european union - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Flag

Motto: United in diversity[1][2][3]

Anthem: Ode to Joy

Political centres BrusselsLuxembourgStrasbourg

Official languages

Demonym European[4]

Member States

Leaders

- President of theCouncil

Herman Van Rompuy

- President of theCommission

José Manuel Barroso

- Speaker of theParliament

Martin Schulz

- Presidency of theCouncil of theUnion

Demetris Christofias(Cyprus)

- HighRepresentative ofthe Union for

Foreign Affairsand SecurityPolicy

Catherine Ashton

Legislature Legislature of the EU

- Upper house Council of the EU

- Lower house European Parliament

Establishment - Treaty of Paris 23 July 1952

European UnionFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The European Union (EU) i/ˌjʊrəˈpiːənˈjuːnjən/ is an economic and

political entity and confederation[10][11] of 27 member states which are located

primarily in Europe.[12] The EU traces its origins from the European Coal andSteel Community (ECSC) and the European Economic Community (EEC),formed by six countries in 1951 and 1958 respectively. In the intervening years theEU has grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by theaddition of policy areas to its remit. The Maastricht Treaty established the

European Union under its current name in 1993.[13] The latest amendment to theconstitutional basis of the EU, the Treaty of Lisbon, came into force in 2009.

The EU operates through a system of supranational independent institutions and

intergovernmental negotiated decisions by the member states.[14][15][16] Importantinstitutions of the EU include the European Commission, the Council of theEuropean Union, the European Council, the Court of Justice of the EuropeanUnion, and the European Central Bank. The European Parliament is elected everyfive years by EU citizens.

The EU has developed a single market through a standardised system of lawswhich apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area (which includes 22

EU and 4 non-EU states) passport controls have been abolished.[17] EU policies

aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital,[18] enact

legislation in justice and home affairs, and maintain common policies on trade,[19]

agriculture,[20] fisheries and regional development.[21] A monetary union, theeurozone, was established in 1999 and is composed of 17 member states.Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy the EU has developed a limitedrole in external relations and defence. Permanent diplomatic missions have beenestablished around the world. The EU is represented at the United Nations, theWTO, the G8 and the G-20.

With a combined population of over 500 million inhabitants,[22] or 7.3% of the

world population,[23] the EU, in 2011, generated a nominal gross domesticproduct (GDP) of 17.6 trillion US dollars, representing approximately 20% of the

global GDP when measured in terms of purchasing power parity.[24]

Contents

1 History

2 Treaties

3 Geography

3.1 Member states

3.2 Environment

4 Politics

4.1 Governance

4.2 Budget

4.3 Competences

5 Legal system

5.1 Courts of Justice

5.2 Fundamental rights

5.3 Acts

6 Justice and home affairs

European Union

23

27



- Treaty of Paris 23 July 1952

- Treaty of Rome 1 January 1958

- Maastricht Treaty 1 November 1993

- Treaty of Lisbon 1 December 2009

Area - Total 4,324,782 km2 (7th¹)

1,669,807 sq mi

- Water (%) 3.08

Population - 2012 estimate 503,492,041 [5] (3rd¹)

- Density 116.2/km2

300.9/sq mi

GDP (PPP) 2011 estimate

- Total $15.821 trillion[6] (1st¹)

- Per capita $31,607[6] (15th¹)

GDP (nominal) 2011 estimate

- Total $17.577 trillion[6] (1st¹)

- Per capita $35,116[7] (14th¹)

Gini (2010) 30.4[8] (medium)

HDI (2011)0.856[9] (very high) (14th¹)

Currency

Time zone (UTC+0 to +2)

- Summer (DST) (UTC+1 to +3[a])

Internet TLD .eu[b]

Websiteeuropa.eu (http://europa.eu)

Calling code See list

If considered as a single entity.

Robert Schuman proposing the Coal

and Steel Community on 9 May 1950.

7 Foreign relations

7.1 Military

7.2 Humanitarian aid

8 Economy

8.1 Internal market

8.2 Competition

8.3 Monetary union

8.4 Financial supervision

8.5 Energy

8.6 Infrastructure

8.7 Agriculture

9 Education and science

10 Health care

11 Demographics

11.1 Languages

11.2 Religion

12 Culture and sport

13 See also14 Notes

14.1 Footnotes

14.2 Citations

15 References

16 External links

History

Main article: History of the European Union

After World War II, moves towardsEuropean integration were seen by manyas an escape from the extreme forms ofnationalism which had devastated the

continent.[25] One such attempt to unite Europeans was the European Coal and SteelCommunity, which was declared to be "a first step in the federation of Europe", starting withthe aim of eliminating the possibility of further wars between its member states by means of

pooling the national heavy industries.[26] The founding members of the Community wereBelgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany. The originatorsand supporters of the Community include Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, Paul-Henri Spaak,

and Alcide De Gasperi.[27]

In 1957, the six countries signed the Treaty of Rome, which extended the earlier cooperationwithin the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and created the European Economic

Community, (EEC) establishing a customs union. They also signed another treaty on the same day creating the European Atomic Energy

Community (Euratom) for cooperation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958.[27]

The EEC and Euratom were created separately from ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. Theexecutives of the new communities were called Commissions, as opposed to the "High Authority". The EEC was headed by WalterHallstein (Hallstein Commission) and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand (Armand Commission) and then Étienne Hirsch. Euratom

would integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union between members.[28][29]

Throughout the 1960s tensions began to show with France seeking to limit supranational power. However, in 1965 an agreement wasreached and hence in 1967 the Merger Treaty was signed in Brussels. It came into force on 1 July 1967 and created a single set ofinstitutions for the three communities, which were collectively referred to as the European Communities (EC), although commonly just

as the European Community.[30][31] Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission (Rey Commission).[32]

Euro (€) (EUR)

1



The Treaty of Rome was signed in

1957 and came into force in 1958. It

created the European Economic

Community.

The Iron Curtain's fall in 1989

enabled eastward enlargement. (Berlin

Wall)

The introduction of the euro in 2002

replaced several national currencies.

In 1973 the Communities enlarged to include Denmark (including Greenland, which later leftthe Community in 1985), Ireland, and the United

Kingdom.[33] Norway had negotiated to join at thesame time but Norwegian voters rejectedmembership in a referendum and so Norwayremained outside. In 1979, the first direct,democratic elections to the European Parliament

were held.[34]

Greece joined in 1981, Portugal and Spain in

1986.[35] In 1985, the Schengen Agreement led theway toward the creation of open borders withoutpassport controls between most member states and

some non-member states.[36] In 1986, the European

flag began to be used by the Community[37] and the Single European Act was signed.

In 1990, after the fall of the Iron Curtain, the former East Germany became part of the Community as part of a newly united

Germany.[38] With enlargement towards European formerly communist countries as well as Cyprus and Malta on the agenda, theCopenhagen criteria for candidate members to join the European Union were agreed.

The European Union was formally established when the Maastricht Treaty came into force on

1 November 1993,[13] and in 1995 Austria, Finland and Sweden joined the newly establishedEU. In 2002, euro notes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states.Since then, the eurozone has increased to encompass 17 countries. In 2004, the EU saw itsbiggest enlargement to date when Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia,

Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia joined the Union.[39]

On 1 January 2007, Romania and Bulgaria became the EU's members. In the same year

Slovenia adopted the euro,[39] followed in 2008 by Cyprus and Malta, by Slovakia in 2009and by Estonia in 2011. In June 2009, the 2009 Parliament elections were held leading to arenewal of Barroso's Commission Presidency, and in July 2009 Iceland formally applied forEU membership.

On 1 December 2009, the Lisbon Treaty entered into force and reformed many aspects of the EU. In particular it changed the legalstructure of the European Union, merging the EU three pillars system into a single legal entity provisioned with legal personality, and itcreated a permanent President of the European Council, the first of which is Herman Van Rompuy, and a strengthened High

Representative, Catherine Ashton.[40]

On 9 December 2011, Croatia signed the EU accession treaty.[41] The EU accession referendum was held in Croatia on 22 January2012, with the majority voting for Croatia's accession to the European Union making it the 28th member state as of July 2013.

Treaties

Main article: Treaties of the European Union

SignedIn force

Document

19481948BrusselsTreaty

19511952ParisTreaty

19541955ModifiedBrusselsTreaty

19571958Rometreaties

19651967MergerTreaty

1975N/AEuropeanCouncilconclusion

19851985SchengenTreaty

19861987Single EuropeanAct

19921993MaastrichtTreaty

19971999AmsterdamTreaty

20012003NiceTreaty

20072009LisbonTreaty

Three pillars of the EuropeanUnion:

European Communities:

European Atomic Energy Community(EURATOM)

European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) Treaty expired in 2002

European Economic Community (EEC)



The EU's climate is influenced by

its 65,993 km (41,006 mi)

coastline (Cyprus).

Mont Blanc in the Alps is the

highest peak in the EU.

