EVALUATION OF INDUSTRIAL PARTICULATE WASTES AGAINST ROOT KNOT NEMATODE Meloidogyne

javanlca ON EGGPLANT (Solanum melongena L.)

DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

/ / / >r ^ \ TxW, ( iWagter of ^fjilosfopfip

in \%

M M P M T A I n n T A M V A / (ENVIRONMENTAL BOTANY)

BY

ROSE RIZVI

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY

ALIGARH ( INDIA)

2008

DS3820

Fig. 1: Eggplant root infected with M, javanica.

(Dedicated to my BeCoved

J D ^ ^ parents

(Prof. Ainu[j{aq%fian /^^^^k Department of Botany M.Sc. Ph.D., FISG IL!P 3 ? n £ l Aligarh Muslim University Chairman, Dept. of Botany V ^ , ^ * ^ / Aligarh - 202002 (India)

Dated: %3'06 'O8

CEmiricjii:^

This is to certify that the dissertation entitled "Evaluation

of Industrial Particulate Wastes Against Root Knot

Nematode Meloidogyne javanica on Eggplant

{Solanum melongena L.)" is an original and bonafide

work carried out by Miss Rose Rizvi, under guidance and

supervision of Dr. Abrar Ahmad Khan and submitted

under the supervision of Chairman, Department of Botany,

A.M.U., Aligarh. She is allowed to submit this dissertation

in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the

degree of Master of Philosophy in Botany of Aligarh

Muslim University, Aligarh.

Chairman

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Jit the outset I Sow Before 'Aiftig/ity AOaA', the most Beneficient and the most

mercifuC, acCoraSCe, cCiety and paramount, 'Who's SCessings aConegave me strength to

achieve this tas^

It is a moment of divine Benediction for me, an ecstasy to ej^ress my than^fuCness

andindeStedness to my mentor, (Dr. ABmrAhmad'Kfian, Lecturer, (Department of

(Botany, JLfigarh 9iiusRm Vniversity, JiRgarh for his ^nd supervision, e^cedent

spirit, vigilant guidance, inexhaustiBCe encouragement, cooperation and vaCuaBCe

suggestions throughout the course of study in a Benign and amity atmosphere. In

fact, this wor^is compCeteCy Bestowed to his affection and attitude onCy.

I am thanhfuC to my present supervisor (Prof. AinuC Haq ^han Chairman,

(Department of (Botany, Ji.MV., Jifigarh for providing all facilities and

requirements related to my wor^

I express my indeStedness to (Dr. Samiuddh Xfian and (Dr. M. (B. Siddtquifor their

heCpfuC suggestions, encouragement and guidance on times.

I owe on ey^ression of than^ to my senior CaB colleagues (Dr. Samee 'Kfiusar and

Ms. Iram for their moraCsupport andheCp.

(profuse than^ to my junior MustaSeen for her enormous support and egg&

cooperation throughout the study.

Appreciations are aCso due to my other senior research scholars 'Faizul^ ToshiSa

:^^

Ufaider, SwapniC Sisodia, Saima (Bhatt, TaBassum 9>/iyaz, Smita, Aiman Hasan,

^usRra Shahroz, Minu Singh, Iram SidiGqui, Qaiser l^fian, Moin 7(fian and my

juniors !Nausfiina, (Busfira, (Dara^fian, Jiasiya and Iram for tHeir cooperation.

To perorate, I feeC elation and pleasure to e:xpress tfian^ and gratitude to my

friends Taheem, A^i^ JCUaJy :Kamid, Swam, !Meraj, Tarhat, Sangeeta, Skweta,

9^€e6ma, S&adeena, (Bfiavana, ZleSa, HaBWa, Jfumera, Tarda, Zefira and<Rff.(iat.

94y tfian^ are incomplete if I don't pay my gratitude to my senior Ms. Mahreen

Motto for aCivays Being xvitfi me in aff tBic^and tBins tBrougBout tBe preparation

oftBis manuscript.

lUan^ are also due to Mr. SBa^r, Mr. Qamar, Mr. SaSir and Mr. SdaSBir,

members of tBe department for tBeir assistance and immense BeCp.

Heartiest respect and indebtedness are offered to my BeCovedparents, Mr. % A-

^jzvi and Mrs. HayaB ^^vifor their continuous support, affection, Blessings and

inspiration tBrougBout tBe academic pursuit. I decern my genufCe^ion to my

affectionate BrotBer, SaGm and sisters, ^aaz andZxenat wBo are tBe emBodiment

of sacrifice, contentment and encouragement for me all tBe time in tBe completion

of this wor^

LastCy, I would R^ to than^ all my near and dear ones, wBo Bave Boosted me to

acBieve tBisgoaC

^ .

CONTENTS

SI. No. Title Page No.

1. INTRODUCTION 1 - 4

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 5-18

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 19-28

4. RESULTS 29 - 34

5. DISCUSSION 35 - 38

6. SUMMARY 39 - 40

7. REFERENCES 41-47

LIST OF TABLES

1. Effect of different concentrations of fly ash-extract on hatching of M.

javanica juveniles.

2. Effect of different concentrations of brick kiln dust - extract on

hatching of M javanica juveniles.

3. Effect of different concentrations of fly ash-extract on mortality of M

javanica juveniles.

4. Effect of different concentrations of brick kiln dust - extract on

mortality of M yavan/ca juveniles.

5. Effect of different levels of fly ash on percent penetration of M

yavaw/ca juveniles in eggplant roots.

6. Effect of different levels of brickkiln dust on per cent penetration of

M. javanica juveniles in eggplant roots.

7. Effect of different levels of fly ash on the development of M. javanica

in eggplant roots.

8. Effect of different levels of brick kiln dust on the development of M

javanica in eggplant roots.

9. Effect of fly ash and M javanica on plant growth performance of

eggplant.

10. Effect of brick kiln dust and M. javanica on plant growth

performance of eggplant.

11. Effect of fly ash and M javanica on yield of eggplant and disease

intensity.

12. Effect of brick kiln dust and M. javanica on yield of eggplant and

disease intensity.

LIST OF FIGURES

1. Eggplant root infected with M. javanica.

2. Effect of Fly ash and M. javanica on length of shoot and root

of eggplant.

3. Effect of Fly ash dind M. javanica on fresh wt. of shoot and

root of eggplant.

4. Effect of Brick kiln dust and M javanica on length of shoot

and root of eggplant.

