaluate the safety and efficacy of intravenous remdesivir for patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Similarly, host-targeted small molecules approved for other human diseases may modulate the virus-host interactions of SARS-CoV-2. Recently, hydroxychloroquine/chloroquine, a potential broad-spectrum antiviral drug [13,14], demonstrated anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity [10], however, a preliminary study on its use on COVID-19 patients in the US revealed 16.4% higher death rate than in control patients [15].

The aforementioned data support the assertion by the World Health Organization (WHO) that there is currently no specific recommended medicine for the prevention or treatment of COVID-19. In this regard, there is a great opportunity for Ghana to explore the immense potential of GHM as a complementary therapy for COVID-19 patients. There is no gainsaying the fact that some Ghanaians might have started using GHM as treatment option for complaints consistent with COVID-19 symptoms with some success. It is therefore time for researchers, herbal medical practitioners, regulators, other relevant scientists, the private sector and policy makers to come on board to valorize medicinal plant research and plant resources in order to find local solutions with global impact for treatment of COVID-19 in Ghana.


This clarion call is underpinned by the success story of medicinal plant products utilization in the treatment of COVID-19 in China [16].

The Chinese have been pacesetters in the use of natural products in treating deadly coronavirus diseases such as SARS, MERS and COVID-19. The Health Commission in 26 provinces of China has officially declared that Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) should be used in combination with conventional medicine therapies for COVID-19 patients [16]. In February 2020, the National Health Commission (NHC) of China also reported that 60,107 confirmed COVID-19 patients (85.20% of total confirmed cases) had been treated with TCM [17]. As of March 1, 2020, a total of 303 ongoing clinical trials aimed at evaluating the efficacy and safety of treatments for COVID-19 patients had been launched in China with 50 of the trials (16.5%) assessing TCM [16]. According to the report of the National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, by February 5, 2020, over two-hundred (214) COVID-19 patients had been treated with a polyherbal formulation (Qing Fei Pai Du Tang) in Shanxi, Hebei, Heilongjiang and Shaanxi Provinces with excellent efficacy (≥ 90%) [18].

Over the years, natural products continue to provide antiviral agents that selectively kill the pathogenic organism in the presence of other living organisms. There are sufficient biochemical differences that exist between the metabolism of bacterial and mammalian cells that enable selectivity to be achieved, leading to the early development of antibacterial agents, which were safe for clinical application. However, viruses, despite their apparent simplicity, present a challenging situation in anti-viral drug design efforts due to their replicative cycle. In this replicative cycle, viruses become physically and functionally

incorporated into the host cells. Consequently, it becomes very difficult to distinguish unique biochemical features of the pathogen from the host cell to serve as drug targets for selective activity. The competitive advantage in using antiviral medicinal plants is enshrined in their multitarget and broad-spectrum activities which include attacking the viral components (envelop, nucleic acid and proteins) and viral life cycle (entry, replication, assembling and release) [19]. These medicinal plants may also stimulate the defense mechanism of the host via their immunomodulation, antioxidant, antiinflamatory and bronchodilatory properties in destroying the deadly viruses.

There are sufficient scientific data to show that antiviral Ghanaian medicinal plants possess such mechanistic features which can be unearthed to combat COVID-19. It is possible that some biomedical natural product scientists have already commenced investigation into the effect of GHM products or its components on SARS-CoV-2 in the laboratories. The diverse research efforts towards COVID-19 should be brought to a common platform by policy makers and stakeholders in order to have a unified direction and purpose for optimal utilization of research funds, research infrastructure and social uptake of research. This therefore places a call on the government to consider substantial research support to interdisciplinary research teams in terms of funds and material resources in its ‘COVID-19 combat plan’ for now and the future. For a start, the government can dedicate 5% -20% of the proceeds of the COVID-19 National Trust Fund to COVID-19 priority research needs and invite applications from local interdisciplinary research teams in collaboration with CMPR and FDA, Ghana. In a couple of months, it is envisaged that outstanding indigenous polyherbal medicines suitable for

clinical trials would be developed as antiviral agents for the treatment of COVID-19 patients.

References1. Zhou, Peng, et al. “A pneumonia

outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin.” nature 579. 7798 9 (2020):270-273.

2. Addo-Fordjour, Patrick, et al. Diversity and conservation of medicinal plants in the Bomaa community of the Brong Ahafo region, Ghana. Journal of medicinal plants research, 2(9) (2008), pp.226-233.

3. Appiah, Kwame Sarpong, et al. “Medicinal Plants Used in the Ejisu-Juaben Municipality, S out h e r n G h an a : A n Ethnobotanical Study.” Medicines 6.1 (2019): 1.

4. Boadu, A.A. and Asase, A., 2017. Documentation of herbal medicines used for the treatment and management of human diseases by some communities in southern Ghana. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2017.

5. Koffuor, George Asumeng, et al. “The immunostimulatory and antimicrobial property of two herbal decoctions used in the management of HIV/AIDS in Ghana.” African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines 11.3 (2014): 166-172.

6. Jin, Ying-Hui, et al. “A rapid advice guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) infected pneumonia (standard version).” Military Medical Research 7.1 (2020): 4.


7. Chen, Nanshan, et al. “Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study.” The Lancet 395.10223 (2020): 507-513.

8. Habibzadeh, P. and Stoneman, E.K., 2020. The novel coronavirus: a bird’s eye view. Int J Occup Environ Med (The IJOEM), 11(2 April), pp.1921-65.

9. De Clercq, E., 2019. New Nucleoside Analogues for the Treatment of Hemorrhagic Fever Virus Infections. Chemistry–An Asian Journal, 14(22), pp.3962-3968.

10. Wang, Manli, et al. “Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro.” Cell research 30.3 (2020): 269-271.

11. Sheahan, Timothy P., et al. “Broad-spectrum antiviral GS-5734 inhibits both epidemic and zoonotic coronaviruses.” Science translational medicine 9.396 (2017).

12. Zhang, L. and Liu, Y., 2020. Potential interventions for novel coronavirus in China: a systemic review. Journal of medical virology.

13. Savarino, Andrea, et al. “New insights into the antiviral effects of chloroquine.” The Lancet infectious diseases 6.2 (2006): 67-69.

14. Yan, Yiwu, et al. “Anti-malaria drug chloroquine is highly effective in treating avian influenza A H5N1 virus infection in an animal model.” Cell research 23.2 (2013): 300-302.

15. Cohen Elizabeth and Nigam Minali. Study finds no benefit, higher death rate in patients taking hydroxychloroquine for COVID-19. April 22, 2020. https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/21/health/hydroxychloroquine-veterans-study/index.html.

16. Yang, Yang, et al. “Traditional

Chinese medicine in the treatment of patients infected with 2019-new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2): a review and perspective.” International journal of biological sciences 16.10 (2020): 1708.

17. National Health Commission (NHC) of the People’s Republic of China. Transcript of press conference in 17, February, 2020. http://www.nhc.gov.cn/xcs/s3574/ 202002/f12a62d10c2a48c6895cedf-2faea6e1f. shtml. 2020.

18. Zhao, J., et al. “Investigating the mechanism of Qing-Fei-Pai-Du-Tang for the treatment of Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia by network pharmacology; 2020.” 002.

19. Mukhtar, Muhammad, et al. “Antiviral potentials of medicinal plants.” Virus research 131.2 (2008): 111-120.

https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/21/health/hydroxychloroquine-veterans-study/index.html




http://www.nhc.gov.cn/xcs/s3574/


All aspects of life have been affected greatly by the incidence and spread of the coronavirus and its associated disease COVID-19. A large number of businesses and industries have been affected, leading to layoffs and hence increasing unemployment worldwide. The finances of many households are now uncertain as their breadwinners have lost their jobs.

One of the major industries hardly hit by the COVID-19 pandemic is our institutions of higher education. As academic institutions, the COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted various activities even as managers of the various institutions had to lockdown and move all teaching and learning onto virtual platforms.

The various areas affected can be discussed as follows;

Academic ActivitiesOne of the major protocols in controlling the spread of the virus is ensuring physical distance, which means the need for space. Space is a resource majority of our institutions don’t have, we have large class sizes and a small classroom/lecture theatre space, laboratory space is not enough to ensure physical distancing during practical sessions and Halls of residence and hostels are choked. As the spread of the coronavirus continuous to increase authorities of the institutions had to shut down the schools and allow all students to go back home whilst all academic activities be shifted to on-line and virtual platforms. However, even though the move to virtual is encouraging, it has both negative

and positive effect on teaching and learning. In the house most of the students do not have easy access to internet and hence are not able to join in at real time. Additionally, even with some of the most advance institutions with well-structured virtual systems, there is a struggle to bring on board all academic programs on the virtual platform. Even though, going virtual may work to some extent, highly laboratory based programs will still struggle as most experiments cannot be done virtual.