EuropeanUnion(EU)

Schengen Rules EuropeanCommunity (EC)

TREVI

Justiceand Home

Affairs(JHA)

Police and JudicialCo-operation inCriminal Matters

(PJCC)

European PoliticalCooperation (EPC)

Common Foreign and SecurityPolicy (CFSP)

Unconsolidatedbodies

Western European Union (WEU)

Treaty terminated in 2011

Geography

Main article: Geography of the European Union

The EU's member states cover an area of 4,423,147 square

kilometres (1,707,787 sq mi).[c] The EU's highest peak is MontBlanc in the Graian Alps, 4,810.45 metres (15,782 ft) above sea

level.[42] The lowest point in the EU is Zuidplaspolder in theNetherlands, at 7 m (23 ft) below sea level. The landscape,climate, and economy of the EU are influenced by its coastline,which is 65,993 kilometres (41,006 mi) long. The combinedmember states share land borders with 19 non-member states for a

total of 12,441 kilometres (7,730 mi).[15][43][44]

Including the overseas territories of France which are locatedoutside of the continent of Europe, but which are members of the union, the EU experiences most types of climate from Arctic (North-East Europe) to tropical (French Guyana), rendering meteorological averages for the EU as a whole meaningless. The majority of thepeople live in areas with a temperate maritime climate (North-Western Europe and Central Europe), a Mediterranean climate (Southern

Europe), or a warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate (Northern Balkans and Central Europe).[45]

The EU's population is highly urbanised, with some 75% of inhabitants (and growing, projected to be 90% in 7 states by 2020) living inurban areas. Cities are largely spread out across the EU, although with a large grouping in and around the Benelux. An increasingpercentage of this is due to low density urban sprawl which is extending into natural areas. In some cases this urban growth has been due

to the influx of EU funds into a region.[46]

Member states

Main article: Member state of the European Union

See also: Special member state territories and the European Union, Enlargement of the European Union, Future

enlargement of the European Union, and Withdrawal from the European Union

The European Union is composed of 27 sovereign memberstates: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic,Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary,Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, theNetherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia,

Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.[47] The Union'smembership has grown from the original six founding states—Belgium, France, (then-West) Germany, Italy, Luxembourg andthe Netherlands—to the present-day 27 by successiveenlargements as countries acceded to the treaties and by doingso, pooled their sovereignty in exchange for representation in the

institutions.[48]



To join the EU a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria,defined at the 1993 Copenhagen European Council. Theserequire a stable democracy that respects human rights and therule of law; a functioning market economy capable of competitionwithin the EU; and the acceptance of the obligations ofmembership, including EU law. Evaluation of a country'sfulfilment of the criteria is the responsibility of the European

Council.[49]

No member state has ever left the Union, although Greenland (an

autonomous province of Denmark) withdrew in 1985.[50] TheLisbon Treaty now provides a clause dealing with how a member

leaves the EU.[51]

Croatia is expected to become the 28th member state of the EUon 1 July 2013 after a referendum on EU membership wasapproved by Croatian voters on 22 January 2012. The Croatianaccession treaty still has to be ratified by all current EU member

states.[52]

There are five candidate countries: Iceland, Macedonia,[d]

Montenegro, Serbia and Turkey.[53] Albania and Bosnia and

Herzegovina are officially recognised as potential candidates.[53]

Kosovo is also listed as a potential candidate but the EuropeanCommission does not list it as an independent country because not all member states recognise it as an independent country separate

from Serbia.[54]

Four countries forming the EFTA (that are not EU members) have partly committed to the EU's economy and regulations: Iceland (acandidate country for EU membership), Liechtenstein and Norway, which are a part of the single market through the European

Economic Area, and Switzerland, which has similar ties through bilateral treaties.[55][56] The relationships of the European microstates,

Andorra, Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican include the use of the euro and other areas of cooperation.[57]

Environment

Further information: European Commissioner for the Environment and European Climate Change Programme

The first environmental policy of the European Community was launched in 1972. Since then it has addressed issues such as acid rain,the thinning of the ozone layer, air quality, noise pollution, waste and water pollution. Today, the European Union is thought to have

some of the most progressive environmental policies of any state in the world.[58]

The Water Framework Directive is an example of a water policy, aiming for rivers, lakes, ground and coastal waters to be of "good

quality" by 2015.[59] The Birds Directive and the Habitats Directive are pieces of European Union legislation for protection ofbiodiversity and natural habitats. These protections however only directly cover animals and plants; fungi and micro-organisms have no

protection under European Union law.[60] The directives are implemented through the Natura 2000 programme and covers 30,000 sites

throughout Europe.[59] In 2007, the Polish government sought to build a motorway through the Rospuda valley, but the Commission has

been blocking construction as the valley is a wildlife area covered by the programme.[61]

In 2007, member states agreed that the EU is to use 20% renewable energy in the future and that it has to reduce carbon dioxide

emissions in 2020 by at least 20% compared to 1990 levels.[62] This includes measures that in 2020, 10% of the overall fuel quantityused by cars and trucks in EU 27 should be running on renewable energy such as biofuels. This is considered to be one of the most

ambitious moves of an important industrialised region to fight global warming.[63]

Politics

Main article: Politics of the European Union

The member states of the European Union (European Communities

pre-1993), animated in order of accession. Only territories in and

around Europe are shown.

Albania

Austria

Belarus

Belgium

Bos.& Herz. Bulgaria

Croatia

Cyprus

CzechRep.

Denmark

Estonia

Finland

France

Germany

Greece

Hungary

Iceland

Ireland

Italy

Latvia

Lithuania

Luxembourg

Mac.

Malta→

Moldova

Mont.

Netherlands

Norway

Poland

Portugal

Romania

Russia

Serbia

Slovakia

Slovenia

Spain

Sweden

Switz-erland

Turkey

Ukraine

UnitedKingdom



President of the

European Council,

Herman Van

Rompuy

Commission President

José Manuel Barroso

The EU operates solely within those competencies conferred on it upon the treaties and according to the principle of subsidiarity (whichdictates that action by the EU should only be taken where an objective cannot be sufficiently achieved by the member states alone).Laws made by the EU institutions are passed in a variety of forms. Generally speaking they can be classified into two groups: thosewhich come into force without the necessity for national implementation measures, and those which specifically require national

implementation measures.[64]

Governance

Main articles: EU institutions and Legislature of the European Union

The European Union has seven institutions: the European Parliament, the Council of the European Union, the European Commission, theEuropean Council, the European Central Bank, the Court of Justice of the European Union and the European Court of Auditors.Competencies in scrutinising and amending legislation are divided between the European Parliament and the Council of the EuropeanUnion while executive tasks are carried out by the European Commission and in a limited capacity by the European Council (not to beconfused with the aforementioned Council of the European Union). The monetary policy of the eurozone is governed by the EuropeanCentral Bank. The interpretation and the application of EU law and the treaties are ensured by the Court of Justice of the EuropeanUnion. The EU budget is scrutinised by the European Court of Auditors. There are also a number of ancillary bodies which advise theEU or operate in a specific area.

European Council

The European Council gives direction to the EU, and convenes at least four times a year. It comprises thePresident of the European Council, the President of the European Commission and one representative permember state; either its head of state or head of government. The European Council has been described by

some as the Union's "supreme political authority".[65] It is actively involved in the negotiation of the treatychanges and defines the EU's policy agenda and strategies.

The European Council uses its leadership role to sort out disputes between member states and the institutions,and to resolve political crises and disagreements over controversial issues and policies. It acts externally as a"collective head of state" and ratifies important documents (for example, international agreements and

treaties).[66]

On 19 November 2009, Herman Van Rompuy was chosen as the first permanent President of the EuropeanCouncil. On 1 December 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon entered into force and he assumed office. Ensuring the

external representation of the EU,[67] driving consensus and settling divergences among members are tasks forthe President both during the convocations of the European Council and in the time periods between them.The European Council should not be mistaken for the Council of Europe, an international organisation

independent from the EU.

Commission

The European Commission acts as the EU's executive arm and is responsible for initiating legislation and theday-to-day running of the EU. The Commission is also seen as the motor of European integration. Itoperates as a cabinet government, with 27 Commissioners for different areas of policy, one from eachmember state, though Commissioners are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather thantheir home state.

One of the 27 is the Commission President (currently José Manuel Durão Barroso) appointed by theEuropean Council. After the President, the most prominent Commissioner is the High Representative of theUnion for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy who is ex-officio Vice President of the Commission and is

chosen by the European Council too.[68] The other 25 Commissioners are subsequently appointed by theCouncil of the European Union in agreement with the nominated President. The 27 Commissioners as asingle body are subject to a vote of approval by the European Parliament.

Parliament



The European Parliament building in

Strasbourg, France

The ordinary legislative

procedure of the European

Union.

The European Parliament (EP) forms one half of the EU's legislature (the other half is theCouncil of the European Union, see below). The 736 (soon to be 751) Members of theEuropean Parliament (MEPs) are directly elected by EU citizens every five years on the basisof proportional representation. Although MEPs are elected on a national basis, they sitaccording to political groups rather than their nationality. Each country has a set number ofseats and is divided into sub-national constituencies where this does not affect the proportional

nature of the voting system.[69]

The Parliament and the Council of the European Unionpass legislation jointly in nearly all areas under the ordinarylegislative procedure. This also applies to the EU budget.Finally, the Commission is accountable to Parliament,

requiring its approval to take office, having to report back to it and subject to motions of censurefrom it. The President of the European Parliament carries out the role of speaker in parliament andrepresents it externally. The EP President and Vice Presidents are elected by MEPs every two and a

half years.[70]

Council

The Council of the European Union (also called the "Council"[71] and sometimes referred to as the

"Council of Ministers")[72] forms the other half of the EU's legislature. It consists of a governmentminister from each member state and meets in different compositions depending on the policy area being addressed. Notwithstanding its

different configurations, it is considered to be one single body.[73] In addition to its legislative functions, the Council also exercisesexecutive functions in relations to the Common Foreign and Security Policy.