5. Effect of Brick kiln dust and M. javanica on fresh wt. of

shoot and root of eggplant.

6. Effect of Fly ash and M. javanica on yield of eggplant.

7. Effect of Brick kiln dust and M javanica on yield of

eggplant.

CHapter -1 V

Introduction

INTRODUCTION

Environmental pollution has emerged as a serious problem in the past

few decades. Pollution of environment may be defined as the

unfavourable alterations in our surroundings resulting from

industrialization and modern lifestyle. The increasing population has

further burdened our environmental resources and industrial processes,

power generation, transformation and various other demands of a

modern lifestyle have resulted in generation of many chemicals and their

byproducts which deteriorate the quality of water, air and soil.

Air pollution is the major problem in the developing countries. The

pollutants responsible for causing air pollution are grouped as gaseous

pollutants and particulate air pollutants. The particulate air pollutants are

finely divided solid or liquid components. These include fly ash, brick

kiln dust, cement dust, textile dust, metallic dust, lime dust, pesticides

dust, fumes, mist, vapours etc. and are released by both natural and

anthropogenic sources (Das, 1986). These particulate pollutants have

created several ecological and environmental problems. However,

recently fly ash and brick kiln dust have been found beneficial to plants.

Fly ash is a residue from coal combustion in thermal power plants.

Indian coal has 30-40% fly ash content (Kumar et al., 2000) and at

present nearly 100 million tons of fly ash per year is being produced

from the thermal power stations in the country. It is likely to exceed 140

million tons by the year 2020. Fly ash has been found beneficial for the

growth of plants due to the presence of several plant nutrients (Adriano

et al., 1980). Its amendment in soil upto 40 per cent level brings about an

increase in the growth and yield of cucumber, maize, okra, potato,

tomato and wheat (Kausar, 2007; Khan, 2007; Khan and Khan, 1996;

Mishra and Shukla, 1986; Raghav and Khan, 2002).

The second major industrial pollutant in India is brick kiln dust. In

Aligarh district alone, about 250 brick kilns are present. Wood and coal

are used as raw materials in brick kilns for making bricks. The product

of complete combustion of fiiel in brick kilns mainly consists of several

gases and a large amount of brick kiln dust in powdered waste form.

Upadhyay (2004) has reported beneficial impact of brick kiln dust on

Brassicajuncea and Linum usitatissimum.

Root-knot nematodes {Meloidogyne spp.) occur throughout the world but

are found more frequently and in greater numbers in areas with warm or

hot climates and short or mild winters. There are about 90 species at

present in this genus. M incognita (Kofoid and White) Chitwood, M

javanica (Treub) Chitwood, M. arenaria (Neal) Chitwood and M. hapla

Chitwood are recognized as four major species of Meloidogyne as they

are most common and damaging (Taylor et al., 1982). These four

species constitutes about 95 per cent of the total Meloidogyne population

(Sasser and Carter, 1982). In India, M. javanica occupied second

position in distribution. Khan and Khan (1990, 1991, 1993) found that

M. javanica is a most frequent species in the Western Uttar Pradesh.

They attack more than 200 species of plants, including almost all

cultivated plants but vegetables are considered as their preferred host

crops. Average crop yield loss in areas where root-knot nematode is not

controlled is estimated to be about 25 per cent with damage in individual

fields ranging as high as 60 per cent (Sasser, 1980; Sasser and Carter,

1982). More than 50 per cent infestations have been recorded in

vegetable fields with root-knot nematodes (Khan and Khan, 1996; Khan,

2007). Control of these nematodes are necessary for successful

cultivation of vegetables. Since chemicals have been banned, other

control methods are in progress. Fly ash has shown its inhibitory effect

on root-knot nematodes but for making generalization sufficient

information is not available. The brick kiln dust potential has not been

observed so far. So, keeping in view the recent agricultural utilization of

these two industrial particulate wastes, it was planned to evaluate the fly

ash and brick kiln dust potentials to control root-knot nematode, M

javanica on eggplant.

The dissertation work is divided into two sections (Fly ash and Brick

kiln dust) and the main objectives of each section were as follows:

1. Effect of different concentrations of fly ash / brick kiln dust-extract

on hatching of M. javanica ]uwQm\QS.

2. Effect of different concentrations of fly ash / brick kiln dust-extract

on mortality of Myava«/ca juveniles.

3. Effect of different levels of fly ash/brick kiln dust on percent

penetration of M. javanica ]uvQm\e^ in eggplant roots.

4. Effect of different levels of fly ash / brick kiln dust on development

of different stages of Myavaw/ca juveniles in eggplant roots.

5. Effect of different levels of fly ash / brick kiln dust on plant growth

performances, yield of eggplant and disease intensity of M.

javanica.

chapter - 2

/ / . ' ^view • N

w

Literature

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The word 'Pollution' has been derived from latin word 'Pollutionem'

meaning 'defilement'. Pollution, thus, can be defined as the direct or

indirect change in any component of the biosphere that is harmful to

living components, and in particular undesirable for man, affecting

adversely the industrial progress, cultural and natural assets or general

environment. The changes in the enviromiient due to pollution have put

the survival of man in danger. Therefore, preservation of the

environment is essential for the existence of human race. Proper

management of pollutants in the environment is the only way to ensure

sustainable development of the society. Dhaliwal et al. (2000) suggested

that it is essential to make the masses aware of the changes in the quality

of our environment and strategies to prevent the situation from

worsening fiirther.

The agents which are responsible for causing pollution are known as

pollutants. Air pollutants exist in either gaseous or particulate forms.

These are released from various industries, factories, automobiles,

thermal power plants etc.

PARTICULATE AIR POLLUTANTS

The term 'Particulate' generally refers to all atmospheric substances that

are not gases. Particulate matter includes those air pollutants, which may

be in the form of solid particles or liquid droplets including fumes,

smoke, fog, dust, pollen grains, fungal spores, bacteria, viruses and

aerosols. This category includes about 5% of the weight of all the

pollutants present in the atmosphere. Sethi et al. (1991) estimated that

about 8 million tons solid particles penetrate into the atmosphere

everyday. Particulates can be in the form of suspended droplets or solid

particles or mixtures of the two. They can be composed of inert or

extremely reactive materials, ranging in size from 0.1 m to lOOfim or

less than 0.1 fim. Fine particles remain suspended in the air and

transported away to a long distance when the strong wind blows.