In the area of student assessment, using the virtual platform is very challenging, not all students have access to the system at the same time and this affects student’s ability to submit assignments as well as conducting and using quizzes. In order to consider students’ inability to be on the platform at real time, longer periods of deadline are given which also allow some students to share answers hence encouraging coping.

Applications and Admission ProcessesSales of admission forms are likely to reduce as a result of the inability of qualified candidates might not get financial support to enable them purchase the application forms. Processing applications for subsequent admissions will also be affected since institutions need to consider the available space and decide on the numbers their capacity will allow to be admitted. In effect there will be a drastic reduction in new entry. Again, there is also the possibility of majority

of candidates admitted not being able to accept admission due to financial constraints.

A large number of students in our higher institutions are international, during the pandemic many countries have close their borders whilst others have place restrictions on international travels. This means admission of international students will be significantly affected.

Financial Implication on Institution ManagementJust like all other business, our

institutions of higher learning have been greatly affected in finances as a result of this pandemic. The various institutions need to invest in technology and internet access to enable the shift to online. They need to make provision for safe working environment for both academic and non-academic staff and all these have hug financial implication. Institutions of higher education get most of their income from the sales of admission forms and payment of tuition fees. However, the COVID-19 pandemic affects the application and admission process, there will be a significant drop in the institutions income.

Effect of COVID-19 on Tertiary Institutions in AfricaAs part of the measures to control the spread of the virus, all schools, from primary to tertiary, were closed indefinitely worldwide which affected about 1.6 billion students (UNESCO,

COVID-19: Impact and Implications on Institutions of Higher LearningMercy Badu (PhD), Charles Apprey (PhD) and Ibok N. Oduro (PhD)College of Science, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi.Email: [email protected]: +233 (0) 244 288 315



2020). In light of this development, tertiary institutions in the world had to switch to the use of information communication technology (ICT) to deliver lectures and learning materials to enrolled students (Wodon, 2020). This was done to ensure the continuity of academic activities to enhance studies from home. This has been successful to an extent but challenges persist mostly in countries with weak telecommunication infrastructure (Bao, 2020).

Currently, in Africa, about 24% of the entire population has access to internet connectivity and those who have access to the internet are also burdened with poor connectivity, high cost of internet data, and recurrent power outages (Stork et al., 2013). These challenges enumerated have been the main reason why most students in low and middle income countries are being left behind in education during this COVID 19 pandemic.

Factors that enhance remote learning such as access to PCs, tablets, mobile gadgets, and printing facilities are not guaranteed for most students in lower and middle income countries (UNESCO, 2020). Distant learning also relies on the availability of high-speed internet connectivity and this has been a major problem in Africa (TUAC, 2020).

Impact of COVID-19 on Educational Institutions in GhanaGhana recorded its first COVID 19 case on March 11, 2020, a day after the President announced all public gatherings and schools were to closed down. Education has been a major factor contributing to the development of every nation and

the spread of coronavirus in Ghana resulting in the closure of schools have immediate and future adverse implications (Owusu-Fordjour et al., 2020). Some measures such as; the digitization of teaching and learning, have been put in place to lessen the adverse effect the COVID 19 outbreak could have on the educational sector (Van & Parolin, 2020). However, it must be empahasized that majority of students in Ghana are unable to access most of these online resources due to the challenges enumerated above. It is also worthy to note that in Ghana where most of teaching and learning were done using the face to face mode, adjusting to an online mode of delivery has been difficult and challenging to students, tutors and lecturers in the various educational institutions

Effect of School Closure on Private Tertiary InstitutionsIn Ghana, there are more private tertiary institutions than public institutions (Bede & Augustine, 2014). Public institutions have other sectors working to serve as a financial buffer to lessen the effect of school closure, however, same cannot be said about private universities since they pay their workers using fees paid by students each year (Owusu-Fordjour et al., 2020). The extended closure of the second cycle institution will lead to a blockage in the stream of students who are to be admitted into tertiary institutions (Owusu-Fordjour et al., 2020). This will affect the finances of most private universities leading to massive pay-cuts of workers or some workers being laid off in the worst-case scenario (TUAC, 2020). The public universities have also relied on most internally generated funds to run the

day to day administration of these institutions. The continuous closure of these institutions will also starve these them of the needed funds to run these institutions. The quality of graduates emerging out of tertiary institutions will be low and may not meet the requirements of employers leading to a possible increased unemployment rate.

Efficacy of Digital Learning on Tertiary StudentsLiteracy in the use of ICT tools in Ghana is very low (German, 2011). Access to ICT tools are still inadequate and unequally distributed throughout the country with an urban bias. In Ghana, most tertiary institutions have limited infrastructure for distance learning. Academic activities of such institutions have come to a standstill (Wodon, 2020). Most educational instructors are not skilled in the use of remote digital tools since they have only been used to the traditional method of teaching and learning which is by physical contact. This has resulted in limited interaction between instructors and their students.

Some students are unable to learn on their own and sometimes require extra assistance from colleagues to help them better understand concepts. These students are at a great disadvantage since they are no longer able to interact with their other colleagues. Closing down schools has several sociological implications. Students in tertiary institutions learn soft skills from peers which prepare them for the job market. They improve their conversational skills through oral presentations (Jegede, 2020). At the tertiary level, students learn how to be less individualistic and more of a team player. With the extended closure of schools, students


are assessed using individual quizzes. Students are graded using assignment which is a more inferior approach to determine the performance of students. Learning from home has proven to be difficult for some students since most of them have several distractors at their disposal which may hinder the effectiveness of eLearning (Owusu-Fordjour et al., 2020).

Impact of COVID 19 on Research.Research work, that forms an integral part of the tertiary institution, has not been spared. The social distancing measures put in place discourages any form of data gathering that involves face to face interactions (UNESCO, 2020). Most research topics have been adjusted by project supervisors to ensure the safety of the students (UNESCO, 2020). The student will not have a feel of how field research is conducted. Some programs require more practical sessions for students to better appreciate what has been thought. For medicine-related courses which usually consist of a greater portion being practical work, the digitization of learning may cause a deficit in practical knowledge in the field (Ferrel & Ryan, 2020). The COVID 19 outbreak has revealed the strengths and weaknesses of tertiary institutions in Ghana. Most Tertiary institutions have not made much investment in their online learning platforms. Measures will have to be put in place to minimize the effect of the temporal or likely extension of school closure on learning outcomes.

References1. Bao, W. (2020). COVID-19

and online teaching in higher education: A case study of Peking University. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbe2.191

2. Bede, A. A. & Augustine, A. P. (2014). Assessing the Influence of Advertising on Student Enrolment in Private Tertiary Institutions in Ghana. Assessing the Influence of Advertising on Student Enrolment in Private Tertiary Institutions in Ghana, 4(3), 55–65. https://doi.org/10.18533/ijbsr.v4i3.408

3. Ferrel, M. N., & Ryan, J. J. (2020). The Impact of COVID-19 on Medical Education. Cureus. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.7492

4. German, J. B. (2011). Review Article Dietary lipids from an evolutionary perspective : sources , structures and functions, 7, 2–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8709.2011.00300.x

5. Gt Walker, P., Whittaker, C., Watson, O., Baguelin, M., Ainslie, K. E. C., Bhatia, S., … Ghani, A. C. (2020). The Global Impact of COVID-19 and Strategies for Mitigation and Suppression. Imperial College. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.25561/77735

6. Jegede, D. (2020). Electronic Research Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities ISSN: 2706 – 8242 www.eresearchjournal.com Vol 2: Issue II Apr - Jun 2020, 2(Ii), 211–222.

7. Owusu-Fordjour, C., Koomson, C. K., & & Hanson, D. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on learning-the perspective of the Ghanaian student. European Journal of Education Studies, 7(3), 88–101. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3753586

8. Program, E., Surabaya, U. N., Info, A., & Belajar, M. (2020). The Impact of Covid-19 to Indonesian Education and Its Relation to the Philosophy of “ Merdeka Belajar .” Studies in Philosophy of Science and Education. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.15408/sjsbs.v7i3.15104

9. Sohrabi, C., Alsafi, Z., O’Neill, N., Khan, M., Kerwan, A., Al-Jabir, A., … Agha, R. (2020). World Health Organization declares global emergency: A review of the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19). International Journal of Surgery. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.02.034

10. Stork, C., Calandro, E., & Gillwald, A. (2013). Internet going mobile: Internet access and use in 11 African countries. Info. https://doi.org/10.1108/info-05-2013-0026

11. TUAC. (2020). Impact and Implications of the COVID 19-Crisis on Educational Systems and Households TUAC Secretariat Briefing, (April).