Budget

Main article: Budget of the European Union

The 27 member state EU had an agreed budget of €120.7 billion for the year 2007 and €864.3 billion for the period 2007–2013,[75]

representing 1.10% and 1.05% of the EU-27's GNI forecast for the respective periods. By comparison, the United Kingdom'sexpenditure for 2004 was estimated to be €759 billion, and France was estimated to have spent €801 billion. In 1960, the budget of the

then European Economic Community was 0.03% of GDP.[76]

In the 2010 budget of €141.5 billion, the largest single expenditure item is "cohesion & competitiveness" with around 45% of the total

budget.[77] Next comes "agriculture" with approximately 31% of the total.[77] "Rural development, environment and fisheries" takes

up around 11%.[77] "Administration" accounts for around 6%.[77] The "EU as a global partner" and "citizenship, freedom, security

and justice" bring up the rear with approximately 6% and 1% respectively.[77]

The European Court of Auditors aims to ensure that the budget of the European Union has been properly accounted for. The courtprovides an audit report for each financial year to the Council and the European Parliament. The Parliament uses this to decide whetherto approve the Commission's handling of the budget. The Court also gives opinions and proposals on financial legislation and anti-fraud

actions.[78]

The Court of Auditors is legally obliged to provide the Parliament and the Council with "a statement of assurance as to the reliability of

the accounts and the legality and regularity of the underlying transactions".[79] The Court has not given an unqualified approval of the

Union's accounts since 1993.[80] In their report on 2009 the auditors found that five areas of Union expenditure, agriculture and the

cohesion fund, were materially affected by error.[81] The European Commission estimated that the financial impact of irregularities was

€1,863 million.[82]

Competences

EU member states retain all powers not explicitly handed to the European Union. In some areas the EU enjoys exclusive competence.These are areas in which member states have renounced any capacity to enact legislation. In other areas the EU and its member statesshare the competence to legislate. While both can legislate, member states can only legislate to the extent to which the EU has not. In



The 2011 EU budget (€141.9 bn.in total; commitment

appropriations):[74]

Cohesion and

competitiveness for growth and

employment (45%)

Citizenship, freedom,

security and justice (1%)

The EU as a global player

(6%)

Rural development (11%)

Direct aids and market

related expenditures (31%)

Administration (6%)

other policy areas the EU can only co-ordinate, support and supplement member state action but

cannot enact legislation with the aim of harmonising national laws.[83]

That a particular policy area falls into a certain category of competence is not necessarilyindicative of what legislative procedure is used for enacting legislation within that policy area.Different legislative procedures are used within the same category of competence, and even withthe same policy area.

The distribution of competences in various policy areas between Member States and the Union isdivided in the following three categories:

As outlined in Part I, Title I of the consolidated Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union:

Exclusivecompetence:

"The Union has exclusivecompetence to make directives andconclude international agreements

when provided for in a Unionlegislative act."

the customs unionthe establishing of thecompetition rules necessaryfor the functioning of theinternal marketmonetary policy for theMember States whosecurrency is the eurothe conservation of marinebiological resources underthe common fisheriespolicycommon commercialpolicy

Shared competence:

"Member States cannot exercisecompetence in areas where the

Union has done so."

"Union exercise of competenceshall not result in Member Statesbeing prevented from exercising

theirs in:"

the internal marketsocial policy, for theaspects defined in thisTreatyeconomic, social andterritorial cohesionagriculture and fisheries,excluding the conservationof marine biologicalresourcesenvironmentconsumer protectiontransporttrans-European networksenergythe area of freedom,security and justicecommon safety concernsin public health matters,for the aspects defined inthis Treaty

research, technologicaldevelopment and spacedevelopment cooperation,humanitarian aid

"The Union coordinates MemberStates policies or implements

supplemental to theirs commonpolicies, not covered elsewhere"

coordination of economic,employment and socialpoliciescommon foreign, securityand defence policies

Supportingcompetence:

"The Union can carry out actionsto support, coordinate or

supplement Member States'actions in:"

the protection andimprovement of humanhealthindustryculturetourismeducation, youth, sport andvocational trainingcivil protection (disasterprevention)administrative cooperation



The last amendment to the

constitutional basis of the EU came

into force in 2009 and was the Lisbon

Treaty.

Legal system

Further information: EU Law, EU treaties, and Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union

The EU is based on a series of treaties. These first established the European Community and the EU, and then made amendments to

those founding treaties.[84] These are power-giving treaties which set broad policy goals and establish institutions with the necessary legal

powers to implement those goals. These legal powers include the ability to enact legislation[e] which can directly affect all member states

and their inhabitants.[f] The EU has legal personality, with the right to sign agreements and international treaties.[85]

Under the principle of supremacy, national courts are required to enforce the treaties that their member states have ratified, and thus thelaws enacted under them, even if doing so requires them to ignore conflicting national law, and (within limits) even constitutional

provisions.[g]

Courts of Justice

The judicial branch of the EU—formally called the Court of Justice of the European Union—consists of three courts: the Court ofJustice, the General Court, and the European Union Civil Service Tribunal. Together they interpret and apply the treaties and the law of

the EU.[86]

The Court of Justice primarily deals with cases taken by member states, the institutions, and cases referred to it by the courts of member

states.[87] The General Court mainly deals with cases taken by individuals and companies directly before the EU's courts,[88] and the

European Union Civil Service Tribunal adjudicates in disputes between the European Union and its civil service.[89] Decisions from the

General Court can be appealed to the Court of Justice but only on a point of law.[90]

Fundamental rights

The treaties declare that the EU itself is "founded on the values of respect for human dignity,freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rightsof persons belonging to minorities... in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination,

tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail."[91]

In 2009 the Lisbon Treaty gave legal effect to the Charter of Fundamental Rights of theEuropean Union. The charter is a codified catalogue of fundamental rights against which theEU's legal acts can be judged. It consolidates many rights which were previously recognisedby the Court of Justice and derived from the "constitutional traditions common to the member

states."[92] The Court of Justice has long recognised fundamental rights and has, on occasion,

invalidated EU legislation based on its failure to adhere to those fundamental rights.[93] TheCharter of Fundamental Rights was drawn up in 2000. Although originally not legally bindingthe Charter was frequently cited by the EU's courts as encapsulating rights which the courtshad long recognised as the fundamental principles of EU law. Although signing the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is a

condition for EU membership,[h] previously, the EU itself could not accede to the Convention as it is neither a state[i] nor had the

competence to accede.[j] The Lisbon Treaty and Protocol 14 to the ECHR have changed this: the former binds the EU to accede to theConvention while the latter formally permits it.

The EU also promoted human rights issues in the wider world. The EU opposes the death penalty and has proposed its worldwide

abolition.[94] Abolition of the death penalty is a condition for EU membership.[95]

Acts

The main legal acts of the EU come in three forms: regulations, directives, and decisions. Regulations become law in all member states

the moment they come into force, without the requirement for any implementing measures,[k] and automatically override conflicting

domestic provisions.[e] Directives require member states to achieve a certain result while leaving them discretion as to how to achieve the

result. The details of how they are to be implemented are left to member states.[l] When the time limit for implementing directives passes,



The Schengen Area comprises most

member states ensuring open borders.

High Representative

of the Union for

Foreign Affairs and

Security Policy,

Catherine Ashton.

they may, under certain conditions, have direct effect in national law against member states.

Decisions offer an alternative to the two above modes of legislation. They are legal acts which only apply to specified individuals,companies or a particular member state. They are most often used in competition law, or on rulings on State Aid, but are also frequentlyused for procedural or administrative matters within the institutions. Regulations, directives, and decisions are of equal legal value and

apply without any formal hierarchy.[96]

Justice and home affairs

Further information: Area of freedom, security and justice

Since the creation of the EU in 1993, it has developed its competencies in the area of justiceand home affairs, initially at an intergovernmental level and later by supranationalism. To thisend, agencies have been established that co-ordinate associated actions: Europol for co-

operation of police forces,[97] Eurojust for co-operation between prosecutors,[98] and Frontex

for co-operation between border control authorities.[99] The EU also operates the Schengen

Information System[17] which provides a common database for police and immigrationauthorities. This cooperation had to particularly be developed with the advent of open bordersthrough the Schengen Agreement and the associated cross border crime.

Furthermore, the Union has legislated in areas such as extradition,[100] family law,[101] asylum

law,[102] and criminal justice.[103] Prohibitions against sexual and nationality discrimination

have a long standing in the treaties.[m] In more recent years, these have been supplemented by

powers to legislate against discrimination based on race, religion, disability, age, and sexual orientation.[n] By virtue of these powers, the

EU has enacted legislation on sexual discrimination in the work-place, age discrimination, and racial discrimination.[o]

Foreign relations

Main articles: Foreign relations of the European Union, Common Foreign and Security Policy, and European External

Action Service

Foreign policy cooperation between member states dates from the establishment of the Community in 1957,when member states negotiated as a bloc in international trade negotiations under the Common Commercial

Policy.[104] Steps for a more wide ranging coordination in foreign relations began in 1970 with theestablishment of European Political Cooperation which created an informal consultation process betweenmember states with the aim of forming common foreign policies. It was not, however, until 1987 whenEuropean Political Cooperation was introduced on a formal basis by the Single European Act. EPC was

renamed as the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) by the Maastricht Treaty.[105]

The aims of the CFSP are to promote both the EU's own interests and those of the international community asa whole, including the furtherance of international co-operation, respect for human rights, democracy, and the

rule of law.[106] The CFSP requires unanimity among the member states on the appropriate policy to follow onany particular issue. The unanimity and difficult issues treated under the CFSP makes disagreements, such as

those which occurred over the war in Iraq,[107] not uncommon.