Sources of Particulate Air Pollutants

The sources of occurrence of particulate matter are of two types -

Natural Sources and Anthropogenic Sources. Natural sources include

rock debris (dust), volcanic emissions, forest fires, reaction between

natural gas emissions and dust derived from wind erosions while the

anthropogenic sources include fuel combustion and industrial operations,

industrial fugitive processes, non-industrial fiigitive purposes and

transportation sources. Now a days industrial operations are main

problem in India, producing huge amount of particulate wastes.

FLY ASH

Sources of Fly Ash

Fly ash, the major industrial particulate waste in India is produced by the

thermal power plants during coal combustion. Fly ash constitutes over

70% of the total quantity of residue produced in power plants

(Anonymous, 1997) and enters the fuel gas stream. It is either collected

in emission control devices such as electrostatic precipitators or

mechanical filters, or released from the stack. Among the energy

projects, the thermal power plants are of prime concern, which produces

energy by burning coal and supply bulk of power generated in India.

Consequently, thermal power plants are the major sources to the

atmospheric pollution. In India, 30 percent of the coal produced is used

for thermal power generation. Each 300 tons of coal produces 100 tons

of fly ash. So, removal and disposal of such a large amount fly ash is a

difficult task which possess ecological and environmental problems.

Properties of Fly Ash

The physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of fly ash depend

on composition of the coal burnt, combustion conditions, the efficiency

and type of emission, control devices and the disposal methods used

(van Hook, 1979; Adriano et al., 1980). Fly ash consists of many minute,

glass like particles of 0.01 to 100 mm size with specific gravities 2.1 to

2.6 (Davison et al., 1974). The spherical, glassy and transparent

appearance of fly ash indicates the melting of silicate minerals during

coal combustion (Hodgson and Holliday, 1966). Mishra and Shukla

(1986) reported that fly ash contains about 25% sand sized particles (2 -

0.02 mm), 65% silt sized particles (0.02 - 0.002 mm) and 10% clay

sized particles (< 0.0002 mm).

Fly ash contains Al, Si, Ca, Fe, Mg, Na, S, As, Cd, Cu, Mo, Pb, Sb, Ti,

Zn, Ba and Se (Page and Chang, 1979) with typically low in N content

(Adriano et al., 1980) whereas levels of P and K are very high. Furr et

al. (1977) found that the fly ash is generally alkaline with pH mostly

ranging from 8.2-12.5.

Effects of Fly Ash on Plants

Recently, fly ash is used in agricultural field for crop production.

Because the available N, P, K, micro-nutrients like Cu, Fe, Zn, Mn and

exchangeable Ca and Mg are increased with fly ash application in soil.

Pasha et al. ( 1990 )observed that soil amendment with fly ash (10% &

20%) result in an increase in plant growth, yield and chlorophyll

contents of leaves of cucumber plants. Soybean plants grown in fly ash

amended soil showed significant increase in plant growth, yield, leaf

pigment, protein content and oil content of seeds at 25% and 50% fly

ash levels (Singh, 1993; Singh et al., 1994). Matte and Kene (1995)

studied the effect of different levels (0, 5, 10 and 15 tons/hectare) of fly

ash on kharif crops (cotton, green gram, groundnut, mustard, sorghum

and soybean). Lower levels of fly ash were found beneficial for the

crops. Khan and Khan (1996) reported that lower doses of fly ash result

in better plant growth and yield of tomato plant. Krejsl and Scanlon

(1996) found that the fly ash treatments of 30, 40 and 50 kg ha''

increased the bean dry matter and yield over control by 49, 57 and 64%,

respectively. Fly ash at 50% level was found to increase height, girth,

leaf no., leaf area, spike length and dry weight of wheat plant (Tripathy

and Sahu, 1997). Ten tons of fly ash per hectare was found to be the best

rate for improving soil properties (Kuchanwar et al, 1997). Fly ash : soil

ratio of 1:1 increased the number of leaves and number of branches

above control values in tomato and spinach, but 1:3 ratio promoted dry

matter in both the crops (Malewar et al, 1999). Khan and Ghadirpour

(1999) examined relative efficacy of broadcast, row and spot treatment

of fly ash on the growth and yield of chilli, eggplant and tomato. Row

application of fly ash @ 3 Qt/ha significantly increased the plant growth

and yield of tomato cultivars.

Adverse effects of fly ash has been observed at higher levels as it

contains some toxic substances alongwith heavy metals in appreciable

amount. Gupta et al. (2000) found that higher levels of fly ash exhibited

reduced growth of nodulation, chlorophyll, carotenoid, protein contents

and nitrate reductase activity, and the elements Fe, Zn, Cu and Mn were

accumulated in large quantities in plants. Fly ash applied to soil in higher

ratios (75%, 100%) were found harmful to plant growth and yield of

tomato (Raghav and Khan, 2002). Fly ash has deleterious effects on

plant growth and yield if it is used in more than 50% levels (Khan and

Khan, 1996; Raghav et al, 2003).

Effect of Fly Ash on Root-Knot Nematodes

Addition of fly ash in soil directly influences the activity of soil micro­

organisms. It has been reported that fly ash amended soil decreased the

root penetration of juveniles of Meloidogyne incognita and root-knot

disease intensity on tomato (Khan, 1989). Singh (1993) reported that

higher concentration of fly ash suppressed root-nodule bacteria

{Bradyrhizobium japonicum) and root-knot nematode {M. javanica) to a

great extent. At 100% fly ash, no females or juveniles or eggmasses of

M. javanica was recovered. The harmful effects of fly ash on M

incognita and M javanica have been observed on okra, tomato and pea

plants (Khan and Khan, 1994; Singh et al., 1994). Fly ash incorporation

in soil (20 - 100%) adversely affected the root invasion by the larvae

and decreased the disease intensity (galls/root system) and reproduction

(egg masses/root system) of root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne species

on cowpea and tomato (Khan et al, 1997).

Tararmum et al. (2001) observed the effect of. different levels of fly ash

(0, 25, 50, 75 & 100%) on hatching, penetration and development of M

javanica on chickpea. The hatching and penetration were greatly

suppressed. At 50% onwards, none J2 developed to the mature female

stage. Iram (2006) studied the response of root-knot nematode, M

incognita to fly ash on pepper {Capsicum annuum L.). All the fly ash

levels reduced the hatching and suppressed the development of juveniles

but increased the mortality rate. Root penetration was inversely

proportional to fly ash ratios. Highest increase in plant growth was

observed at 20% level. Tanweer et al. (2007) observed the effect of fly

ash amended soil (0, 10, 20, 30, 40 & 50%) on the development of root-

knot nematode, M incognita on ivy gourd (Coccinia cordifolia).Number

11

of galls and egg masses per plant were decreased in 10 to 50% fly ash

levels as compared to control.