12. UNESCO. (2020). COVID-19 Educational Disruption and Response. Unesco.Org.

13. Van Lancker, W., & Parolin, Z. (2020, May 1). COVID-19, school closures, and child poverty: a social crisis in the making. The Lancet Public Health. Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(20)30084-0

14. Wodon, Q. (2020). Digital Commons at Loyola Marymount University and Loyola Law School COVID-19 Crisis , Impacts on Catholic Schools , and Potential Responses | Part II : Developing Countries with Focus on Sub- Saharan Africa COVID-19 Crisis , Impacts on Catholic Schools ,.

15. Yu, K. D. S., & Aviso, K. B. (2020). Modelling the Economic Impact and Ripple Effects of Disease Outbreaks. Process Integration and Optimization for Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41660-020-00113-y


Abstract:COVID-19 brought a halt in almost all sectors of the Ghanaian economy with a call from the President of the Republic to close down all educational institutions ranging from the nursery, primary, junior high, senior high and tertiary institutions. After months of deliberations educational institutions decided to employ the use of online software applications such as the Zoom App, Cisco WebEx, Microsoft Teams and WhatsApp for teaching and learning online to avoid the possible spread of the COVID 19 virus. However, assessment of the online teaching and learning methods employed indicated less than 50% of students participate when there is live video streaming of STEM course teaching online due to poor internet connectivity, poor network signals, low internet bandwidth and unconducive environment in the home. Less than 10% of students were without the required devices that support the application software whilst 97% of students participate when Zoom video recordings of STEM course teaching and learning materials were uploaded on the institutional learning management system online for students to have access later. If situations return to normal, it is recommended a blended system of online teaching and traditional methods such as teaching in the classrooms be employed.

Introduction:In this modern era of technology there is continuous advertisement of online professional courses by educational institutions in abroad.

These educational institutions have developed various online educational modules with the necessary structures put in place for the delivery of online programmes advertised with sure grantee of authentic certificates when the programme is completed by an enrolled applicant. As a result, they receive applications all over the globe since enrolled participants can sit in the comfort of their homes or offices after close of work to partake in the online professional courses advertised which does not include STEM courses. Is not until the early part of the year 2020 that Ghana had its share of the spread of the COVID 19 virus which was labelled as pandemic by the World Health Organization. Due to the pandemic almost all sectors of the Ghanaian economy were halted by the President of the Republic leading to the close down of all educational institutions ranging from the nursery, primary, junior high, senior high and tertiary institutions. To ensure the smooth running of educational institutions whilst avoiding the possible spread of the COVID 19 virus. Most institutions employed the use of application softwares such as the Zoom App, Cisco WebEx, Microsoft Teams and WhatsApp for online teaching and learning which included STEM courses. This article seeks to determine the impact of COVID 19 on STEM course teaching and learning online in Ghana based on a case study in University of Ghana.

Method:This research was conducted using both primary and secondary data with

a sample size of 1500 students. These students registered for atleast one STEM course out of courses such as Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Animal Biology or any of the Engineering courses in University of Ghana. The research assessed the effectiveness of live video streaming of teaching online with the use of the Zoom application software (Zoom App) as against the Zoom video recording of teaching online which is uploaded on the learning management system of the university for access by students.

Analysis:

The Impact of COVID-19 on Teaching and Learning Online in Ghana. (A Case Study in University of Ghana)Rodney N. AbugreUniversity of Ghana, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences,LegonEmail: [email protected], Tel: 233(0) 268772161.Keyword: Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM)

The information on figure 1 indicates about 450 students participate during live online STEM course teaching sessions whilst 1050 students could not participate. This implied less than 50% of students partake in the live teaching online sessions but the majority do not get access due to poor internet connectivity, poor



network signals and unconducive environment in the home. On figure 2, 97% of students had access to the Zoom video recording of STEM course teaching which is uploaded on the learning management system for students to get access later when they have good internet connectivity. This meant they download the recorded videos, find time to watch and learn whilst playing the recorded videos. However, 3% of students who did not participate were without access to online resources meaning they did not have the devices that support either the Zoom App or the learning management system of the university like the android phones and personal laptops. For both methods employed learning materials were made available online for all.

Research findings: The application software University of Ghana opted for was Zoom App since it is easy to navigate and requires low internet bandwidth. Assessment of the online teaching and learning methods employed indicated less than 50% of students participate when there is live video streaming of STEM course teaching online due to internet connectivity issues. It was found out 97% of students preferred Zoom video recordings of STEM course teaching uploaded on the institutional learning management system for students to have access later whilst less than 10% of students were without the required devices that support the Zoom application software or learning management system. It is recommended a blended system of online teaching and traditional methods such as teaching in the classrooms be employed for STEM courses when situations return to normal in order to be prepared for any future eventualities.

References:1. ‘Updates on the roll out of the

UG online teaching and learning Programme’. Ref. No: P.V.C/DC2, 18 April 2020.

2. ‘Online teaching and learning roadshow for the College of Basic and Applied Sciences (UG)’ organized by the E-Learning Quality Control Committee,14th July 2020.


Over the years, health related issues including hypertension, diabetes, and cardiac arrest were mostly found amongst the aged. However, the story has changed nowadays with the youth also becoming culprits. The question then is why the sudden change? Could this be attributed to the food we eat? Well, not only about the food we eat but a drift in our eating style and culture to appreciating more continental dishes at the expense of our local delicacy.

In the 1990s, breakfast was mostly served with local varieties including plantain, cocoyam, or yam with freshly mashed kontomire or garden eggs stew from the farm. The garnishing was palm oil with large cut-out onions and smoked fish and not forgetting the immense green fruits.

Some of the food served during lunch also included plantain mashed with groundnut paste and red oil in an earthern ware pot commonly referred to as asanka or roasted plantain or yam with salted fish referred to as koobi. Dinner came in with fufu and mostly palmnut or kontomire soup referred to as green soup with our favourite crustacean crab or banku with okro stew or soup with fish.

Since the year 2000, the taste for continental dishes (fried foods) and high cholesterol diets has increased tremendously especially amongst the elite in our society. Breakfast are now mostly served with bacon, fried, or scrambled eggs, fried or

grilled tomatoes, fried mushrooms, fried bread or buttered toast and sausages. Most preferred lunch is fried rice or jollof rice with fried or grilled chicken. Shawarma, pizza or fried potato chip known as French fries and chicken are foods for dinner.

Back to Our Roots: The Healthy WayJudith Odei Owusu-Asante (MPhil) CSIR- Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, P.O Box UP 63, KNUST.Email: [email protected]; [email protected] Tel: +233 (0) 243704245 /+ 233(0) 209016767

Irrespective of the fact that most Ghanaians have developed higher taste for these continental dishes, they are also rampantly served by restaurant operators, fast food joints, hotels, and canteen shops. But the unfortunate thing is that most of these diets are filled with artificial spices and have a high cholesterol which turns to clog our arteries and veins and eventually give rise to cardiac diseases, diabetes and stroke but to mention a few. With this emanating situation there is no doubt for a revisitation of our healthy style of living by placing higher emphasis on the consumption of our local diets.




- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -ESS Quiz 001& Puzzles- - - - - - - - - - - - - -


CHEMISTRY - QUIZ 001 Lateef Adebayo Oseni Senior Lecturer, Department of Applied Chemistry & Biochemistry, University for Development Studie, Tamale Attempt the following questions and submit your answers to [email protected] for a chance to win a prize. Select the option (A-E) of the correct answer. 1. _________ and _________ are physical changes that are exothermic and endothermic respectively. a. Sublimation, melting b. Freezing, melting c. Condensation, freezing d. Melting, evaporation e. Evaporation, condensation 2. Which of the following is NOT a factor in determining the magnitude of the boiling point of a liquid? a. The size of the molecules of the liquid. b. The strength of the intermolecular bonding forces of the liquid. c. The pressure above the surface of the liquid. d. The type of intermolecular bonding forces within the liquid. e. The purity of the liquid. 3. Of the following solutions, which will have the least vapour pressure if measured at the same temperature? a. One molar aqueous solution of table salt. b. One molar aqueous solution of table sugar. c. One molar aqueous solution of glucose. d. One molar aqueous ethanol. e. One molar aqueous methanol. 4. Which of the following properties may be attributed to the presence of hydrogen bonding? a. The solubility of sodium chloride in water. b. The density of water. c. The volatility of ether. d. The acidity of hydrogen bromide. e. The miscibility of methanol in ethanol. 5. Which of the following descriptions apply to matter in the gaseous state? i. indefinite shape and high density ii. cohesive forces dominate over disruptive forces iii. kinetic energy dominates over potential energy a. i only b. ii only c. iii only d. ii & iii only e. i & ii only 6. Which of the following samples of gas would have a new volume of 10.00 dm3 if the pressure is increased from 3.00 atm to 15.00 atm at constant temperature? a. 20.00 dm3 He b. 25.00 dm3 CO2 c. 30.00 dm3 H2S d. 45 dm3 O2 e. 50 dm3 H2

7. A gaseous mixture at a total pressure of 30.0 atm contains equal molar amounts of He, Ne, and Ar. At constant temperature CO2 gas is added to the mixture until the total pressure is 45.00 atm. Which of the following statements is CORRECT concerning partial pressures of the gases after the CO2 addition? a. The partial pressure of Ar is equal to 15 atm. b. The partial pressure of CO2 is two times that of Ne. c. The partial pressure of Ne will be double the partial pressure of He. d. All four gases have equal partial pressures of 11.25 atm. e. The partial pressure of CO2 is equal to 15 atm.