The co-ordinator and representative of the CFSP within the EU is the High Representative of the Union forForeign Affairs and Security Policy (currently Catherine Ashton) who speaks on behalf of the EU in foreign

policy and defence matters, and has the task of articulating the positions expressed by the member states on these fields of policy into a

common alignment. The High Representative heads up the European External Action Service (EEAS), a unique EU department[108] thathas been officially implemented and operational since 1 December 2010 on the occasion of the first anniversary of the entry into force of

the Treaty of Lisbon.[109] The EEAS will serve as a foreign ministry and diplomatic corps for the European Union.[110]

Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union, the international influence of the EU is also felt through enlargement.The perceived benefits of becoming a member of the EU act as an incentive for both political and economic reform in states wishing tofulfil the EU's accession criteria, and are considered an important factor contributing to the reform of European formerly Communist



The EU participates in all G8 and G20

summits. (G20 summit in Seoul)

The Eurofighter Typhoon and Eurocopter Tiger are built by

consortiums of companies based in EU member states.

The EU is a large contributor of

foreign aid

countries.[111] This influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as

"soft power", as opposed to military "hard power".[112]

Military

Main article: Military of the European Union

The European Union does not have one unified military. The predecessors of the EuropeanUnion were not devised as a strong military alliance because NATO was largely seen as

appropriate and sufficient for defence purposes.[113] 21 EU members are members of

NATO[114] while the remaining member states follow policies of neutrality.[115] The WesternEuropean Union, a military alliance with a mutual defence clause, was

disbanded in 2010 as its role had been transferred to the EU.[116]

According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute(SIPRI), France spent more than €44 billion ($61bn) on defence in 2010,placing it third in the world after the US and China, while the United

Kingdom spent almost £39 billion ($57bn), the fourth largest.[117]

Together, France and the United Kingdom account for 45 per cent ofEurope's defence budget, 50 per cent of its military capacity and 70 per

cent of all spending in military research and development.[118] In 2000,the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Germany accounted for 97% of the total military research budget of the then 15 EU member

states.[119]

Following the Kosovo War in 1999, the European Council agreed that "the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action,backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to internationalcrises without prejudice to actions by NATO". To that end, a number of efforts were made to increase the EU's military capability,notably the Helsinki Headline Goal process. After much discussion, the most concrete result was the EU Battlegroups initiative, each of

which is planned to be able to deploy quickly about 1500 personnel.[120]

EU forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from Africa to the former Yugoslavia and the Middle East.[121] EU militaryoperations are supported by a number of bodies, including the European Defence Agency, European Union Satellite Centre and the

European Union Military Staff.[122] In an EU consisting of 27 members, substantial security and defence cooperation is increasingly

relying on great power cooperation.[123]

Humanitarian aid

Further information: ECHO (European Commission)

The European Commissions Humanitarian Aid Office, or "ECHO", provides humanitarian aidfrom the EU to developing countries. In 2006 its budget amounted to €671 million, 48% of

which went to the African, Caribbean and Pacific countries.[124]

Humanitarian aid is financed directly by the budget (70%) as part of the financial instruments

for external action and also by the European Development Fund (30%).[125] The EU's

external action financing is divided into 'geographic' instruments and 'thematic' instruments.[125]

The 'geographic' instruments provide aid through the Development Cooperation Instrument(DCI, €16.9 billion, 2007–2013), which must spend 95% of its budget on overseasdevelopment assistance (ODA), and from the European Neighbourhood and Partnership

Instrument (ENPI), which contains some relevant programmes.[125] The EuropeanDevelopment Fund (EDF, €22.7 bn, 2008–2013) is made up of voluntary contributions by member states, but there is pressure tomerge the EDF into the budget-financed instruments to encourage increased contributions to match the 0.7% target and allow the

European Parliament greater oversight.[125]

The EU's aid has previously been criticised by the eurosceptic think-tank Open Europe for being inefficient, mis-targeted and linked to



Largest Economies

Economy in International dollars (billions)

EU

USA

China

Japan

Brazil

The five largest economies in the world according to the IMF by

nominal GDP in 2011 (EU figures for 2010).[132]

economic objectives.[126] Furthermore, some charities such as ActionAid have claimed European governments have inflated the amountthey have spent on aid by incorrectly including money spent on debt relief, foreign students, and refugees. Under the de-inflated figures,

the EU as a whole did not reach its internal aid target in 2006[127] and is expected not to reach the international target of 0.7% of gross

national income until 2015.[128]

However, four countries have reached the 0.7% target: Sweden, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Denmark.[129] In 2005 EU aid was

0.34% of the GNP which was higher than that of either the United States or Japan.[130] The previous Commissioner for Aid, Louis

Michel, has called for aid to be delivered more rapidly, to greater effect, and on humanitarian principles.[131]

Economy

Main articles: Economy of the European Union and Regional policy of the European Union

The EU has established a single market across the territory ofall its members. A monetary union, the eurozone, using a

single currency comprises 17 member states.[133] In 2011 theEU had a combined GDP of 17.57 trillion internationaldollars, a 20% share of the global gross domestic product (in

terms of purchasing power parity).[24]

Of the top 500 largest corporations measured by revenue(Fortune Global 500 in 2010), 161 have their headquarters in

the EU.[134] In 2007, unemployment in the EU stood at

7%[135] while investment was at 21.4% of GDP, inflation at2.2%, and current account balance at −0.9% of GDP (i.e.,

slightly more import than export).[136]

There is a significant variance for GDP (PPP) per capita within individual EU states, these range from €11,300 to €69,800 (about

US$15,700 to US$97,000).[137] The difference between the richest and poorest regions (271 NUTS-2 regions of the Nomenclature ofTerritorial Units for Statistics) ranged, in 2009, from 27% of the EU27 average in the region of Severozapaden in Bulgaria, to 332% ofthe average in Inner London in the United Kingdom. On the high end, Inner London has €78,000 PPP per capita, Luxembourg€62,500, and Bruxelles-Cap €52,500, while the poorest regions, are Severozapaden with €6,400 PPP per capita, Nord-Est with

€6,900 PPP per capita, Severen tsentralen with €6,900 and Yuzhen tsentralen with €7,200.[137]

Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds are supporting the development of underdeveloped regions of the EU. Such regions are primarily

located in the states of central and southern Europe.[138][139] Several funds provide emergency aid, support for candidate members totransform their country to conform to the EU's standard (Phare, ISPA, and SAPARD), and support to the former USSRCommonwealth of Independent States (TACIS). TACIS has now become part of the worldwide EuropeAid programme. EU researchand technological framework programmes sponsor research conducted by consortia from all EU members to work towards a single

European Research Area.[140]

Internal market

Main article: Internal Market

Two of the original core objectives of the European Economic Community were the development of a common market, subsequentlyrenamed the single market, and a customs union between its member states. The single market involves the free circulation of goods,

capital, people and services within the EU,[133] and the customs union involves the application of a common external tariff on all goodsentering the market. Once goods have been admitted into the market they cannot be subjected to customs duties, discriminatory taxes orimport quotas, as they travel internally. The non-EU member states of Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein and Switzerland participate in the

single market but not in the customs union.[55] Half the trade in the EU is covered by legislation harmonised by the EU.[141]

Free movement of capital is intended to permit movement of investments such as property purchases and buying of shares between

countries.[142] Until the drive towards economic and monetary union the development of the capital provisions had been slow. Post-Maastricht there has been a rapidly developing corpus of ECJ judgements regarding this initially neglected freedom. The free movement

16,242

15,064

6,988

5,855

2,517



EU member states have

a standardised passport

design with the name of

the member state, a

symbol, and the words

"European Union" given

in their official

language(s). (Ireland

model)

The eurozone (in darker blue)

is constituted by 17 member

states adopting the euro as

legal tender.

The European Central

Bank in Frankfurt

governs the monetary

policy.

of capital is unique insofar as it is granted equally to non-member states.

The free movement of persons means that EU citizens can move freely between member states to live,work, study or retire in another country. This required the lowering of administrative formalities and

recognition of professional qualifications of other states.[143]

The free movement of services and of establishment allows self-employed persons to move betweenmember states to provide services on a temporary or permanent basis. While services account for 60–70%of GDP, legislation in the area is not as developed as in other areas. This lacuna has been addressed by therecently passed Directive on services in the internal market which aims to liberalise the cross border

provision of services.[144] According to the Treaty the provision of services is a residual freedom that onlyapplies if no other freedom is being exercised.

Competition

Further information: European Union competition law and European Commissioner forCompetition

The EU operates a competition policy intended to ensure undistorted competition within the single

market.[p] The Commission as the competition regulator for the single market is responsible for antitrustissues, approving mergers, breaking up cartels, working for economic liberalisation and preventing state

aid.[145]

The Competition Commissioner, currently Joaquín Almunia, is one of the most powerful positions in the Commission, notable for the

ability to affect the commercial interests of trans-national corporations.[146] For example, in 2001 the Commission for the first timeprevented a merger between two companies based in the United States (GE and Honeywell) which had already been approved by their

national authority.[147] Another high profile case against Microsoft, resulted in the Commission fining Microsoft over €777 million

following nine years of legal action.[148]

Monetary union

Main articles: Eurozone and Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union

The creation of a European single currency became an official objective of theEuropean Economic Community in 1969. However, it was only with theadvent of the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 that member states were legallybound to start the monetary union no later than 1 January 1999. On this datethe euro was duly launched by eleven of the then 15 member states of the EU.It remained an accounting currency until 1 January 2002, when euro notes andcoins were issued and national currencies began to phase out in the eurozone,which by then consisted of 12 member states. The eurozone (constituted bythe EU member states which have adopted the euro) has since grown to 17countries, the most recent being Estonia which joined on 1 January 2011.