BRICK KILN DUST

Sources of Brick Kiln Dust

In India the brick industries are well flourishing from last 3 decades and

producing huge amount of brick kiln dust. For preparing one lac bricks,

the consumption of coal and wood is about 12-18 tons. About 6 lac

bricks can be riped in one round (which is completed in 7 days) in a kiln.

The coal ash, wood ash and soil dust particles produced from the brick

kilns together forms the brick kiln dust. Mishra et al. (1987) reported

that in India, fire clay bricks are produced in about 40,000 small brick

kilns and clamps, which operate seasonally using around 40-50 lac tonr

of coal each year.

Properties of Brick Kiln Dust

The complete combustion of fuel in brick kilns mainly produces

fluoride, carbon dioxide, water molecules, oxides of nitrogen, sulphur

dioxide, sulphur trioxide in gaseous form and brick kiln dust ir

powdered waste form. Upadhyay (2004) studied the properties of brick

kiln dust and found that its physico-chemical properties are similar to fly

12

ash but values are less than fly ash.

Effects of Brick Kiln Dust on Plants

Lower level of brick kiln dust i.e. 15% resulted in better growth and

yield of tomato plant (Raghav and Khan, 2002). Upadhyay (2004) also

obtained beneficial impact of brick kiln dust on Brassica juncea and

Linum usitatisimsum. Different concentrations of brick kiln dust affected

the plant growth parameters (length, fresh weight, dry weight of shoot

and root, number of branches, number of leaves and leaf area) of both

the crops. All growth parameters were higher than the control upto 75%

level; however these were maximum at 45%) level. Yield parameters

(flowers, siliqua, seeds per siliqua, 100 seed weight, seed yield,

phytomass and green area per plant) of both the crops were significantly

increased upto 75% concentration of brick kiln dust in general compared

to control, maximum being at 45% level. The photosynthetic pigment

content of leaves and protein content of seeds of both the crops were

increased upto 45%) brick kiln dust level, then sudden significant

reduction was found in subsequent higher concentrations. Similarly the

oil properties were also increased gradually upto 45%) level and after this

level, there was decline in the properties. Recently, Raghav (2006)

observed the effect of brick kiln dust on potato plant. The soil

13

application of brick kiln dust was found beneficial to potato crop,

while foliar application adversely affected the crop.

ROOT-KNOT NEMATODES

Root-knot nematodes are recognized as one of the major group of plant

pathogens affecting world's food production (Sasser, 1980). Vegetables,

cereals, pulses, oilseed crops, fibre-yielding crops, ornamentals, fruit

trees, plantation crops etc. grown in different parts of the world are

affected by these nematodes but vegetables are considered as their

preferred host crops. They cause quantitative as well as qualitative

damage to the crops.

Meloidogyne Spp.

Berkeley (1855) first recognized the root-knot nematode in England.

Root-knot nematodes are sedentary endoparasites which produces

swellings or galls in infected plants. They are world-wide in distribution

and are economically important. Different names have been proposed for

these nematodes (Hirschmann, 1985; Sasser and Carter, 1982;

Triantaphyllou, 1982). Goeldi described Meloidogyne as a new genus in

1887. On the basis of morphological differences and perineal pattern

method, four species of Meloidogyne have been identified viz; M.

14

incognita, M. javanica, M. arenaria and M hapla (Chitwood, 1949) as

major species. However, new species are discovered and added to this

genus each year. Presently, there are about 90 species of Meloidogyne.

Meloidogyne Spp. in India

In 1983, work on distribution and identification of species and races of

Meloidogyne was started in cooperation with the International

Meloidogyne Project at eight centres in India i.e. at Aligarh (Prof S.K.

saxena, Prof M.W. Khan), Bangalore (Prof Krishnappa, Prof K.G.H.

Setty), Hissar (Prof D.S. Batti), Jaipur (Prof P.C. Trivedi), Nasik (Prof

A.B. Pawar), New Delhi (Prof C.L. Sethi), Orissa (Prof Y.S. Rao) and

Udaipur (Prof B.S. Yadav). In India, eleven species of root-knot

nematode {Meloidogyne) have been recorded, namely, M incognita, M.

javanica, M. arenaria, M. hapla, M. graminicola, M. bravicauda, M.

africana, M. exigiia, M. graminis, M. lucknowica and M. tritocoryzae

(Gaur et al., 1993; Khan, 1988 ; Nayak et al., 1986; Sitaramaiah, 1984).

In recent years, work on various aspects of Meloidogyne spp., especially

on their management are in progress at different centres in India.

Meloidogyne Spp. in U.P.

In U.P., at Aligarh, Allahabad, Faizabad, Jhansi, Kanpur, Lucknow and

Meerut, substantial work on root - knot nematodes has been done.

15

Systematic surveys have been conducted in vegetable fields to identify

the species and to observe the pattern of distribution of Meloidogyne

species. Only 5 species of root-knot nematodes, M incognita, M.

javanica, M. arenaria, M. lucknowica and M. graminicola have been

reported in U.P.(Khan, 1969; Khan and Khan, 1990; Siddiqui et al,

1986). M incognita and M javanica are widely distributed in the state.

In some districts, M incognita is more prevalent than M. javanica while

in others M javanica dominates over M. incognita. The species

according to their relative occurrence in the state can be arranged as:

M incognita > M. javanica > M. arenaria > M. graminicola > M.

lucknowica.

EGGPLANT (Solanum melongena L.)

History

The genus Solanum is predominant in Central and South America and

most of the species originated there. From the study of ancient records, it

appears that the brinjal plant is probably a native of South Asia (India)

and was first cultivated in this country. The origin ofS. melongena in the

Indo Burmese region with a large number of types distributed all over

the world suggests a parallel evolution of the various types of cultivated

eggplants.