8. Which of the following statements is INCORRECT? a. For molecules of similar molecular mass, nonpolar molecules have higher vapour pressures than polar molecules. b. At all pressures, the volume of a gas will double provided the absolute temperature doubles. c. The average potential energy of a system of molecules decreases as temperature increases. d. The rate at which gas molecules diffuse is inversely proportional to the molecular mass of the gas. e. At the same temperature and pressure, the volume of 5 mol of H2 gas is same as the volume of 5 mol of O2 gas. 9. The temperature outside on a cold day is -10 0C. What volume of air must be inhaled to make a volume of 500 mL in the lungs? [Take lung temperature to be 37 0C] a. 310 mL b. 262 mL c. 589 mL d. 420 mL e. 18.52 mL 10. Of the following electron configurations of neutral atoms, which represents an atom in a ground state? a. 1s2 2s1 2p6 b. 1s2 2s2 2p5 3s2 c. 1s2 2s1 2p6 3s1 d. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 e. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 3p6

11. Which of the following molecules contain the most polarized bond? a. HF b. CH4 c. H2O d. HCl e. NH3 12. Which of the following shows the correct number of protons, neutrons and electrons in a neutral 192Ir atom? Protons Neutrons Electrons a. 115 77 115 b. 77 192 77 c. 192 115 77 d. 115 192 115 e. 77 115 77 13.

Experiment [X]o [Y]o Initial Rate of formation of Z (mol/dm3/s) 1 0.40 0.10 R1

2 0.20 0.20 R2

The table above shows the results from a rate study of the reaction X + Y → Z. Starting with known concentrations of X and Y in experiment 1, the rate of formation of Z was measured. If the reaction was first order with respect to X and zero order with respect to Y, the initial rate of formation of Z (R2) in experiment 2 would be a. R1/4 b. R1/2 c. R1 d. 2R1 e. 4R1

14. The molarlity of a 100 mL aqueous solution containing 30.0 g of an unknown solute is 3.0 m. What is the molar mass of the solute? a. 120 g b. 200 c. 90 g d. 100 g e. 10 g X(g) Y(g) 15. A sample of gas X undergoes a first order decomposition to form gas Y according to the equation shown above. The half-life of the reaction is 60 seconds. How long would it take for the partial pressure of X to be equal to the partial pressure of Y? a. 15 sec b. 30 sec c. 45 sec d. 60 sec e. 75 sec


8. Which of the following statements is INCORRECT? a. For molecules of similar molecular mass, nonpolar molecules have higher vapour pressures than polar molecules. b. At all pressures, the volume of a gas will double provided the absolute temperature doubles. c. The average potential energy of a system of molecules decreases as temperature increases. d. The rate at which gas molecules diffuse is inversely proportional to the molecular mass of the gas. e. At the same temperature and pressure, the volume of 5 mol of H2 gas is same as the volume of 5 mol of O2 gas. 9. The temperature outside on a cold day is -10 0C. What volume of air must be inhaled to make a volume of 500 mL in the lungs? [Take lung temperature to be 37 0C] a. 310 mL b. 262 mL c. 589 mL d. 420 mL e. 18.52 mL 10. Of the following electron configurations of neutral atoms, which represents an atom in a ground state? a. 1s2 2s1 2p6 b. 1s2 2s2 2p5 3s2 c. 1s2 2s1 2p6 3s1 d. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 e. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 3p6

11. Which of the following molecules contain the most polarized bond? a. HF b. CH4 c. H2O d. HCl e. NH3 12. Which of the following shows the correct number of protons, neutrons and electrons in a neutral 192Ir atom? Protons Neutrons Electrons a. 115 77 115 b. 77 192 77 c. 192 115 77 d. 115 192 115 e. 77 115 77 13.

Experiment [X]o [Y]o Initial Rate of formation of Z (mol/dm3/s) 1 0.40 0.10 R1

2 0.20 0.20 R2

The table above shows the results from a rate study of the reaction X + Y → Z. Starting with known concentrations of X and Y in experiment 1, the rate of formation of Z was measured. If the reaction was first order with respect to X and zero order with respect to Y, the initial rate of formation of Z (R2) in experiment 2 would be a. R1/4 b. R1/2 c. R1 d. 2R1 e. 4R1

14. The molarlity of a 100 mL aqueous solution containing 30.0 g of an unknown solute is 3.0 m. What is the molar mass of the solute? a. 120 g b. 200 c. 90 g d. 100 g e. 10 g X(g) Y(g) 15. A sample of gas X undergoes a first order decomposition to form gas Y according to the equation shown above. The half-life of the reaction is 60 seconds. How long would it take for the partial pressure of X to be equal to the partial pressure of Y? a. 15 sec b. 30 sec c. 45 sec d. 60 sec e. 75 sec

H2(g) + I2(g) 2 HI(g) ˃ 0 16. The above equilibrium was established in a 1-dm3 vessel at 25 0C. Which of the following changes will increase the equilibrium partial pressure of H2? i. Reducing the volume of vessel ii. Increasing the temperature iii. Addition of HI a. i only b. iii only c. i and ii only d. ii and iii only e. i, ii and iii 17. What volume of water must be added to 200 mL of an aqueous solution of HCl (pH = 2) to obtain a solution of pH = 3? a. 2000 mL b. 1800 mL c. 1600 mL d. 1000 mL e. 800 mL 18. Which quantity is likely to decrease for a sample of gas in an expandable container when it is heated from 1000C to 1750C? a. Average energies of the molecules. b. Average speed of the molecules. c. The pressure of the gas. d. The density of the gas. e. The volume of the gas. 19. The same current is passed through two electrolytic cells connected in series. The first contains molten NaCl (cell 1) and second contains dilute aqueous NaCl (cell 2). In both cells, the electrodes are made of platinum. Which of the following statements is/are TRUE? i. Chlorine gas will be formed at the anodes of both cells. ii. Hydrogen gas will be discharged at the cathode in cell 1. iii. Sodium metal will be deposited in cell 2. a. i only b. ii only c. iii only d. ii & iii only e. i & iii only

20. Which of the following is/are TRUE about the reaction with the energy profile diagram shown above? i. There are three (3) steps involved. ii. There are three (3) intermediates. iii. There are three (3) products. a. i only b. ii only c. iii only d. i & ii only e. ii and iii only 21. The density of a certain gas is 1.81 g/L at 1 atm and 25 0 C. What would be the density of the gas if the temperature is doubled at the same pressure?

a. 3.620 g/L b. 0.905 g/L c. 6.151 g/L d. 1.256 g/L e. 1.669 g/L

22. Which of the following gases would have a density of 1.60 g/L at 27°C and 1.40 atm? a. CO2 b. CO c. CH4 d. O2 e. NH3 23. Ammonia gas is synthesized according to the balanced equation N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) If 15.0 litres of nitrogen are mixed with 15.0 litres of hydrogen, how many litres of ammonia could be produced? Assume all gas volumes are measured at the same temperature and pressure. a. 5.00 L b. 10.00 L c. 15.0 L d. 20.0 L e. 30.0 L

H


24. Which of the following sets of quantum numbers (n, l, m, s) describe a 3p electron? a. (3, 1, 0, ½) b. (3, 0, 1, ½) c. (3, 1, 2, ½) d. (3, 2, -1, - ½) e. (3, 1, -2, ½) 25. Which of the following is a conjugate base for NaHSO4? a. SO4