All other EU member states, except Denmark and the United Kingdom, are

legally bound to join the euro[149] when the convergence criteria are met,however only a few countries have set target dates for accession. Sweden hascircumvented the requirement to join the euro by not meeting the membership

criteria.[q]

The euro is designed to help build a single market by, for example: easing travel of citizens and goods, eliminating exchange rateproblems, providing price transparency, creating a single financial market, price stability and low interest rates, and providing a currencyused internationally and protected against shocks by the large amount of internal trade within the eurozone. It is also intended as a

political symbol of integration and stimulus for more.[150] Since its launch the euro has become the second reserve currency in the world

with a quarter of foreign exchanges reserves being in euro.[151] The euro, and the monetary policies of those who have adopted it in

agreement with the EU, are under the control of the European Central Bank (ECB).[152]



EU energy production

46% of total EU primary energy use

Nuclear energy[r] 29.3%

Coal & lignite 21.9%

Gas 19.4%

Renewable energy 14.6%

Oil 13.4%

Other 1.4%

Net imports of energy

54% of total primary EU energy use

Oil & petroleum products 60.2%

Gas 26.4%

Other 13.4%

The ECB is the central bank for the eurozone, and thus controls monetary policy in that area with an agenda to maintain price stability. Itis at the centre of the European System of Central Banks, which comprehends all EU national central banks and is controlled by itsGeneral Council, consisting of the President of the ECB, who is appointed by the European Council, the Vice-President of the ECB, and

the governors of the national central banks of all 27 EU member states.[153]

The monetary union has been shaken by the European sovereign-debt crisis since 2009.

Financial supervision

The European System of Financial Supervisors is an institutional architecture of the EU's framework of financial supervision composedby three authorities: the European Banking Authority, the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority and the EuropeanSecurities and Markets Authority. To complement this framework, there is also a European Systemic Risk Board under the

responsibility of the ECB. The aim of this financial control system is to ensure the economic stability of the EU.[154]

Energy

Main article: Energy policy of the European Union

In 2006, the 27 member states of the EU had a gross inland energy consumption of

1,825 million tonnes of oil equivalent (toe).[155] Around 46% of the energy consumed was

produced within the member states while 54% was imported.[155] In these statistics, nuclearenergy is treated as primary energy produced in the EU, regardless of the source of the

uranium, of which less than 3% is produced in the EU.[156]

The EU has had legislative power in the area of energy policy for most of its existence; thishas its roots in the original European Coal and Steel Community. The introduction of amandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of theEuropean Council in October 2005, and the first draft policy was published in January

2007.[157]

The EU has five key points in its energy policy: increase competition in the internal market,encourage investment and boost interconnections between electricity grids; diversify energyresources with better systems to respond to a crisis; establish a new treaty framework forenergy co-operation with Russia while improving relations with energy-rich states in Central

Asia[158] and North Africa; use existing energy supplies more efficiently while increasing use

of renewable energy; and finally increase funding for new energy technologies.[157]

The EU currently imports 82% of its oil, 57% of its natural gas[159] and 97.48% of its uranium[156] demands. There are concerns thatEurope's dependence on Russian energy is endangering the Union and its member countries. The EU is attempting to diversify its energy

supply.[160]

Infrastructure

Further information: European Commissioner for Transport, European Commissioner for Industry andEntrepreneurship, and European Investment Bank

The EU is working to improve cross-border infrastructure within the EU, for example through the Trans-European Networks (TEN).Projects under TEN include the Channel Tunnel, LGV Est, the Fréjus Rail Tunnel, the Öresund Bridge, the Brenner Base Tunnel and theStrait of Messina Bridge. In 2001 it was estimated that by 2010 the network would cover: 75,200 kilometres (46,700 mi) of roads;

78,000 kilometres (48,000 mi) of railways; 330 airports; 270 maritime harbours; and 210 internal harbours.[161][162]

The developing European transport policies will increase the pressure on the environment in many regions by the increased transportnetwork. In the pre-2004 EU members, the major problem in transport deals with congestion and pollution. After the recent

enlargement, the new states that joined since 2004 added the problem of solving accessibility to the transport agenda.[163] The Polishroad network in particular was in poor condition: at Poland's accession to the EU, a number of roads needed to be upgraded,

particularly the A4 autostrada, requiring approximately €13 billion.[164][165]



The Öresund Bridge between

Denmark and Sweden is part of the

Trans-European Networks.

EU farms are supported by the CAP,

the largest budgetary expenditure.

(Vineyard in Spain)

The Galileo positioning system is another EU infrastructure project. Galileo is a proposedSatellite navigation system, to be built by the EU and launched by the European Space Agency(ESA), and is to be operational by 2012. The Galileo project was launched partly to reducethe EU's dependency on the US-operated Global Positioning System, but also to give morecomplete global coverage and allow for far greater accuracy, given the aged nature of the GPS

system.[166] It has been criticised by some due to costs, delays, and their perception of

redundancy given the existence of the GPS system.[167]

Agriculture

Main article: Common Agricultural Policy

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is one of the oldest policies of the European

Community, and was one of its core aims.[168] The policy has the objectives of increasingagricultural production, providing certainty in food supplies, ensuring a high quality of life for

farmers, stabilising markets, and ensuring reasonable prices for consumers.[s] It was, untilrecently, operated by a system of subsidies and market intervention. Until the 1990s, thepolicy accounted for over 60% of the then European Community's annual budget, and still

accounts for around 34%.[169]

The policy's price controls and market interventions led to considerable overproduction,resulting in so-called butter mountains and wine lakes. These were intervention stores ofproduce bought up by the Community to maintain minimum price levels. In order to dispose ofsurplus stores, they were often sold on the world market at prices considerably belowCommunity guaranteed prices, or farmers were offered subsidies (amounting to the difference between the Community and world prices)to export their produce outside the Community. This system has been criticised for under-cutting farmers outside of Europe, especially

those in the developing world.[170]

The overproduction has also been criticised for encouraging environmentally unfriendly intensive farming methods.[170] Supporters ofCAP say that the economic support which it gives to farmers provides them with a reasonable standard of living, in what would

otherwise be an economically unviable way of life. However, the EU's small farmers receive only 8% of CAP's available subsidies.[170]

Since the beginning of the 1990s, the CAP has been subject to a series of reforms. Initially these reforms included the introduction ofset-aside in 1988, where a proportion of farm land was deliberately withdrawn from production, milk quotas (by the McSharry reformsin 1992) and, more recently, the 'de-coupling' (or disassociation) of the money farmers receive from the EU and the amount theyproduce (by the Fischler reforms in 2004). Agriculture expenditure will move away from subsidy payments linked to specific produce,toward direct payments based on farm size. This is intended to allow the market to dictate production levels, while maintaining

agricultural income levels.[168] One of these reforms entailed the abolition of the EU's sugar regime, which previously divided the sugar

market between member states and certain African-Caribbean nations with a privileged relationship with the EU.[137]

Education and science

Main articles: Educational policies and initiatives of the European Union and Framework Programmes for Research andTechnological Development

Education and science are areas where the EU's role is limited to supporting national governments. In education, the policy was mainlydeveloped in the 1980s in programmes supporting exchanges and mobility. The most visible of these has been the Erasmus Programme,a university exchange programme which began in 1987. In its first 20 years it has supported international exchange opportunities for well

over 1.5 million university and college students and has become a symbol of European student life.[171]



Renewable energy is one priority

in transnational research activities

such as the seventh framework

programme

European Health Insurance Card.

(French version pictured)

There are now similar programmes for school pupils and teachers, for trainees in vocational education and training, and for adult learnersin the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013. These programmes are designed to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries

and to spread good practices in the education and training fields across the EU.[172] Through its support of the Bologna process the EUis supporting comparable standards and compatible degrees across Europe.

Scientific development is facilitated through the EU's Framework Programmes, the first of which started in 1984. The aims of EU policyin this area are to co-ordinate and stimulate research. The independent European Research

Council allocates EU funds to European or national research projects.[173] EU research andtechnological framework programmes deal in a number of areas, for example energy where itaims to develop a diverse mix of renewable energy for the environment and to reduce

dependence on imported fuels.[174]

Health care

Further information: Healthcare in Europe

Although the EU has no major competences in the field of health care, Article 35 of the Charter ofFundamental Rights of the European Union affirms that "A high level of human health protectionshall be ensured in the definition and implementation of all Union policies and activities". All themember states have either publicly sponsored and regulated universal health care or publiclyprovided universal health care. The European Commission's Directorate-General for Healthand Consumers seeks to align national laws on the protection of people's health, on the

consumers' rights, on the safety of food and other products.[175][176][177]

Health care in the EU is provided through a wide range of different systems run at the nationallevel. The systems are primarily publicly funded through taxation (universal health care).Private funding for health care may represent personal contributions towards meeting the non-taxpayer refunded portion of health care or may reflect totally private (non-subsidised) healthcare either paid out of pocket or met by some form of personal or employer funded insurance.

