Eurasian sparrowhawkFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaEurasian sparrowhawk

Male capturingcommon starling

Female

Conservation status

Least Concern(IUCN 3.1)[1]

Scientific classification

Kingdom:Animalia

Phylum:Chordata

Class:Aves

Order:Accipitriformes

Family:Accipitridae

Genus:Accipiter

Species:A. nisus

Binomial name

Accipiter nisus(Linnaeus, 1758)

Subspecies

A. n. grantiA. n. melaschistosA. n. nisosimilisA. n. nisusA. n. punicusA. n. wolterstorffi

Range ofA. nisusBreeding summer visitor rangeResident year-round rangeNon-breeding winter visitor range

TheEurasian sparrowhawk(Accipiter nisus), also known as thenorthern sparrowhawkor simply thesparrowhawk, is a smallbird of preyin the familyAccipitridae. Adult male Eurasian sparrowhawks have bluish grey upperparts and orange-barred underparts; females and juveniles are brown above with brown barring below. The female is up to 25% larger than the male one of the largest differences between the sexes in any bird species. Though it is a predator which specialises in catchingwoodlandbirds, the Eurasian sparrowhawk can be found in any habitat and often hunts garden birds in towns and cities. Males tend to take smaller birds, includingtits,finches, andsparrows; females catch primarilythrushesandstarlings, but are capable of killing birds weighing 500g (18oz) or more.The Eurasian sparrowhawk is found throughout the temperate and subtropical parts of theOld World; while birds from the northern parts of the rangemigratesouth for winter, their southern counterparts remain resident or make dispersive movements. Eurasian sparrowhawks breed in suitable woodland of any type, with the nest, measuring up to 60cm (2.0ft) across, built using twigs in a tree. Four or five pale blue, brown-spotted eggs are laid; the success of the breeding attempt is dependent on the female maintaining a high weight while the male brings her food. The chicks hatch after 33 days and fledge after 24 to 28 days.The probability of a juvenile surviving its first year is 34%, with 69% of adults surviving from one year to the next. Mortality in young males is greater than that of young females and the typical lifespan is four years. This species is now one of the commonest birds of prey inEurope, although the population crashed after theSecond World War.Organochlorineinsecticidesused to treat seeds before sowing built up in the bird population and the concentrations in Eurasian sparrowhawks were enough to kill some outright and incapacitate others; affected birds laid eggs with fragile shells which broke during incubation. However, its population recovered after the chemicals were banned, and it is now relatively common, classified as being ofLeast ConcernbyBirdLife International.The Eurasian sparrowhawk's hunting behaviour has brought it into conflict with humans for hundreds of years, particularlyracing pigeonowners and people rearingpoultryandgamebirds. It has also been blamed for decreases inpasserinepopulations; scientific research has found no link between increased numbers of Eurasian sparrowhawks and declines in some farmland and woodland birds after World War II. Studies of racing pigeon deaths found that Eurasian sparrowhawks were responsible for less than 1%.Falconershave utilised the Eurasian sparrowhawk since at least the 16th century; although the species has a reputation for being difficult to train, it is also praised for its courage. The species features inTeutonic mythologyand is mentioned in works by writers includingWilliam Shakespeare,Alfred, Lord TennysonandTed Hughes.Contents[hide] 1Taxonomy 2Description 3Lifespan and demography 4Distribution and habitat 5Food, feeding and predation 5.1Predators 6Breeding 6.1Eggs 6.2Young 7Relationship with humans 7.1Pollutants 7.2Conflict with human interests 7.3Falconry 7.4In culture 8Notes 9References 10External linksTaxonomy[edit]Within the family Accipitridae, the Eurasian sparrowhawk is a member of the largegenusAccipiter, which consists of small to medium-sized woodland hawks. Most of the Old World members of the genus are called sparrowhawks or goshawks.[2]The species' name dates back to theMiddle EnglishwordsperhaukandOld Englishspearhafoc, a hawk which hunts sparrows. TheOld Norsename for the Eurasian sparrowhawk,sparrhaukr, was thought to have been coined byVikingswho encountered falconry in England.[3]Englishfolk names for the Eurasian sparrowhawk include blue hawk, referring to the adult male's colouration, as well as hedge hawk,[4]spar hawk, spur hawk and stone falcon.[5]The Eurasian sparrowhawk was described byLinnaeusin his 18th century work,Systema Naturae, asFalco nisus,[6]but moved to its present genus by French zoologistMathurin Jacques Brissonin 1760.[7]The currentscientific nameis derived from theLatinaccipiter, meaning 'hawk' andnisus, the sparrowhawk.[8]According toGreek mythology,Nisus, the king ofMegara, was turned into a sparrowhawk after his daughter,Scylla, cut off his purple lock of hair to present to her lover (and Nisus' enemy),Minos.[9]The Eurasian sparrowhawk forms asuperspecieswith therufous-chested sparrowhawkof eastern and southern Africa, and possibly theMadagascan sparrowhawk.[10]Geographic variation isclinal, with birds becoming larger and paler in the eastern part of the range compared to the west.[11]Within the species itself, sixsubspeciesare generally recognised:[10][12] A. n. nisus, the nominate subspecies, was described by Linnaeus in 1758.[12]It breeds fromEuropeand westAsiato westernSiberiaandIran; northern populations winter south to theMediterranean, north-eastAfrica,ArabiaandPakistan. A. n. nisosimiliswas described bySamuel Tickellin 1833.[12]It breeds from central and eastern Siberia east toKamchatkaandJapan, and south to northernChina. This subspecies is wholly migratory, wintering fromPakistanandIndiaeastwards throughSouth-East Asiaand southern China toKoreaand Japan; some even reachAfrica. It is very similar to, but slightly larger than, the nominate subspecies.[13] A. n. melaschistoswas described byAllan Octavian Humein 1869.[12]It breeds in mountains fromAfghanistanthrough theHimalayasand southernTibetto western China, and winters in the plains of South Asia. Larger[10]and longer tailed thannisosimilis,[14]it has dark slate-coloured upperparts, and more distinct rufous barring on the underparts.[10] A. n. wolterstorffi, described byOtto Kleinschmidtin 1900, is resident inSardiniaandCorsica.[12]It is the smallest of all the races,[11]darker on the upperparts and more barred below than the nominate subspecies.[15] A. n. granti, described byRichard Bowdler Sharpein 1890,[12]is confined toMadeiraand theCanary Islands. It is small and dark.[16] A. n. punicus, described by Erlanger in 1897,[12]is resident in north-west Africa, north of theSahara.[17]It is very similar tonisus,[15]being large and pale.[16]Description[edit]