2- b. HSO4- c. SO3

2- d. HSO3- e. Na2SO3

26. The first ionization energy of Mg is 737.75 kJ/mol. Which of the following equation is correct?

a. Mg (g) → Mg2+ (g) + 737.75 kJ b. Mg2+ (g) + 2e- → Mg (g) + 737.75 kJ c. Mg (s) + 737.75 kJ → Mg+ (g) d. Mg (g) + 737.75 kJ → Mg+ (g) e. 2Mg (g) + 737.75 kJ → 2Mg2+(g)

27. A 17.6 g sample of an oxide of carbon (CxOy) contains 4.8 g of carbon. The values of x and y are likely to be ___ and ___ respectively? [C = 12; O = 16] a. 2, 1 b. 1, 1 c. 3, 1 d. 1, 2 e. 1, 3 28. Which of the statement(s) below is/are TRUE? i. Elements in the same group have the same number of protons. ii. Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties. iii. Elements in the same group have similar valency. a. i, ii & iii b. i & ii only c. ii & iii only d. i only e. ii only 29. Equal masses of Ar and Ne are placed in a sealed container. Given that the total pressure in the container is 9 atm, then the partial pressures of Ne and Ar are ___ and ___ atm respectively. a. 2,7 b. 3, 6 c. 4, 5 d. 5, 4 e. 6, 3 [Ar = 40; Ne = 20] Cl2(g) + 2 I-(aq) → 2 Cl-(aq) + I2(aq) ∆G 0 30. Which of the following best represents the above redox reaction?

a. The oxidation of I- by Cl2 is a spontaneous process. b. I2 will readily oxidize Cl- to Cl2. c. The reduction of I2 by Cl- is a spontaneous process. d. I- is a powerful oxidizing agent. e. The reduction of Cl2 by I- is nonspontaneous.

31. Which of the following species represents the conjugate base of NH2

- ? a. NaNH- b. NH3 c. H+ d. NH4

+ e. NaNH2

MnO4

-(aq) + __ Br -(aq) + H+(aq) → Mn2+(aq) + Br2(aq) + __ H2O(l) 32. What are the respective coefficients of Br- and H2O when the above redox equation is balance? a. 2, 8 b. 5, 10 c. 10, 8 d. 8, 5 e. 10, 16 33. An ideal solution is made by mixing 2 moles of benzene (Vapour = 266 mm Hg) and 3 moles of another liquid (Vapour pressure = 236 mm Hg). The total vapour pressure of solution at the same temperature would be____mmHg. a. 708 b. 255 c. 232 d. 100.4 e. 248 34. Dissolving 50 g of an unknown nonvolatile and nonelectrolyte solute in 1 L of water produced a solution which boiled at 100.10 0C at 1 atm. The molar mass of the solute is _______ g/mol. a. 25.60 b. 256.0 c. 2560 d. 25600 e. 256000 [Kb (water) = 0.512 0C/m]


24. Which of the following sets of quantum numbers (n, l, m, s) describe a 3p electron? a. (3, 1, 0, ½) b. (3, 0, 1, ½) c. (3, 1, 2, ½) d. (3, 2, -1, - ½) e. (3, 1, -2, ½) 25. Which of the following is a conjugate base for NaHSO4? a. SO4

2- b. HSO4- c. SO3

2- d. HSO3- e. Na2SO3

26. The first ionization energy of Mg is 737.75 kJ/mol. Which of the following equation is correct?

a. Mg (g) → Mg2+ (g) + 737.75 kJ b. Mg2+ (g) + 2e- → Mg (g) + 737.75 kJ c. Mg (s) + 737.75 kJ → Mg+ (g) d. Mg (g) + 737.75 kJ → Mg+ (g) e. 2Mg (g) + 737.75 kJ → 2Mg2+(g)

27. A 17.6 g sample of an oxide of carbon (CxOy) contains 4.8 g of carbon. The values of x and y are likely to be ___ and ___ respectively? [C = 12; O = 16] a. 2, 1 b. 1, 1 c. 3, 1 d. 1, 2 e. 1, 3 28. Which of the statement(s) below is/are TRUE? i. Elements in the same group have the same number of protons. ii. Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties. iii. Elements in the same group have similar valency. a. i, ii & iii b. i & ii only c. ii & iii only d. i only e. ii only 29. Equal masses of Ar and Ne are placed in a sealed container. Given that the total pressure in the container is 9 atm, then the partial pressures of Ne and Ar are ___ and ___ atm respectively. a. 2,7 b. 3, 6 c. 4, 5 d. 5, 4 e. 6, 3 [Ar = 40; Ne = 20] Cl2(g) + 2 I-(aq) → 2 Cl-(aq) + I2(aq) ∆G 0 30. Which of the following best represents the above redox reaction?

a. The oxidation of I- by Cl2 is a spontaneous process. b. I2 will readily oxidize Cl- to Cl2. c. The reduction of I2 by Cl- is a spontaneous process. d. I- is a powerful oxidizing agent. e. The reduction of Cl2 by I- is nonspontaneous.

31. Which of the following species represents the conjugate base of NH2

- ? a. NaNH- b. NH3 c. H+ d. NH4

+ e. NaNH2

MnO4

-(aq) + __ Br -(aq) + H+(aq) → Mn2+(aq) + Br2(aq) + __ H2O(l) 32. What are the respective coefficients of Br- and H2O when the above redox equation is balance? a. 2, 8 b. 5, 10 c. 10, 8 d. 8, 5 e. 10, 16 33. An ideal solution is made by mixing 2 moles of benzene (Vapour = 266 mm Hg) and 3 moles of another liquid (Vapour pressure = 236 mm Hg). The total vapour pressure of solution at the same temperature would be____mmHg. a. 708 b. 255 c. 232 d. 100.4 e. 248 34. Dissolving 50 g of an unknown nonvolatile and nonelectrolyte solute in 1 L of water produced a solution which boiled at 100.10 0C at 1 atm. The molar mass of the solute is _______ g/mol. a. 25.60 b. 256.0 c. 2560 d. 25600 e. 256000 [Kb (water) = 0.512 0C/m]

35. Factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction include which of the following? i. Enthalpy change of reaction ii. Kinetic energy of reactant particles iii. Orientation of reactant particles during collisions a. ii only b. i and ii only c. i and iii only d. ii and iii only e. i, ii, and iii H+ (aq) + NO2

- (aq) + Cr2O72- (aq) → Cr3+ (aq) + NO3

- (aq) +H2O(l) 36. When the above equation is balanced and all coefficients are reduced to lowest whole-number terms, how many electrons are transferred? a. 2 b. 4 c. 5 d. 6 e. 8 37. When mixed, which of the following pairs of reactants will show NO visible evidence of a chemical reaction? i. Na2CO3(aq) + HCl(aq) ii. ZnCl2 + NaNO3(aq) iii. Ba(NO3)2(aq) + NaCl(aq) a. i only b. ii only c. iii only d. i & ii only e. ii & iii only 38. A 0.50 mol sample of H2 gas and a 1.0 mol sample of O2 gas are present in two separate 1 dm3 tanks maintained at the same temperature. Which of the following is TRUE about the contents of the tanks? a. Average kinetic energy of the gas molecules in both tanks are equal. b. The pressure exerted by the gas molecules in both tanks are equal. c. The volume occupied by O2 molecules is double the volume occupied by H2 molecules. d. The average speed of O2 molecules will be double the average speed of H2 molecules. e. The density of the gases in both tanks are equal. 39. Which one of the following statements is TRUE? a. One mole of any dibasic acid will ionize completely in aqueous solution to produce two moles of H+ ions. b. Solutions of weak acids always have lower pH than solutions of strong acids. c. The strength of an acid is measured by the pH of a solution of the acid. d. H3O+ is a stronger acid than NH4

+. e. The acid dissociation constant (Ka) for weak acids is always less than 1. 40. Which of the following statements is FALSE given the following net ionic equation?