All EU and many other European countries offer their citizens a free European HealthInsurance Card which, on a reciprocal basis, provides insurance for emergency medical treatment insurance when visiting other

participating European countries.[178] A directive on cross-border healthcare aims at promoting cooperation on health care between

member states and facilitating access to safe and high-quality cross-border healthcare for European patients.[179][180][181]

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of the European Union and Largest population centres in the European Union

On 29 July 2012, the combined population of all 27 member states was forecast at 502,122,750 as of 1 January 2011.[5]

The EU contains 16 cities with populations of over one million, the largest being London.

Besides many large cities, the EU also includes several densely populated regions that have no single core but have emerged from theconnection of several cites and now encompass large metropolitan areas. The largest are Rhine-Ruhr having approximately 11.5 millioninhabitants (Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf et al.), Randstad approx. 7 million (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht et al.),Frankfurt Rhine-Main Metropolitan Region approx. 5.8 million (Frankfurt, Wiesbaden et al.), the Flemish diamond approx. 5.5 million(urban area in between Antwerp, Brussels, Leuven and Ghent), the Øresund Region approx. 3.7 million (Copenhagen, Denmark and

Malmö, Sweden), and the Upper Silesian Industrial Region approx. 3.5 million (Katowice, Sosnowiec, Gliwice et al.)[184]

In 2010, 47.3 million people lived in the EU, who were born outside their resident country. This corresponds to 9.4% of the total EUpopulation. Of these, 31.4 million (6.3%) were born outside the EU and 16.0 million (3.2%) were born in another EU member state.The largest absolute numbers of people born outside the EU were in Germany (6.4 million), France (5.1 million), the United Kingdom

(4.7 million), Spain (4.1 million), Italy (3.2 million), and the Netherlands (1.4 million).[185]



European official languages report(EU-251)

LanguageNative

SpeakersTotal

English 13% 51%

German 18% 32%

French 12% 26%

Italian 13% 16%

Spanish 9% 15%

Polish 9% 10%

Dutch 5% 6%

Greek 3% 3%

Czech 2% 3%

Swedish 2% 3%

Hungarian 2% 2%

Portuguese 2% 2%

Slovak 1% 2%

Danish 1% 1%

Finnish 1% 1%

Lithuanian 1% 1%

Slovenian 1% 1%

Estonian <1% <1%

Irish <1% <1%

Latvian <1% <1%

Maltese <1% <1%

1Published in 2006, before the

accession of Bulgaria and Romania.

Survey conducted in 2005, based on population

with a minimum age of 15.

Native: Native language[186]

Total: EU citizens able to hold a

conversation in this language[187]

Languages

Main article: Languages of the European Union

Among the many languages and dialects used in the EU, it has 23 official and workinglanguages: Bulgarian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French,German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish,

Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish, and Swedish.[188][189] Importantdocuments, such as legislation, are translated into every official language. The EuropeanParliament provides translation into all languages for documents and its plenary

sessions.[190] Some institutions use only a handful of languages as internal working

languages.[191] Catalan, Galician, Basque, Scottish Gaelic and Welsh are not officiallanguages of the EU but have semi-official status in that official translations of thetreaties are made into them and citizens of the EU have the right to correspond with theinstitutions using them.

Language policy is the responsibility of member states, but EU institutions promote the

learning of other languages.[t][192] English is the most spoken language in the EU and isspoken by 51% of the EU population counting both native and non-native

speakers.[193] German is the most widely spoken mother tongue (about 88.7 millionpeople as of 2006). 56% of EU citizens are able to engage in a conversation in a

language other than their mother tongue.[194] Most official languages of the EU belongto the Indo-European language family, except Estonian, Finnish, and Hungarian, whichbelong to the Uralic language family, and Maltese, which is an Afroasiatic language.Most EU official languages are written in the Latin alphabet except Bulgarian, written in

Cyrillic, and Greek, written in the Greek alphabet.[195]

Besides the 23 official languages, there are about 150 regional and minority languages,

spoken by up to 50 million people.[195] Of these, only the Spanish regional languages(that is, Catalan, Galician, and the non-Indo-European Basque), Scottish Gaelic, and

Welsh[196] can be used by citizens in communication with the main European

institutions.[197] Although EU programmes can support regional and minority languages,the protection of linguistic rights is a matter for the individual member states. TheEuropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languages ratified by most EU statesprovides general guidelines that states can follow to protect their linguistic heritage.

Religion

Main article: Religion in the European Union

The EU is a secular body with no formal connection to any religion. The Article 17 ofthe Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union recognises the "status undernational law of churches and religious associations" as well as that of "philosophical and

non-confessional organisations".[199]

The preamble to the Treaty on European Union mentions the "cultural, religious and humanist inheritance of Europe".[199] Discussionover the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the Treaty of Lisbon included proposals to mention Christianity or "God" or

both, in the preamble of the text, but the idea faced opposition and was dropped.[200]

Christians in the EU are divided among followers of Roman Catholicism, numerous Protestant denominations, and the Eastern OrthodoxChurch. Islam and Judaism are also represented in the EU population. As of 2009, the EU had an estimated Muslim population of

13 million,[201] and an estimated Jewish population of over a million.[202]

Eurostat's Eurobarometer opinion polls showed in 2005 that 52% of EU citizens believed in a god, 27% in "some sort of spirit or life

force", and 18% had no form of belief.[198] Many countries have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent

years.[203] The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were Estonia (16%) and the Czech Republic (19%).[198]



The percentage of Europeans in each

member state who believe in "a

God".[198]

Maribor in Slovenia (left) and Guimarães in Portugal (right) are the

European Capitals of Culture in 2012

The most religious countries are Malta (95%; predominantly Roman Catholic), and Cyprusand Romania both with about 90% of the citizens believing in God (both predominantlyOrthodox). Across the EU, belief was higher among women, increased with age, those withreligious upbringing, those who left school at 15 with a basic education, and those "positioning

themselves on the right of the political scale (57%)."[198]

Culture and sport

Main articles: Cultural policies of the European Union and Sport policies of the

European Union

Cultural co-operationbetween memberstates has been aconcern of the EUsince its inclusion as

a community competency in the Maastricht Treaty.[204] Actionstaken in the cultural area by the EU include the Culture 2000 7-

year programme,[204] the European Cultural Month event,[205]

the Media Plus programme,[206] orchestras such as the

European Union Youth Orchestra[207] and the EuropeanCapital of Culture programme – where one or more cities in theEU are selected for one year to assist the cultural development

of that city.[208]

Sport is mainly the responsibility of an individual member states or other international organisations rather than that of the EU. However,there are some EU policies that have had an impact on sport, such as the free movement of workers which was at the core of the

Bosman ruling, which prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with European citizenship.[209] TheTreaty of Lisbon requires any application of economic rules to take into account the specific nature of sport and its structures based on

voluntary activity.[210] This followed lobbying by governing organisations such as the International Olympic Committee and FIFA, due to

objections over the applications of free market principles to sport which led to an increasing gap between rich and poor clubs.[211] The

EU does fund a program for Israeli, Jordanian, Irish and British football coaches, as part of the Football 4 Peace project.[212]

See also

Outline of the European Union

Wikipedia books: European Union

Council of EuropeEuropean Free Trade AssociationStatue of Europe

Notes

Footnotes

a. ^ Not including overseas territories

b. ^ .eu is representative of the whole of the EU, member states also have their own TLDs

c. ^ This figure includes the extra-European territories of member states which are part of the European Union and excludes the Europeanterritories of member states which are not part of the Union. For more information see Special member state territories and the EuropeanUnion.

d. ^ Referred to by the EU as the "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia".

e. ̂a b See Article 288 (ex Article 249 TEC) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:0047:0200:EN:PDF)



lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:0047:0200:EN:PDF)

f. ^ According to the principle of Direct Effect first invoked in the Court of Justice's decision in Van Gend en Loos v NederlandseAdministratie der Belastingen, Eur-Lex (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61962J0026:EN:NOT)(European Court of Justice 1963). See: Craig and de Búrca, ch. 5.

g. ^ According to the principle of Supremacy as established by the ECJ in Case 6/64, Falminio Costa v. ENEL [1964] ECR 585. See Craigand de Búrca, ch. 7. See also: Factortame litigation: Factortame Ltd. v. Secretary of State for Transport (No. 2) [1991] 1 AC 603,Solange II (Re Wuensche Handelsgesellschaft, BVerfG decision of 22 Oct 1986 [1987] 3 CMLR 225,265) and Frontini v. Ministero delleFinanze [1974] 2 CMLR 372; Raoul George Nicolo [1990] 1 CMLR 173.

h. ^ It is effectively treated as one of the Copenhagen criteria, Assembly.coe.int. (http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link=/Documents/AdoptedText/ta08/ERES1610.htm) It should be noted that this is a political and not a legal requirement for membership.

i. ^ The European Convention on Human Rights was previously only open to members of the Council of Europe (Article 59.1 of theConvention (http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/005.htm) ), and even now only states may become member of theCouncil of Europe (Article 4 of the Statute of the Council of Europe (http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/001.htm) ).

j. ^ Opinion (2/92) of the European Court of Justice on "Accession by the Community to the European Convention for the Protection ofHuman Rights and Fundamental Freedoms" 1996 E.C.R. I-1759 (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61994V0002:FR:NOT) (in French), ruled that the European Community did not have the competence to accede to the ECHR.

k. ^ See: Case 34/73, Variola v. Amministrazione delle Finanze [1973] ECR 981 (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61973J0034:EN:NOT) .