16

Characteristics

A herbaceous prickly or sometimes unarmed perennial 45- 60 cm tall,

cultivated as an annual plant for its edible fruit. The leaves are ovate,

sinuate or lobed and the flowers are blue, arranged in small clusters of 2

- 5. The berries are large, ovoid, oblong, ellipsoid or elongate in various

shades of white, yellow or dark purple, 2.5 - 25cm long, glabrous with

thick calyx. The colour of fruit ranges from white to deep purple or

almost black and turn dull yellow when mature. The seeds are many and

discoid in shape. Brinjal is a warm season crop and is very susceptible to

frost. It is grown almost throughout the year in the plains but on the hills

it is grown only during the summer (extending upto September). During

June - July, both the long and the round types are sown, while during

December - January, only the round types are generally planted; the

types with slender and long fruits are usually sown during February -

March. Timely irrigation is very important for high yields. Irrigation

may be done every 3' ' or 4" day during summer and after 12-15 days

during winter. The crop is ready for harvesting in 100 - 110 days after

transplanting. Fruits are harvested when they are still immature,

possessing a bright glossy appearance, before the flesh becomes tough

and the seeds begin to harden.

17

Utilization

Fresh brinjals are consumed as a vegetable. The value of brinjal as

vegetable is enhanced during autumn when other vegetables are scarce.

The fruits may also be pickled. Sliced fruits are sometimes dried in the

sun and stored. Fruits are rich in iodine content and are given in liver

complaints. Leaves possess sialogogue and narcotic properties and are

used in cholera, bronchitis, dysuria and asthma. The roots are

antiasthmatic and juice employed for colitis and applied to ulcers in the

nose. Seeds are used as a stimulant but are apt to lead to dyspepsia and

constipation.

Among the vegetables, highest incidence of the disease is observed in

eggplant fields followed by cucumber and okra. More than 60% fields of

these crops are infested with root-knot nematodes. Khan and Khan

(1990) observed the highest frequency of disease on eggplant roots

(83%) followed by cucumber (80%), okra (45%), tomato (40%) and

pepper (30%)) in Western Uttar Pradesh.

18

chapter - 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For the present study, fly ash and brick kiln dust were selected as the two

major particulate air pollutants, M. javanica as a test pathogen and

eggplant as a test plant. The work was divided into two sections. The

experiments done with fly ash were included in Section-I while the

experiments done with brick kiln dust were included in Section-II. Each

section consisted of five experiments, so in total ten experiments were

conducted.

Sources of Fly Ash and Brick Kiln Dust

Fresh fly ash was collected in gunny bags from Thermal Power Plant,

Kasimpur, situated 18 Km away from Aligarh and brick kiln dust was

collected in gunny bags from the brick kiln, Manzoor Garhi, situated

about 14 Km away from Aligarh. Both particulate air pollutants were

brought to the Department of Botany, A.M.U., Aligarh for conducting

different experiments.

Collection of Soil

For experimental work, soil was collected from agricultural fields upto a

depth of 20 cm , after scrapping of the surface litters . Before utilization,

the soil was autoclaved.

19

Autoclaving

Normal field soil kept in gunny bags was steam sterilized in the

autoclave at 20 lb pressure for 20 minutes. The autoclaved soil was dried

and then mixed with particulate pollutants in different ratios separately.

Collection, Identification and Maintenance of M. javanica

For the collection of root samples of vegetables infested with root-knot

nematodes, surveys were conducted in and around Aligarh. Fields with

infection were visited and infected root samples were collected in

polythene bags and brought to the laboratory. Species of root-knot

nematodes were identified on the basis of Perineal Pattern. After

identification, only M javanica populations were maintained on

eggplant cv. "Pusa Kranti" in pure form with a single eggmass culture

for further experiments.

Preparation of Inoculum

Second stage juveniles (J2) were used for inoculation. Inoculum was

prepared by incubating eggmasses of pure M Javanica populations in

sterilized water in the incubator at 25°C for 72 hrs. The freshly hatched

juveniles were collected as water suspension and the number of the

juveniles per ml were standardized by counting the number of J2 in ten 1

ml samples from the suspension. The average number of J2 were used to

20

represent the number of second stage juveniles (J2) per ml of suspension.

Test Plant

The eggplant {Solarium melongena L.) cv. Shivani was selected as test

plant. The certified seeds of eggplant sterilized in 0.01% HgCli for 15

minutes were sown in 20 x 20 cm clay pots. After emergence of four

leaves stage, seedlings were transplanted to different pots for various

experiments.

SECTION! (FLY ASH)

Five experiments conducted with fly ash were as follows-

Exp.l. Hatching

For hatching experiment, fly ash-extract was prepared by adding two

litres distilled water to one kg fly ash and left for overnight. After

fitration, following dilutions were prepared from the standard extract

obtained.

F, = 100 ml distilled water (D.W.) (0% cone.) Control

F2 = 5 ml fly ash-extract + 95 ml D.W. (5% cone.)

F3 = 10 ml fly ash-extract + 90 ml D.W. (10% cone.)

F4 = 20 ml fly ash-extract + 80 ml D.W. (20% cone.)

F5 = 30 ml fly ash-extract + 70 ml D.W. (30% cone.)

F6 = 40 ml fly ash-extract + 60 ml D.W. (40% cone.)

21

F-j = 50 ml fly ash-extract + 50 ml D.W. (50% cone.)

Five average sized eggmasses of M javanica obtained from pure

populations were placed in 5 cm diameter petridishes containing 10 ml

of these different dilutions. Each treatment was replicated five times.

Petridishes containing only distilled water served as control. The

petridishes were kept at room temperature i.e. 25-27 C. Hatched

juveniles were counted at different intervals {V\ 2"^ 3'"'' & 4" day) undei

stereoscopic microscope. Mean was taken and per cent inhibition over

control was determined. Data were analysed statistically for significance.

Exp.2. Mortality

For mortality experiment, fly ash-extract was prepared as in case of

hatching experiment. However, the different dilutions prepared from the

standard extract were of double strength.

F, = 100 ml distilled water (D.W.) (0% cone.) Control

F2 = 10 ml fly ash-extract + 90 ml D.W. (For 5% cone.)

F3 = 20 ml fly ash-extract + 80 ml D.W. (For 10% cone.)

F4 = 40 ml fly ash-extract + 60 ml D.W. (For 20% cone.)

F5 = 60 ml fly ash-extract + 40 ml D.W. (For 30% cone.)

F6 = 80 ml fly ash-extract + 20 ml D.W. (For 40% cone.)

F7 = 100 ml fly ash-extract only (For 50% cone.)

2?

Five ml nematode suspension containing about 100 juveniles of M

javanica were transferred separately to each 5 ml dilution (double

strength) placed in 5 cm diameter petridishes. Each treatment was

replicated five times. Petridishes containing only distilled water served

as control. Dead juveniles were counted at different intervals (1^', 2" *, 3*

& 4* day) under stereoscopic microscope and mortality percentage was

calculated. Data were analysed statistically for significance.