2H+(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) a. If all the water evaporated away, the salt remaining could possibly be CuS. b. The acid involved must be a strong electrolyte. c. The base, Cu(OH)2, is an insoluble base. d. This could be the net ionic equation for HNO3 reacting with Cu(OH)2. e. This is classified as a neutralization reaction. 41. Given that the Activity Series is: K>Fe>Cu>Ag>Au, which one of the following will be a spontaneous process? a. The reduction of K+ by Fe. b. The reduction of Cu2+ by Ag. c. The oxidation of Au by Cu2+. d. The oxidation of Fe by Au3+. e. The reduction of Fe2+ by Ag. 42. A neutral atom of an element has 2 electrons in the first energy level, 8 in the second energy level and 7 in the third energy level. The most informative statement that can be deduced from the given data is: a. the atomic number of the element. b. the physical properties of the element. c. the total number of neutrons in the element. d. the mass number of the element. e. the number of excited electrons in the element. 43. Which of the following species contains 29 protons, 28 neutrons and 26 electrons? a. 57A3+ b. 28B3+ c. 29X3+ d. 54Y3+ e. 26Z3+


44. In which of the following compounds would you expect the oxidation state of H to be -1? a. PH3 b. H2S c. HI d. KH e. CH4 45. A triple covalent bond consists of a. one pi bond + two sigma bonds. b. two pi bonds + sigma bond. c. two sigma bonds + one pi bond. d. three sigma bond + zero pi bonds. e. three pi bonds + zero sigma bonds. 46. HOBr + OH- H2O + OBr-. The Bronsted acids in the system shown above are a. OH- & HOBr b. H2O & OH- c. OBr- & OH- d. OBr- & HOBr e. H2O & HOBr 47. What is the oxidation number for aluminum in Li(AlH4)? a. +4 b. +2 c. -3 d. -2 e. +3 48. The same quantity of electricity is passed through two electrolytic solutions connected in series. One contains X2+and the other contains Y+ ions. How many moles of Y would be deposited in the same time as 4 moles of X? a. 1 mol b. 2 mol c. 4 mol d. 6 mol e. 8 mol 49. State which of the following properties may be classified as extensive?

i. The activation energy of a reaction. ii. Enthalpy of neutralization. iii. The equilibrium constant.

a. i only b. ii only c. iii only d. i & ii only e. ii & iii

50. The number of electrons in the ion 47X3- is 26. The neutron number in the atom 47X is____. a. 24 b. 23 c. 22 d. 21 e. 25 51. If the number of neutrons and electrons in the ion Y2+ are 22 and 18 respectively. What is the mass number of atom Y? a. 30 b. 32 c. 40 d. 42 e. 38 52. The Ksp of salts XSO4 and YSO4 are 1.0 x10-10 and 1.0 x 10-15 respectively. Which of the following information is/are TRUE about the salts? i. The solubility of XSO4 is greater than the solubility of YSO4. ii. Both X and Y have +2 oxidation states. iii. Addition of S2- (aq) to an aqueous solution containing equimolar quantities of X and Y will selectively precipitate out XS first. a. i only b. ii only c. iii only d. ii & iii only e. i & ii only 53. Consider the following equilibrium: PbSO4 (s) Pb2+

(aq) + SO42-

(aq)

Which of the following is INCORRECT about the solubility of PbSO4? a. PbSO4 is a sparingly soluble compound. b. The solubility of PbSO4 in water is greater than in aqueous Na2SO4. c. Addition of more water to a saturated solution of PbSO4 will enhance the solubility of PbSO4. d. The unit of the Ksp of PbSO4 is (moldm-3)2. e. A saturated solution of PbSO4 will contain equal amounts of both Pb2+ and SO4

2-.


2AB A2 + B2

54. The equilibrium constant for the above reaction is Y2. Determine the equilibrium constant for the reaction shown below in terms of Y. xA2 + xB2 2xAB a. Y2x b. –Y2x c. -Y-2x d. Y-2x e. 2xY-2

55. A reaction is exothermic in the forward direction. Which of the following statements may be INCORRECT about the reaction? a. The rate of the reverse reaction is slower than the rate of the forward reaction. b. The activation energy of the reverse reaction is higher than the activation energy of the forward reaction. c. The reaction will be endothermic in the reverse direction. d. The reaction is multi-step in the forward direction. e. The introduction of a catalyst does not affect the enthalpy change of the reaction. 56. A 1dm3 vessel contains the equilibrium shown below at 270C. If the total pressure in the vessel is 6 atm, determine the equilibrium constant Kp at 270C. 2SO3(g) 2SO2(g) + O2(g) a. 2.40 atm b. 4.80 atm c. 1.20 atm d. 6.00 atm e. 0.83 atm

57. Given than the pKa of H2SO4, HNO3 and HCl are -2, -1.4 and -7 respectively. Which of the following statements is/are TRUE?

i. Cl- is a stronger base compared to HSO4-.

ii. HNO3 is a stronger acid compared with H2SO4. iii. H2SO4 is a weaker acid compared with HCl. a. i only b. ii only c. iii only d. i & ii only e. ii & iii only 58. X(aq) + Y(aq) Z(aq) The table below presents data on the equilibrium constant for the above reaction determined at two different temperatures.

Temperature Equilibrium constant 300C 1.0 x 10-3

600C 2.0 x 10-6

Which of the following statements is/are INCORRECT about the reaction? i. The ∆H > 0 for the forward reaction. ii. The ∆H < 0 for the forward direction. iii. The equilibrium constants suggest that the reaction faster at 300C. a. i only b. ii only c. iii only d. i & iii only e. ii & iii only 4X(g) Y(g) + 3Z(g) 59. For the process shown above, ∆H = + 45.2 kJ/mol. The equilibrium is established in a 10-litre vessel fitted with a movable piston. Which of the following statements is/are CORRECT?

i. Decreasing the container volume increases the equilibrium amount of X(g). ii. Increasing the temperature increases the equilibrium partial pressure of Y(g). iii. Addition of X to the equilibrium mixture will increase the equilibrium constant Kp.

a. ii & iii only b. i & ii only c. iii only d. ii only e. i only b.

60. Which of the following gases will contain the same number of molecules at 270C and 1 atm? i. 2.0 dm3 of O2 ii. 1.5 dm3 of H2 iii. 0.5 dm3 of CO2 iv. 0.5 dm3 of He a. i & ii only b. ii & iii only c. iii & iv only d. i & iv only e. ii & iv only 61. Consider the potassium atom. For how many electrons does this atom have l = 1?

[K = 19] a. 6 b. 8 c. 10 d. 12 e. 7


62. Choose the INCORRECT statement/s from the following. i. The density He gas at 1 atm and 273 0C is equal to the density of H2 gas at 1 atm and 0 0C. ii. The volume of a gas is doubled if the gas is heated from T K to 2T K. iii. The boiling point of 0.01 molal aqueous solution of glucose is same as the boiling point of 0.01 molal aqueous

solution of KCl. a. i only b. i & ii only c. ii only d. i & iii only e. iii only 63. The osmotic pressure of a solution containing a nonvolatile solute a. increases with temperature. b. decreases with increasing amount of solute. c. increases with increasing volume of solution. d. depends on the nature of solute particles. e. increases with the colour of solution. 64. When 50 ml of 0.1 M solution of glucose are mixed with 50 ml of 0.2 M solution of glucose, the boiling point of the resulting solution

a. will be greater than the boiling point of the 0.1 M glucose solution but less than that of the 0.2 M glucose solution. b. will be less than the boiling point of the pure solvent. c. will be greater than the boiling point of the 0.2 M glucose solution but less than that of the 0.1 M glucose solution. d. will be equal to the sum of the boiling points of the two solutions. e. will be less than the sum of the boiling points of the two solutions.

65. Enthalpy of solution of solute X in water is -55.56 kJ/mol. When X is dissolved in water, the temperature of the solution a. increases b. decrease c. does not change d. Fluctuates indefinitely e. is 55.56 0C 66. The enthalpy change for a certain reaction is -29 kJ/mole. The minimum value for the energy of activation of the reverse reaction (in kJ/mole) will be a. less than 29 b. greater than 29 c. +29 d. 0 e. a multiple of 29 67 The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a solvent by 10C is given as 5.03 J. This value represents ________ of the solvent. a. specific heat capacity b. molar heat capacity c. heat capacity d. natural heat capacity e. latent heat capacity 68. The enthalpies of formation of and are and respectively. for the reaction

is a. -2730 kJ b. -462 kJ c. -1365 kJ d. +2730 e. + 1365 kJ 69. Enthalpy of formation of two compounds x and y are – 84 kJ and – 156 kJ respectively. Which of the following statements is most likely to be CORRECT? a. x is more stable than y. b. x is less stable than y. c. The activation energy for the formation of x is greater than that of the formation of y. d. The formation of both x and y is endothermic. e. The formation of x is faster than the formation of y. 70. A balloon is filled with air to a volume of 350 dm3. How should the conditions be changed to prevent the balloon from expanding further as more air is pumped into the balloon? i. temperature is lowered. ii. pressure is increased. iii. temperature is increased. iv. pressure is lowered. a. i & ii b. ii & iii c. i & iv d. i only e. ii only

H

32OAl 32OCr kJ1596 kJ1134 H

3232 22 OAlCrOCrAl


62. Choose the INCORRECT statement/s from the following. i. The density He gas at 1 atm and 273 0C is equal to the density of H2 gas at 1 atm and 0 0C. ii. The volume of a gas is doubled if the gas is heated from T K to 2T K. iii. The boiling point of 0.01 molal aqueous solution of glucose is same as the boiling point of 0.01 molal aqueous

solution of KCl. a. i only b. i & ii only c. ii only d. i & iii only e. iii only 63. The osmotic pressure of a solution containing a nonvolatile solute a. increases with temperature. b. decreases with increasing amount of solute. c. increases with increasing volume of solution. d. depends on the nature of solute particles. e. increases with the colour of solution. 64. When 50 ml of 0.1 M solution of glucose are mixed with 50 ml of 0.2 M solution of glucose, the boiling point of the resulting solution

a. will be greater than the boiling point of the 0.1 M glucose solution but less than that of the 0.2 M glucose solution. b. will be less than the boiling point of the pure solvent. c. will be greater than the boiling point of the 0.2 M glucose solution but less than that of the 0.1 M glucose solution. d. will be equal to the sum of the boiling points of the two solutions. e. will be less than the sum of the boiling points of the two solutions.