l. ^ To do otherwise would require the drafting of legislation which would have to cope with the frequently divergent legal systems andadministrative systems of all of the now 27 member states. See Craig and de Búrca, p. 115

m. ^ See Articles 157 (ex Article 141) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:0013:0046:EN:PDF)

n. ^ See Article 2(7) of the Amsterdam Treaty on eur-lex.europa.eu (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/treaties/dat/11997D/htm/11997D.html#0001010001)

o. ^ Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial orethnic origin (OJ L 180, 19.7.2000, p. 22–26); Council Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 establishing a general framework forequal treatment in employment and occupation (OJ L 303, 2.12.2000, p. 16–22).

p. ^ Article 3(1)(g) of the Treaty of Rome

q. ^ In order to meet the euro convergence criteria it is necessary first to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism, something Swedenhas declined to do: "ERM II"(http://uk.fm.dk/Portfolio/International%20cooperation/EU%20economic%20and%20political%20coordination/ERM2.aspx) . DanishFinance Ministry. 20 March 2009.http://uk.fm.dk/Portfolio/International%20cooperation/EU%20economic%20and%20political%20coordination/ERM2.aspx. Retrieved 26December 2009.

r. ^ Note that although almost all Uranium is imported,Nuclear Power is considered primary energy produced in the EU

s. ^ Article 39 (ex Article 33) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:0047:0200:EN:PDF)

t. ^ See Articles 165 and 166 (ex Articles 149 and 150) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu(http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:0047:0200:EN:PDF)

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154. ^ EUobserver.com (http://euobserver.com/?aid=30866) , EUobserver

155. ̂a b "Energy consumption and production: EU27 energy dependence rate at 54% in 2006: Energy consumption stable"(http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2008/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2008_MONTH_07/8-10072008-EN-AP.PDF) (Press release). Eurostat. 10 July 2008.http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2008/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2008_MONTH_07/8-10072008-EN-AP.PDF. Retrieved 12 September 2008. "In the EU27, gross inland energy consumption was 1 825 million tonnes of oil equivalent (toe) in 2006, stable compared with 2005, whileenergy production decreased by 2.3% to 871 mn toe...Gross inland consumption is defined as primary production plus imports, recovered products and stock change, less exports and fuelsupply to maritime bunkers (for seagoing ships of all flags)...A tonne of oil equivalent (toe) is a standardised unit defined on the basis of one tonne of oil having a net calorific value of 41.868Gigajoules."

156. ̂a b "EU supply and demand for nuclear fuels" (http://ec.europa.eu/euratom/ar/last.pdf) (PDF). Euratom Supply Agency—Annual Report2007. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. 2008. p. 22. ISBN 978-92-79-09437-8.http://ec.europa.eu/euratom/ar/last.pdf. Retrieved 1 March 2009. "European uranium mining supplied just below 3 % of the total EUneeds, coming from the Czech Republic and Romania (a total of 526 tU)."Nuclear energy and renewable energy are treated differently from oil, gas , and coal in this respect.

157. ̂a b "Q&A: EU energy plans" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4783996.stm) . BBC. 9 March 2007.http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4783996.stm. Retrieved 13 July 2007.

158. ^ Shamil Midkhatovich Yenikeyeff (November 2008) (PDF). Kazakhstan's Gas: Export Markets and Export Routes(http://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/NG25-KazakhstansgasExportMarketsandExportRoutes-ShamilYenikeyeff-2008.pdf) . Oxford Institute for Energy Studies. http://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/NG25-KazakhstansgasExportMarketsandExportRoutes-ShamilYenikeyeff-2008.pdf. Retrieved 17 November2011.

159. ^ "'Low-carbon economy' proposed for Europe" (http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16560106/) . MSNBC.http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16560106/. Retrieved 24 January 2007.

160. ^ European Parliament. "Ukraine-Russia gas dispute—call for stronger EU energy policy"(http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?language=EN&type=IM-PRESS&reference=20060112STO04233&secondRef=0) .Europa web portal. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?language=EN&type=IM-PRESS&reference=20060112STO04233&secondRef=0. Retrieved 27 February 2008.

161. ^ European Commission (1 October 2003). "The trans-European transport network: new guidelines and financial rules"(http://ec.europa.eu/ten/transport/revision/doc/revision_1692_memo_en.pdf) (PDF). Europa web portal.http://ec.europa.eu/ten/transport/revision/doc/revision_1692_memo_en.pdf. Retrieved 15 August 2007.

162. ^ Mirea, Silvia. "The trans-European transport network: new guidelines and financial rules" (http://www.cfr.ro/jf/engleza/0304/ten-t.htm). The Railway Journal. http://www.cfr.ro/jf/engleza/0304/ten-t.htm. Retrieved 15 August 2007.

163. ^ "White Paper on Transport" (http://www.euractiv.com/en/transport/white-paper-transport/article-129628) . Euractiv. 22 September2004. http://www.euractiv.com/en/transport/white-paper-transport/article-129628. Retrieved 15 August 2007.

164. ^ "EUR 650 million for the Polish Road Network" (http://www.eib.org/projects/press/2006/2006-113-poland-eur-650-million-for-the-polish-road-network.htm) . http://www.eib.org/projects/press/2006/2006-113-poland-eur-650-million-for-the-polish-road-network.htm.Retrieved Nov 2010.

165. ^ "EU regional policy: Poland en route for growth" (http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/projects/stories/details_new.cfm?sto=1486) .http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/projects/stories/details_new.cfm?sto=1486. Retrieved July 2012.



http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/projects/stories/details_new.cfm?sto=1486. Retrieved July 2012.

166. ^ Barrot, Jacques. "Jacques Barrot Home Page, Commission vice president for transport"(http://ec.europa.eu/commission_barroso/barrot/index_en.htm) . Europa web portal.http://ec.europa.eu/commission_barroso/barrot/index_en.htm. Retrieved 21 July 2007.

167. ^ McKie, Robin (15 July 2007). "Sat-nav rival could crash and burn"(http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2007/jul/15/spaceexploration.europeanunion) . The Guardian (London).http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2007/jul/15/spaceexploration.europeanunion. Retrieved 11 August 2007.

168. ̂a b Stead, David; Robert Whaples (eds) (22 June 2007). "Common Agricultural Policy" (http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/Stead.CAP) .EH.Net Encyclopedia. http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/Stead.CAP. Retrieved 30 August 2007.

169. ^ "Agriculture: Meeting the needs of farmers and consumers" (http://europa.eu/pol/agr/index_en.htm) . Europa: Gateway to theEuropean Union. European Commission. 26 August 2011. http://europa.eu/pol/agr/index_en.htm. Retrieved 4 November 2011. "... thecommon agricultural policy is the most integrated of all EU policies and consequently takes a large share of the EU budget. Nevertheless,its portion of the EU budget has dropped from a peak of nearly 70% in the 1970s to 34% over the 2007–2013 period."

170. ̂a b c Jeffery, Simon (26 June 2007). "The EU common agricultural policy" (http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2003/jun/26/eu.politics1). The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2003/jun/26/eu.politics1. Retrieved 30 August 2007.

171. ^ European Commission. "The Erasmus programme celebrates its 20th anniversary"(http://ec.europa.eu/education/news/erasmus20_en.html) . Europa web portal. http://ec.europa.eu/education/news/erasmus20_en.html.Retrieved 21 July 2007.; Jean-Sébastien, Lefebvre (22 January 2007). "Erasmus turns 20 – time to grow up?"(http://www.cafebabel.co.uk/article/19702/erasmus-turns-20-time-to-grow-up.html) . Café Babel.http://www.cafebabel.co.uk/article/19702/erasmus-turns-20-time-to-grow-up.html. Retrieved 10 August 2007.

172. ^ EACEA. "About the Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency" (http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/index.htm) . Europa web portal.http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/index.htm. Retrieved 21 July 2007.; European Commission. "Lifelong Learning Programme"(http://ec.europa.eu/education/programmes/llp/national_en.html) . Europa web portal.http://ec.europa.eu/education/programmes/llp/national_en.html. Retrieved 21 July 2007.

173. ^ European Research Council. "What is the ERC?" (http://erc.europa.eu/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.display&topicID=12) . Europa webportal. http://erc.europa.eu/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.display&topicID=12. Retrieved 21 July 2007.

174. ^ European Commission. "Energy" (http://ec.europa.eu/research/fp7/index_en.cfm?pg=energy) . Europa web portal.http://ec.europa.eu/research/fp7/index_en.cfm?pg=energy. Retrieved 12 November 2007.

175. ^ "Europa web portal" (http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/health_consumer/about_us/our_vision_en.htm) . Europa (web portal).http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/health_consumer/about_us/our_vision_en.htm. Retrieved 26 November 2010.

176. ^ "Europa web portal" (http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/health_consumer/index_en.htm) . Europa (web portal).http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/health_consumer/index_en.htm. Retrieved 26 November 2010.

177. ^ "Europa web portal" (http://ec.europa.eu/health-eu/index_en.htm) . Europa (web portal). 18 November 2010. http://ec.europa.eu/health-eu/index_en.htm. Retrieved 26 November 2010.

178. ^ "info about health care and EHIC" (http://www.nhs.uk/nhsengland/Healthcareabroad/pages/Healthcareabroad.aspx) . Nhs.uk. 29 April2010. http://www.nhs.uk/nhsengland/Healthcareabroad/pages/Healthcareabroad.aspx. Retrieved 26 November 2010.