Exp.3. Penetration of Juveniles

For the penetration experiment, fly ash was mixed with autoclaved soil

to obtain following levels (w/w).

Fi = Control (only autoclaved soil) (0% level)

F2 = 5% fly ash + 95% autoclaved soil (5% level)

F3 = 10% fly ash + 90% autoclaved soil (10% level)

F4 = 20% fly ash + 80% autoclaved soil (20% level)

F5 = 30% fly ash + 70% autoclaved soil (30% level)

F6 = 40% fly ash + 60% autoclaved soil (40% level)

F7 = 50% fly ash + 50% autoclaved soil (50% level)

Disposable cups of 7 cm size were filled with different fly ash mixtures.

Total 140 cups (7 treatments x 5 replicates x 4 intervals) were prepared.

Fifteen days old seedlings at four leaves stage were transplanted to each

23

cup. After five days, the seedlings were inoculated with 500 fi-eshly

hatched juveniles of M. Javanica. Cups were placed on glasshouse bench

at 25-27°C. Five seedlings from each treatment were harvested carefiilly

from the cups at different intervals (V\ 2"^ 3''* & 4"" day) and the

penetrated juveniles were observed. Roots of the seedlings were

thoroughly washed under tap water to avoid soil particles. Then the roots

were cut and boiled gently in acid fuchsin (0.1%) + lactophenol solution.

Each root was observed separately under stereoscopic microscope and

penetrated juveniles were counted. Then percent penetration was

calculated for each treatment. Data were analysed statistically for

significance.

Exp.4. Development of Juveniles

For this experiment, the fly ash and autoclaved soil were mixed as in

penetration experiment. One kg of each fly ash mixture was filled in 15

cm clay pots. The pots containing only soil served as control. Total 140

pots (7 treatments x 4 weeks x 5 replicates) were prepared. Fifteen days

old seedlings at four leaves stage were transplanted to each pot. The pots

were kept on glasshouse bench at 25-27°C. After five days, the seedlings

were inoculated with 1000 juveniles of M. javanica. Five seedlings were

harvested from each treatment at different intervals (T', 2"'', 3"^ & 4""

24

week) and processed as done in penetration experiment. Different

developmental stages of nematode were counted under stereoscopic

microscope. Data were analysed statistically for significance.

Exp.5. Plant Growth Performance, Yield and Disease Intensity

For growth performance, same treatments of previous experiments with

five replicates were taken. However, one set of five pots without fly ash

and juveniles was also maintained as uninoculated control. Thus, there

were 40 pots (8 treatments x 5 replicates). Pots were arranged in

randomized block design on glasshouse benches. After two months,

plants were harvested carefully. The plant growth (length of shoot and

root; fresh wt. and dry wt. of shoot and root; leaf/ plant; leaf area / plant;

branch / plant) and yield (flower / plant; flower size; fruit / plant; fruiL

size) parameters were taken. The disease intensity in terms of gall index

(GI) and eggmass index (EMI) were assigned on 0-5 scale ,of Taylor and

Sasser (1978): / - /5e)X -- 3 ^ ^

0_= 0, L = 1-2, 2 = 3-10, 3 = 11-30, 4 = 31-100 and 5 more than 100.

Data were analysed statistically for significance. " "^ivr^ _J_- --''

SECTION-II (BRICK KILN DUST)

Five experiments conducted with brick kiln dust were as follows:

25

Exp.6. Hatching

For hatching experiment, brick kiln dust-extract was prepared by adding

two litres distilled water to one kg brick kiln dust and left for overnight.

After fitration, ft)llowing dilutions were prepared fi-om the standard

extract obtained.

Bi = 100 ml distilled water (D.W.) (0% cone.) Control

B2 = 5 ml brick kiln dust-extract + 95 ml D.W. (5% cone.)

B3 = 10 ml brick kiln dust-extract + 90 ml D.W. (10% cone.)

B4 = 20 ml brick kiln dust-extract + 80 ml D.W. (20% cone.)

B5 = 30 ml brick kiln dust-extract + 70 ml D.W. (30% cone.)

B6 = 40 ml brick kiln dust-extract + 60 ml D.W. (40% cone.)

B7 = 50 ml brick kiln dust-extract + 50 ml D.W. (50% cone.)

Further the experiment was done exactly similar to Exp. 1 .Hatching

(Section -I).

Exp.7. Mortality

For mortality experiment, brick kiln dust-extract was prepared as in case

of hatching experiment. However, the different dilutions prepared from

the standard extract were of double strength.

Bi = 100 ml distilled water (D.W.) (0% cone.) Control

B2 = 10 ml brick kiln dust-extract + 90 ml D.W. (For 5% cone.)

26

Bs = 20 ml brick kiln dust-extract + 80 ml D.W. (For 10% cone.)

B4 = 40 ml brick kiln dust-extract + 60 ml D.W. (For 20% cone.)

B5 = 60 ml brick kiln dust-extract + 40 ml D.W. (For 30%) cone.)

B6 = 80 ml brick kiln dust-extract + 20 ml D.W. (For 40%) cone.)

B7 = 100 ml brick kiln dust-extract only (For 50%) cone.)

Further this experiment was set and completed similar to

Exp.2.Mortality (Section -I).

Exp.8. Penetration of Juveniles

For the penetration experiment, brick kiln dust was mixed with

autoelaved soil to obtain following levels (w/w).

Bi = Control (only autoelaved soil) (0% level)

B2 = 5%) brick kiln dust + 95% autoelaved soil (5%) level)

B3 = 10%o brick kiln dust + 90% autoelaved soil (10%o level)

B4 = 20%) brick kiln dust + 80% autoelaved soil (20% level)

B5 = 30% brick kiln dust + 70% autoelaved soil (30% level)

B6 = 40%) brick kiln dust + 60% autoelaved soil (40%) level)

B7 = 50%o brick kiln dust + 50%) autoelaved soil (50% level)

Further the experiment was set and completed similar to Exp. 3.

Penetration (Section -I).

27

Exp.9. Development of Juveniles

For this experiment, the brick kiln dust and autoclaved soil were mixed

as in penetration experiment. One kg of each brick kiln dust mixture was

filled in 15 cm clay pots. The pots containing only soil served as control.