65. Enthalpy of solution of solute X in water is -55.56 kJ/mol. When X is dissolved in water, the temperature of the solution a. increases b. decrease c. does not change d. Fluctuates indefinitely e. is 55.56 0C 66. The enthalpy change for a certain reaction is -29 kJ/mole. The minimum value for the energy of activation of the reverse reaction (in kJ/mole) will be a. less than 29 b. greater than 29 c. +29 d. 0 e. a multiple of 29 67 The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a solvent by 10C is given as 5.03 J. This value represents ________ of the solvent. a. specific heat capacity b. molar heat capacity c. heat capacity d. natural heat capacity e. latent heat capacity 68. The enthalpies of formation of and are and respectively. for the reaction

is a. -2730 kJ b. -462 kJ c. -1365 kJ d. +2730 e. + 1365 kJ 69. Enthalpy of formation of two compounds x and y are – 84 kJ and – 156 kJ respectively. Which of the following statements is most likely to be CORRECT? a. x is more stable than y. b. x is less stable than y. c. The activation energy for the formation of x is greater than that of the formation of y. d. The formation of both x and y is endothermic. e. The formation of x is faster than the formation of y. 70. A balloon is filled with air to a volume of 350 dm3. How should the conditions be changed to prevent the balloon from expanding further as more air is pumped into the balloon? i. temperature is lowered. ii. pressure is increased. iii. temperature is increased. iv. pressure is lowered. a. i & ii b. ii & iii c. i & iv d. i only e. ii only

H

32OAl 32OCr kJ1596 kJ1134 H

3232 22 OAlCrOCrAl

71. The Ksp for MgCO3 is 1.0 x 10-8 at a certain temperature . A litre of the following solutions are mixed at the same temperauture. i. 0.00002 mol/L Mg2+ and 0.00002 mol/L CO3

2- ii. 0.00002 mol/L Mg2+ and 0.0002 mol/L CO3

2- iii. 0.002 mol/L Mg2+ and 0.002 mol/L CO3

2- iv. 0.02 mol/L Mg2+ and 0.00002 mol/L CO3

2- In which of the above mixtures will you expect a precipitate to form?

a. i, ii, iii only b. i & ii only c. ii, iii & iv only d. iii & iv only e. i & iii only 72. Which of the following statements is/are INCORRECT? i. The moles of Ag deposited by 2F of electricity is the same as the moles of Cu deposited by 4F of electricity. ii. If the quantity of electricity that produced 11.2 dm3 of H2 at STP is Q, then Q will discharge 23 g of Na. iii. The quantity of electricity required to produce 1 mole Ag is equal to the quantity of electricity that could discharge 11.2 dm3 of O2 at STP a. i only b. ii only c. iii only d. i & ii only e. ii & iii only 73. Which of the following statements concerning evaporation is INCORRECT? a. The rate of evaporation is affected by atmospheric pressure. b. Increasing the surface area of the liquid increases the rate of evaporation. c. Increasing the temperature of the liquid increases the rate of evaporation. d. Evaporation causes the liquid temperature to decrease. e. Evaporation occurs only near the boiling temperature. 74. Which of the following descriptions apply to matter in the liquid state? i. Temperature change significantly influences the volume. ii. Particles move less freely than in gaseous state. iii. Particles possess appreciable levels of intermolecular forces. a. i only b. ii only c. iii only d. ii & iii only e. i & ii only 75. A 1.00 mole sample of a gas would have a volume of 0.0821 L at which of the following temperature and pressure conditions? i. – 258 ºC and 15.0 atm ii. 10 ºC and 10.0 atm iii. 30 K and 30.0 atm a. i only b. ii only c. iii only d. i & iii only e. ii & iii only 76. A non-volatile liquid would i. have strong attractive forces between molecules. ii. evaporate “slowly” at room temperature. iii. have a high vapour pressure at room temperature. a. i only b. ii only c. iii only d. ii & iii only e. i & ii only 77. A diatomic molecule with two double covalent bonds is _____. a. O2 b. F2 c. N2 d. H2 e. CO2

78. The initial rate of production of Br2 gas in the following reaction is x mol/L/s. What is the rate of loss of HBr

gas in mol/L/s? 4HBr(g) + O2(g) 2Br2(g) + 2H2O(g) a. x b. 0.5x c. 0.75x d. 2x e. 1. 5x 79. In the following reaction, butane is consumed at the rate of 0.050 mol/L/s. Determine the rate at which CO2 is

produced in mol/L/s.

C4H10(g) + O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(g)

a. 0.200 b. 0.325 c. 0.250 d. 0.0125 e. 0.133


80. Which statement about the factors that affect reaction rates is TRUE? a. Decreasing the concentrations of the reacting particles increases the chance of collision. b. A collision with optimum orientation requires a lower activation energy than a collision with poor orientation. c. Increasing the volume of reaction vessel for a gaseous reaction increases the chance of collision. d. A reaction occurs every time particles of the reactants collide. e. A catalyst increases the rate of a reaction by increasing the average energy of reacting particles. 81. Identify the CORRECT statement below regarding chemical equilibrium: a. Equilibrium constant does not dependent on the rate of the reaction. b. A system that is in equilibrium will contain more products than reactants. c. A system that is in equilibrium will contain more reactants than products. d. A system that is in equilibrium will contain equal amounts of products and reactants. e. An increase in temperature of a system in equilibrium will increase the equilibrium constant. 82. A solution made by dissolving 10.0 g of a nonvolatile nonelectrolyte in V mL of water froze at -2.5 oC at 1 atm. Given that the molecular weight of the solute is 240 g/mol, determine the value of V. (For water, Kf = 1.86 oC/m) a. 79 b. 62 c. 620 d. 61 e. 31 83. Calculate the mass of an enzyme with molecular weight of 100,000 that should dissolve in 2 L of water to give a solution with osmotic pressure of 0.0048 atm at 30.0 oC. [R = 0.0821 dm3atm/mol/K] a. 96.5 g b. 193 g c. 19.3 g d. 115.8 g e. 38.60 g 84. For which of the following reactions would the Ho for the reaction be labeled Hc

o? a. Al(s) + 3/2 H2(g) + 3/2 O2(g) Al(OH)3(s) b. Mg2+(g) + O2-

(g) MgO(s) c. CO(g) + ½ O2(g) CO2(g) d. CaO(s) + SO2(g) CaSO3(s) e. ClO- (g) + O2-(g) ClO3

2-(g) 85. Estimate the heat of reaction at 298 K for the reaction shown, given the average bond energies below.

X2(g) + 3Y2(g) 2XY3(g) Bond Bond Energy X-X 198 kJ Y-Y 148 kJ X-Y 188 kJ

a. -516 kJ b. -218 kJ c. -30 kJ d. 78 kJ e. -486 kJ 86. How much heat is absorbed in the complete reaction of 6.00 grams of SiO2 with excess carbon in the reaction below? Ho for the reaction is +624.7 kJ.