179. ^ Consilium.europa.eu (http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/lsa/119514.pdf)

180. ^ Eur-lex.europa.eu (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2011:088:0045:0065:EN:PDF)

181. ^ NHSconfed.org (http://www.nhsconfed.org/Publications/Factsheets/Pages/Cross-border-healthcare-commissioners.aspx)

182. ^ Total population in Urban Audit cities, Larger Urban Zones (http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language=en&pcode=tgs00080&plugin=1) - Eurostat

183. ^ CityProfiles (http://www.urbanaudit.org/CityProfiles.aspx) - Eurostat

184. ^ Eurostat. "Indicators for larger urban zones 1999–2003" (http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page?_pageid=1996,45323734&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL&screen=welcomeref&open=/&product=EU_MASTER_urban_audit&depth=2) . Europa web portal. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page?_pageid=1996,45323734&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL&screen=welcomeref&open=/&product=EU_MASTER_urban_audit&depth=2. Retrieved 25 January 2007.

185. ^ 6.5% of the EU population are foreigners and 9.4% are born abroad (http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-SF-11-034/EN/KS-SF-11-034-EN.PDF) , Eurostat, Katya VASILEVA, 34/2011.

186. ^ European Commission (2006), "Europeans and their Languages" (http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf) ,Special Eurobarometer 243 (Europa): pp. 141–143, http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf, retrieved 19November 2008

187. ^ European Commission (2006), "Europeans and their Languages" (http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf) ,Special Eurobarometer 243 (Europa): pp. 152–154, http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf, retrieved 19November 2008

188. ^ EUR-Lex (12 December 2006). "Council Regulation (EC) No 1791/2006 of 20 November 2006" (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31958R0001:EN:NOT) . Official Journal of the European Union. Europa webportal. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31958R0001:EN:NOT. Retrieved 2 February 2007.

189. ^ "Languages in Europe – Official EU Languages" (http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm) .EUROPA web portal. http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm. Retrieved 12 October 2009.

190. ^ europarltv, official webtv of the European Parliament, is also available in all EU languages [2](http://www.europarltv.europa.eu/en/home.aspx)

191. ^ "Languages and Europe. FAQ: Is every document generated by the EU translated into all the official languages?"



191. ^ "Languages and Europe. FAQ: Is every document generated by the EU translated into all the official languages?"(http://europa.eu/languages/en/document/59#5) . Europa web portal. 2004. http://europa.eu/languages/en/document/59#5. Retrieved 3February 2007.

192. ^ European Parliament (2004). "European Parliament Fact Sheets: 4.16.3. Language policy"(http://www.europarl.europa.eu/facts/4_16_3_en.htm) . Europa web portal. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/facts/4_16_3_en.htm.Retrieved 3 February 2007.

193. ^ European Commission (2006). "Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages (Executive Summary)"(http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_sum_en.pdf) (PDF). Europa web portal. p. 4.http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_sum_en.pdf. Retrieved 11 March 2011. "English is clearly the most commonlyused language in the EU with over a half of the respondents (51%) speaking it either as their mother tongue or as a foreign language."

194. ^ European Commission (2006). "Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages (Executive Summary)"(http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_sum_en.pdf) (PDF). Europa web portal. p. 3.http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_sum_en.pdf. Retrieved 11 March 2011. "56% of citizens in the EU MemberStates are able to hold a conversation in one language apart from their mother tongue."

195. ̂a b European Commission (2004). "Many tongues, one family. Languages in the European Union"(http://ec.europa.eu/publications/booklets/move/45/en.pdf) (PDF). Europa web portal.http://ec.europa.eu/publications/booklets/move/45/en.pdf. Retrieved 3 February 2007.

196. ^ Rory Watson (5 July 2008), "Welsh and Gaelic are official EU tongues"(http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article4272797.ece) , The Times (London),http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article4272797.ece, retrieved 13 March 2009

197. ^ "Mercator Newsletter – n. 29" (http://www.mercator-central.org/newsletter/newsletter29.htm#2) . Mercator Central. 2006.http://www.mercator-central.org/newsletter/newsletter29.htm#2. Retrieved 1 February 2007.

198. ̂a b c d Eurostat (2005), "Social values, Science and Technology"(http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf) , Special Eurobarometer 225 (Europa, web portal): pp. 9,http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf, retrieved 11 June 2009

199. ̂a b Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/JOHtml.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:SOM:EN:HTML) .

200. ^ Castle, Stephen (21 March 2007). "EU celebrates 50th birthday-with a row about religion"(http://www.independent.co.uk/news/europe/eu-celebrates-its-50th-birthday--with-a-row-about-religion-440976.html) . The Independent(London). http://www.independent.co.uk/news/europe/eu-celebrates-its-50th-birthday--with-a-row-about-religion-440976.html.Retrieved 4 March 2008.

201. ^ "Muslim Population" (http://www.fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/attachments/Manifestations_EN.pdf) . europa web portal.http://www.fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/attachments/Manifestations_EN.pdf. Retrieved November 2010.

202. ^ Jewish population figures may be unreliable. Sergio DellaPergola. "World Jewish Population (2002)"(http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/concepts/demography/demjpop.html) . American Jewish Year Book. The Jewish Agency for Israel.http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/concepts/demography/demjpop.html. Retrieved 3 May 2007.

203. ^ Ford, Peter (22 February 2005). "What place for God in Europe" (http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-02-21-god-europe_x.htm) . USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-02-21-god-europe_x.htm. Retrieved 24 July 2009.

204. ̂a b Bozoki, Andras. "Cultural Policy and Politics in the European Union"(http://137.204.115.130/activities/download/Bozoki/Cultural%20Policy%20and%20Politics%20in%20the%20European%20Union.pdf)(PDF). IECOB, Institute for Central Eastern and Balkan Europe.http://137.204.115.130/activities/download/Bozoki/Cultural%20Policy%20and%20Politics%20in%20the%20European%20Union.pdf.Retrieved 13 July 2007.

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206. ^ European Commission (5 July 2007). "Media programme" (http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/media/index_en.htm) . Europa webportal. http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/media/index_en.htm. Retrieved 13 July 2007.

207. ^ "An Overture to the European Union Youth Orchestra"(http://web.archive.org/web/20070611140551/http://www.euyo.org.uk/about/history.htm) . The European Youth Orchestra. Archivedfrom the original (http://www.euyo.org.uk/about/history.htm) on 11 June 2007.http://web.archive.org/web/20070611140551/http://www.euyo.org.uk/about/history.htm. Retrieved 12 August 2007.

208. ^ European Commission. "European Capitals of Culture" (http://ec.europa.eu/culture/our-programmes-and-actions/doc413_en.htm) .Europa web portal. http://ec.europa.eu/culture/our-programmes-and-actions/doc413_en.htm. Retrieved Nov 2010.

209. ^ Fordyce, Tom (11 July 2007). "10 years since Bosman" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/4528732.stm) . BBC News.http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/4528732.stm. Retrieved 13 July 2007.

210. ^ Cases C-403/08 and C-429/08, Opinon of Advocate General Kokott, para 207

211. ^ "IOC, FIFA presidents welcomes new EU treaty, call it breakthrough to give sports more power"(http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/10/19/sports/EU-SPT-OLY-EU-Treaty.php) . International Herald Tribune. 19 October 2007.http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/10/19/sports/EU-SPT-OLY-EU-Treaty.php. Retrieved 21 October 2007.

212. ^ Sports coaches from Israel travel to UK for training(http://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/israel/press_corner/all_news/news/2011/20110329_01_en.htm)



(http://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/israel/press_corner/all_news/news/2011/20110329_01_en.htm)

References

Bindi, Federiga, ed. The Foreign Policy of the European Union: Assessing Europe's Role in the World (Brookings Institution Press;2010). The E.U.'s foreign-policy mechanisms and foreign relations, including with its neighbours.Bomberg, Elizabeth, Peterson, John, and Richard Corbett, eds. The European Union: How Does it Work? (3rd ed) (2012, OxfordUniversity Press). ISBN 978-0-19-957080-5 and ISBN 0-19-957080-9.Corbett, Richard; Jacobs, Francis; Shackleton, Michael (2011). The European Parliament(http://www.johnharperpublishing.co.uk/pp007.shtml) (8th ed.). London: John Harper Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9564508-5-2.http://www.johnharperpublishing.co.uk/pp007.shtml.Craig, Paul; de Búrca, Gráinne (2007). EU Law, Text, Cases and Materials (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927389-8.Kaiser, Wolfram. Christian Democracy and the Origins of European Union (2007)McCormick, John (2007). The European Union: Politics and Policies. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-4202-3.Pinder, John, and Simon Usherwood. The European Union: A Very Short Introduction (2008) excerpt and text search(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0199233977)Rifkin, Jeremy (2004). The European Dream: How Europe's Vision of the Future Is Quietly Eclipsing the American Dream. Jeremy P.Tarcher. ISBN 978-1-58542-345-3.Smith, Charles (2007). International Trade and Globalisation (3rd ed.). Stocksfield: Anforme. ISBN 1-905504-10-1.Staab, Andreas. The European Union Explained: Institutions, Actors, Global Impact (2008) excerpt and text search(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0253220181)Steiner, Josephine; Woods, Lorna; Twigg-Flesner, Christian (2006). EU Law (9th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927959-3.Yesilada, Birol A. and David M. Wood. The Emerging European Union (5th ed. 2009)Piris, Jean-Claude (2010). Lisbon Treaty. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 448. ISBN 978-0-521-19792-2.

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