Total 140 pots (7 treatments x 4 weeks x 5 replicates) were prepared.

Further the experiment was set and completed similar to Exp.4.

Development (Section -I) .

Exp.lO. Plant Growth Performance, Yield and Disease Intensity

For growth performance, same treatments of previous experiments with

five replicates were taken. However, one set of five pots without brick

kiln dust and juveniles was also maintained as uninoculated control.

Thus, there were 40 pots (8 treatments x 5 replicates).Further the

experiment was set and completed similar to Exp.5. Plant Growth

(Section -I) .

28

chapter - 4 I p

^suCts

RESULTS

1. HATCHING

Different fly ash-extract and brick kiln dust-extract levels were tested

against hatching of Myavan/ca juveniles. Data presented in Tables 1

and 2 show that all the concentrations (5, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50%) of

fly ash-extract and brick kiln dust-extract significantly impaired the

hatching of M javanica juveniles as compared to control at all time

intervals (1^', 2" *, 3' '' and 4" day). Inhibition in hatching was directly

proportional to the concentration of both extracts at all the time

intervals. In case of fly ash-extract, the lowest hatching inhibition

was recorded 34.61 and highest 96.17, while in brick kiln dust-

extract, the lowest hatching inhibition was recorded 32.64 and highest

90.10 after 4' day at 5% and 50% concentrations, respectively.

However, the effect of fly ash-extract concentrations was slightly

greater on M javanica as compared to the effect of brick kiln dust

extract. As a result, hatching was slightly less in fly ash-extract than

brick kiln dust-extract (Tables 1 and 2).

2. MORTALITY

The mortality percent of M. javanica juveniles was observed on

29

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and 50%) of fly ash-extract and brick kiln dust-extract. All

concentrations of both the extracts were harmful to M javanica

juveniles (Tables 3 and 4). Killing of juveniles started from 1 ' day

and completed by 4* day. As the concentration of both the extract?

increased, the killing percentage of juveniles was also increased.

Highest mortality (%) was observed on 4" day with 50% fly ash-

extract and brick kiln dust-extract concentrations. Thus, mortality

was directly proportional to the concentration as well as increase in

the number of days. However, juveniles of M javanica were killed

slightly more in fly ash-extract as compared to brick kiln dust-extract.

3. PENETRATION OF JUVENILES

All the levels (5, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50%) of both fly ash and brick

kiln dust in soil were found to be harmful to the nematode (Tables 5

and 6). The penetration of juveniles was inversely proportional to fl>

ash and brick kiln dust levels. All the levels of fly ash and brick kiln

dust significantly suppressed the penetrations of M. javanica

juveniles in eggplant roots as compared to control at all the time

intervals. In fly ash, the highest penetration was found in control i.e.

37.6% and lowest was 13.0% at 50% level on 4* day, and in brick

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lowest was 16.8% at 50% level on 4"" day. In fly ash less number of

M. javanica juveniles penetrated in the roots of eggplant than brick

kiln dust (Tables 5 and 6).

4. D E V E L O P M E N T O F JUVENILES

The development of juveniles of M javanica was also significantly

suppressed in all the fly ash and soil mixture (5:95, 10:90, 20:80,

30:70, 40:60 and 50:50) in eggplant roots (Table 7). The J2 developed

to J3/J4 stage at all the fly ash levels (5, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50%), but

their number were low as compared to control. In first week, neithc

premature nor mature females were found. In second week, J2

developed into premature female through J3/J4 stages upto 40% fly

ash level, however, their numbers were less as compared to control.

Few premature females developed to mature stage in control and at

5% level.

In third week, all penetrated juveniles transformed either J3/J4 or

premature / mature female stages upto 20%) level. The number of

premature female was more as compared to J3/J4. At higher levels

(30, 40 and 50%o), many juveniles were still at J2 stage, although few

juveniles reached upto premature stage (Table 7). In fourth week, a^

31

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the J3/J4 were transformed to premature stage and from premature to

mature stages in control and 5% levels , whereas very few developed

upto mature stage at 10% level. From 30 to 50% levels, many

individuals were still at J2 or J3/J4 stages. None was able to develop to

mature stage.

Similar results of developmental stages of Myavaw/ca juveniles were

also observed in the first week when eggplant was grown in brick

kiln dust and soil mixture (Table-8). In second week, J2 developed

into premature females through J3/J4 stages upto 50% brick kiln dust

level. Few premature females developed to mature females in control

and upto 10% level.

In third week, similar results were observed as in case of fly ash but

here all penetrated juveniles transformed either to J3/J4 or premature /

mature female stages upto 20%) level. In fourth week, all the J3/J4

transformed to premature stage and from premature to mature stage

in control and 5% levels. From 20 to 50%) levels, many juveniles

were still at J2 or J3/J4 stages. None was able to develop to mature

stage (from 30 to 50% levels).

5. PLANT GROWTH PERFORMANCE

The data represented in Table 9 show that all the plant growth

32

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the nematode + fly ash combinations as compared to inoculated

control set. The plant growth was better in 10, 20 and 30%

combinations irrespective of any control (inoculated / uninoculated),

maximum being at 20% level of fly ash (Figs. 2 and 3). Thus, all

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nematode combinations when compared to uninoculated control

(Table 9).

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plant growth parameters were significantly increased as compared to

inoculated control set. The plant grov/th was better in 20, 30 and 40%)

combinations irrespective of any control, maximum being at 30%)

level of brick kiln dust (Figs. 4 and 5). However, all plant growth

parameters were reduced in 5, 10 and 50%) brick kiln dust + nematode

combinations when compared to uninoculated control (Table 10).

6. YIELD OF EGGPLANT AND DISEASE INTENSITY

Fly ash amendments also affected the yield parameters of eggplant

(number of flower / plant, flower size, number of fruits / plant and

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level (Fig. 6). At higher levels (40 and 50%), yield parameters

declined gradually when compared to uninoculated control (Table

11).

However, disease intensity in terms of gall index and egg mass index

was highest in inoculated control set followed by 5% and 10% in fly

ash level while in the rest of the combinations, none of the galls and

egg masses was produced by the nematode in eggplant roots (Table

11).

In brick kiln dust amendments, all the above yield parameters were

significantly increased in the treatments with 20%) to 40% levels,

maximum being at 30%) level (Fig. 7). At higher level (50%o), all the

yield parameters declined when compared to uninoculated control

(Table 12).