SiO2(s) + 3C(s) SiC(s) + 2CO(g) [Si = 28; C = 12; O = 16] a. 36.60 kJ b. 104.11 kJ c. 156.20 kJ d. 62.40 kJ e. 31.20 kJ 87. The standard heat of combustion of ethanol, C2H5OH, to CO2 and H2O is +1372 kJ/mol ethanol. How much heat (in kJ) would be absorbed when a 9.2 g sample of C2H5OH is completely burnt in excess oxygen? a. 13.72 kJ b. 137.2 kJ c. 27.44 kJ d. 274.4 kJ e. 149.1 kJ


80. Which statement about the factors that affect reaction rates is TRUE? a. Decreasing the concentrations of the reacting particles increases the chance of collision. b. A collision with optimum orientation requires a lower activation energy than a collision with poor orientation. c. Increasing the volume of reaction vessel for a gaseous reaction increases the chance of collision. d. A reaction occurs every time particles of the reactants collide. e. A catalyst increases the rate of a reaction by increasing the average energy of reacting particles. 81. Identify the CORRECT statement below regarding chemical equilibrium: a. Equilibrium constant does not dependent on the rate of the reaction. b. A system that is in equilibrium will contain more products than reactants. c. A system that is in equilibrium will contain more reactants than products. d. A system that is in equilibrium will contain equal amounts of products and reactants. e. An increase in temperature of a system in equilibrium will increase the equilibrium constant. 82. A solution made by dissolving 10.0 g of a nonvolatile nonelectrolyte in V mL of water froze at -2.5 oC at 1 atm. Given that the molecular weight of the solute is 240 g/mol, determine the value of V. (For water, Kf = 1.86 oC/m) a. 79 b. 62 c. 620 d. 61 e. 31 83. Calculate the mass of an enzyme with molecular weight of 100,000 that should dissolve in 2 L of water to give a solution with osmotic pressure of 0.0048 atm at 30.0 oC. [R = 0.0821 dm3atm/mol/K] a. 96.5 g b. 193 g c. 19.3 g d. 115.8 g e. 38.60 g 84. For which of the following reactions would the Ho for the reaction be labeled Hc

o? a. Al(s) + 3/2 H2(g) + 3/2 O2(g) Al(OH)3(s) b. Mg2+(g) + O2-

(g) MgO(s) c. CO(g) + ½ O2(g) CO2(g) d. CaO(s) + SO2(g) CaSO3(s) e. ClO- (g) + O2-(g) ClO3

2-(g) 85. Estimate the heat of reaction at 298 K for the reaction shown, given the average bond energies below.

X2(g) + 3Y2(g) 2XY3(g) Bond Bond Energy X-X 198 kJ Y-Y 148 kJ X-Y 188 kJ

a. -516 kJ b. -218 kJ c. -30 kJ d. 78 kJ e. -486 kJ 86. How much heat is absorbed in the complete reaction of 6.00 grams of SiO2 with excess carbon in the reaction below? Ho for the reaction is +624.7 kJ.

SiO2(s) + 3C(s) SiC(s) + 2CO(g) [Si = 28; C = 12; O = 16] a. 36.60 kJ b. 104.11 kJ c. 156.20 kJ d. 62.40 kJ e. 31.20 kJ 87. The standard heat of combustion of ethanol, C2H5OH, to CO2 and H2O is +1372 kJ/mol ethanol. How much heat (in kJ) would be absorbed when a 9.2 g sample of C2H5OH is completely burnt in excess oxygen? a. 13.72 kJ b. 137.2 kJ c. 27.44 kJ d. 274.4 kJ e. 149.1 kJ

88. The decomposition of dimethylether at 504 oC is first order with a half-life of 1570 seconds. What fraction of the compound is left after 2.18 hours? a. 6.25% b. 12.5% c. 87.5% d. 96.875% e. 3.125% 89. At 445oC, Kc for the following reaction is 0.020.

2HI(g) H2(g) + I2(g)

A mixture of H2, I2, and HI in a vessel at 445oC has the following concentrations: [HI] = 2.0 M, [H2] = 0.50 M and [I2] = 0.10 M. Which one of the following statements concerning the reaction quotient, Qc, is UNTRUE for the above system? a. Qc = Kc; the system is at equilibrium. b. Qc is less than Kc; more H2 and I2 will be produced. c. Qc is less than Kc; more HI will be produced. d. Qc is greater than Kc; more H2 and I2 will be consumed. e. Qc is greater than Kc; more HI will be produced. 90. Each of the following reactions have positive overall cell potentials. 2X(s) + 2H+(aq) H2(g) + 2X+(aq) Y(s) + 2H+(aq) H2(g) + Y2+(aq) Z2+(aq) + H2(g) Z(s) + 2H+(aq) Which of the following statements is/are CORRECT? i. X is below H2 on the activity series. ii. Y is below H2 on the activity series. iii. Z is below H2 on the activity series. a. i only b. ii only c. i and ii only d. ii and iii only e. iii only 91. A buffer is prepared by adding the salt MX to the weak acid HX. How many moles of MX must be present in 500 cm3 of a solution of 0.1M HX to attained the maximum buffering capacity? a. 1 mol b. 0.1 mol c. 0.05 mol d. 0.01 mol e. 0.5 mol 92. Two solutions A and B are separated by a semi permeable membrane. After a while, the volume of solution A was found to decrease as the volume of solution B increased. Which of the following statements is CORRECT? a. After osmosis, the concentration of solution A will be higher than that of solution B. b. After osmosis, the concentrations across the membrane are equal. c. There is a net movement of solute molecules from solution A into solution B. d. There is movement of solvent molecules from solution B into solution A. e. The temperature of solution A is lower than the temperature of solution B 93. The heat liberated when 1.6 g of methanol, CH3OH, is burnt in a bomb calorimeter increases the temperature of 1 kg of water by 5 K. What is the enthalpy of combustion of methanol? [Specific heat capacity of water = 4.12J/g/K] a. 20.60 kJ/mol b. 32.96 kJ/mol c. 412 kJ/mol d. 652.2 kJ/mol e. 144.2 kJ 94. Which of the following molecules would have the highest velocity if each gas had the same kinetic energy? a. carbon dioxide (CO2) b. oxygen (O2) c. ammonia (NH3) d. hydrogen (H2) e. argon (Ar) [C = 12; N = 14; H = 1; Ar = 40; O = 16] 95. In order to change the pH of a solution from 2.0 to 5.0 the [H3O+] must a. increase by a factor of 3. b. decrease by a factor of 3. c. increase by a factor of 1000. d. decrease by a factor of 1000. e. increase by a factor of 100.


96. What mass of Pb2+ ions must be added to a 1 dm3 solution that is 1.265 x 10-4 M SO42- ions in order to prepare a

saturated solution of PbSO4? [Ksp (PbSO4) = 1.6 x 10-8: Pb =207] a. 1.265 g b. 0.0262 g c. 3.31 x 10-6 g d. 2.0 x 10-12g e. 4.14 x 10-10 g 97. Which of the following would have the least pKa value? a. HF b. HCl c. HBr d. HI e. H2

98. If [A]0 is the initial concentration of reactant and [A]t is the concentration of the reactant at any time t. Assuming a first order reaction, how long would it take for the ratio [A]0/[A]t to be exactly 4 given that the half-life is p years? a. 2p years b. 0.5p years c. 4p years d. 3p years e. p years 99. Which of the following samples will contain the least number of atoms? [Fe = 55, Na = 23, C = 12, S = 32, Cu = 63.5] a. 28 g of Fe b. 23 g of Na c. 12 g of C d. 32 g of S e. 30 g of Cu

100. Given that the heat capacities for substances A and B are 3.23 J/K and 0.780 J/K respectively. 10.0 J of heat is supplied to equal masses of A and B at the same temperature and their final temperatures measured as TA and TB respectively. Which of the following statements is TRUE about the final conditions of A and B? a. TA is greater than TB. b. TB is greater than TA. c. TA is equal to TB. d. Both TA and TB are less than the initial temperatures of A and B e. TA plus TB is 10 K.


INTEGRATED SCIENCE PUZZLE

Kwaku Appiah-Kubi, PhD

Department of Applied Biology, University for Development Studies, Tamale

Worked Example

Use the diagram below and descriptions Across and Down to guide you to identify a suitable scientific term for 1, 2, and 5.

Answer

Use the diagram below and descriptions Across and Down to guide you to identify a suitable scientific term for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11.

Across

1. Anything that has mass and can occupy space.

5. Has atomic number 19.

Down

2. One exhibiting a compulsive, chronic, physiological or psychological need for a habit-forming substance, behaviour, or activity.

M

MM

A T T E R

D

D

I

C

P

MM0

O T A S S I U M

1

MM

2

5

MM0


Submit your answers to [email protected] for a chance to win a prize.

Across

1. A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data.

5. Objects made by people, such as tools, weapons, containers, etc.

7. A systematic arrangement of data into groups based on criteria.

8. A measure of the amount of mass in an object per unit volume.

10. Two or more atoms linked together to form a substance with unique properties.

11. The variable or part of the experiment to which all others will be compared.

Down

2. An educated guess that attempts to explain an observation or answer a question.

3. The result when a substance is dissolved in another substance.

4. The science that studies how characteristics get passed from parents to offspring.

6. An ancient form of paper made from a plant of the same name.

9. Basic unit of life in creation.

everyday agazine, volume 8, 1, 2020 - ghana science

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