Disease intensity in terms of gall index and egg mass index was

highest in inoculated control set followed by 5%) , 10%) and 20%) in

brick kin dust level while in the rest of the combinations, none of the

galls and egg masses was produced by the nematode in eggplant roots

(Table 12).

34

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<Discussion

DISCUSSION

Root-knot nematodes are the most damaging pathogens to vegetable

crops. Vegetables like eggplant, tomato, okra, cabbage, cauliflower,

cucumber etc. suffer greatly in India especially in Western Uttar Pradesh.

M. javanica is a most frequent species in Western U.P. (Khan and Khan,

1990, 1991, 1993). Several management measures for root-knot

nematodes were observed like cultural, organic amendments, biological,

physical and host resistance. However, non eco-friendly control is

satisfactory in application. Nowadays as the use of chemicals have been

banned, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has been recommended to

solve the problem of nematodes. In the present study, two industrial

particulates viz; fly ash and brick kiln dust have been evaluated against

root-knot nematode on eggplant.

The experiments were conducted to determine the effect of fly ash and

brick kiln dust on hatching, mortality, penetration and development of

juveniles of M javanica in eggplant roots separately. The observations

showed that all the fly ash-extract and brick kiln dust-extract

concentrations inhibited the hatching and increased the percent mortalitv

of M. javanica ]uvQm\Qs. This might be due to the presence of some toxic

35

constituents in fly ash (Helder et al., 1982) wiiich are harmful to the

nematodes. Similar results were also observed by Tarannum et al. (2001)

with respect to hatching oi M. javanica. Recently, Kausar (2007) has also

reported the harmful effect of fly ash-extract on juvenile's mortality of

seed gall nematode {Anguina tritici). However, hatching was slightly less

in fly ash-extract as compared to brick kiln dust-extract and mortality

percentage was slightly more in fly ash-extract as compared to brick kiln

dust-extract.

Both fly ash and brick kiln dust were found to be harmful to the nematode

at all levels in the soil. Thus, the penetration of juveniles oi M. javanica in

the roots of eggplant was greatly suppressed under the influence of fly ash

and brick kin dust amended soils. As the levels of fly ash and brick kiln

dust were increased, the penetration was decreased and their subsequent

development was delayed. At first week, less juveniles penetrated whereas

at second, third and fourth weeks, more juveniles penetrated the roots. The

penetration was considerably low at all the levels as compared to control.

However, in fly ash less number of juveniles penetrated in the eggplant

roots than brick kiln dust.

As a result, the development of juveniles in the roots was also less in fly

ash amended soil as compared to brick kiln dust amended soil. Similar

36

results have also been observed by Tarannum et al. (2001) on M javanica

in chickpea roots and by Iram (2006) on M incognita Race 1 in pepper

roots. Due to suppressions in penetration and delay in the development of

M javanica juveniles in eggplant roots, the disease intensity was not

observed beyond 10% in fly ash and 20% in brick kiln dust levels.

Soil application of fly ash and brick kiln dust at lower levels (up to 30%

level) were found beneficial for the plant growth and yield of eggplant in

the present study, maximum being at 20%) level in case of fly ash and at

30%) level in case of brick kiln dust. Thus, fly ash is more beneficial to

plant growth and yield of eggplant as compared to brick kiln dust. The

beneficial effect of fly ash at lower levels (10 - 30%) have already been

observed on many crops like soybean, cabbage, chickpea, cucumber,

lentil, maize, potato, wheat, tomato etc. by various workers (Mishra and

Shukla, 1986; Singh, 1989; Khan and Khan, 1996; Raghav and Khan,

2002; Kausar, 2007). However, higher levels (40 and 50%)) were found

harmful to growth and yield parameters of eggplant. This shows that the

available nutrients present in fly ash and brick kiln dust were beneficial at

certain levels for utilization of a particular plant species.

In fly ash + nematode and brick kiln dust + nematode inoculated

treatments, the growth response of eggplant was significantly much better

37

than the set inoculated by nematode alone. However, the combined

treatments of fly ash and brick kiln dust with nematode from 10% to 30%

levels were much better than uninoculated set. This shows that both fly

ash and brick kiln dust interacted antagonistically with nematodes and

were able to check the infection of nematodes. These interactions i.e. tly

ash + nematode and brick kiln dust + nematode were found beneficial for

growth of eggplant. Thus due to the presence of essential elements, both

fly ash and brick kiln dust on one hand improved the growth and yield of

eggplant and on the other hand controlled the nematodes.

38

C/tapter - 6 ! I ,

Summary

SUMMARY

Root-knot nematodes are a major problem of vegetable crops throughout

the world including India. Two species namely, M incognita and M.

javanica are more common and more frequent than other species of this

genus in the country. Eggplant is considered as a good host of M

javanica. In the present study, the impacts of fly ash and brick kiln dust

were assessed on hatching, mortality, penetration and development of M

javanica juveniles in the eggplant roots and their subsequent effects on

growth and yield parameters of eggplant.

All the fly ash-extract and brick kiln dust-extract concentrations were

effective in killing the juveniles of M javanica and suppressed their

hatching also. These effects were time and concentration dependent.

Root penetration of juveniles was retarded and their subsequent

development was suppressed and delayed at all the levels of both fly ash

and brick kiln dust. At last, none of the juveniles reached to mature

female stage except at 5-20% levels. So, disease intensity was not

observed beyond 10% and 20% levels of fly ash and brick kiln dust,

respectively. The study showed that both fly ash and brick kiln dust were

harmful to root-knot nematodes. However, the effect of fly ash was

39

slightly more on M. javanica than brick kiln dust.

Fly ash and brick kiln dust amendment in soil improved plant growth

and yield of eggplant. Highest increase was observed at 20% level in fly

ash and 30% level in brick kiln dust. Nematode inoculated plants also

showed improved plant growth and yield under the influence of fly ash

and brick kiln dust. Fly ash + nematode and brick kiln dust + nematode

combinations interacted antagonistically. The study showed that fly ash

and brick kiln dust were beneficial to the plant at lower levels i.e. 20%)

and 30%) respectively, while toxic to root-knot nematode, M. javanica at

all the levels. Thus, both fly ash and brick kiln dust can be used as an

eco-friendly nematicide-cum-non-conventional fertilizer at 20%) and

30%) levels respectively. Because on one hand they will improve the

growth of plants and on the other hand they will manage the root-knot

nematode infestation in the fields. At the same time, the disposal

problem of huge amount of fly ash and brick kiln dust will also be

solved.

40

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