A juvenile with a kill. Larger birds such ascommon wood pigeonsare more often killed by the larger female Eurasian sparrowhawks; males usually hunt smaller prey.The Eurasian sparrowhawk is a small bird of prey with short, broad wings and a long tail, both adaptations to manoeuvring through trees. Females can be up to 25% larger than males[8]and weigh up to twice as much.[18]When females are larger than males, it is known as reversesexual dimorphism; this is unusual in highervertebratesbut typical inbirds of prey,[19]and most marked in birds of prey which hunt birds.[18]The adult male is 2934cm (1113in) long, with awingspanof 5964cm (2325in)[8]and a mass of 110196g (3.96.9oz).[12]He has slate-grey upperparts (sometimes tending to bluish), with finely red-barred underparts, which can look plain orange from a distance; hisiridesare orange-yellow or orange-red. The female is much larger at 3541cm (1416in) long, with a wingspan of 6780cm (2631in),[8]and a mass of 185342g (6.512.1oz).[12]She has dark brown or greyish-brown upperparts, and brown-barred underparts, and bright yellow to orange irides. The juvenile is warm brown above, with rusty fringes to the upperparts; and coarsely barred or spotted brown below, with pale yellow eyes;[15]its throat has dark streaks and lacks a mesial (midline) stripe.[14]The Eurasian sparrowhawk's pale underparts and darker upperparts are an example ofcountershading, which helps to break up the bird's outline. Countershading is exhibited by birds of prey which hunt birds and other fast-moving animals. The horizontal barring seen on adult Eurasian sparrowhawks is typical of woodland-dwelling predatory birds, while the adult male's bluish colour is also seen in other bird-eating raptors, including theperegrine falcon, themerlinand otherAccipiters.[20]

Resemblance to the Eurasian sparrowhawk helps thecommon cuckooto avoid aggression from the small birds whose nest it seeks to parasitise.A study, usingstuffedbird models, found that small birds are less likely to approachcommon cuckoos(abrood parasite) which have barred underparts like the Eurasian sparrowhawk.Eurasian reed warblerswere found to be more aggressive to cuckoos which looked less hawk-like, meaning that the resemblance to the hawk helps the cuckoo to access the nests of potential hosts.[21]The Eurasian sparrowhawk's small bill is used for plucking feathers and pulling prey apart, rather than killing or cutting. Its long legs and toes are an adaptation for catching and eating birds. The outer toe is"fairly long and slender"; the inner toe and back toe are relatively short and thick. The middle toe is very long and can be used to grasp objects, while a protuberance on the underside of the toe means that the digit can be closed without leaving a gap, which helps with gripping.[20]The flight is a characteristic "flap-flap-glide", with the glide creating an undulating pattern.[22]This species is similar in size to theLevant sparrowhawk, but larger than theshikra(the calls are however different[23]); the male is only slightly larger than the merlin. Because of the overlap in sizes, the female can be confused with the similarly-sized malenorthern goshawk, but lacks the bulk of that species. Eurasian sparrowhawks are smaller, more slender and have shorter wings, a square-ended tail and fly with faster wingbeats.[15]A confusion species inChinais thebesra, althoughA. n. melaschistosis considerably larger.[24]InGreat Britain, Eurasian sparrowhawks living further north are bigger than their more southerly counterparts, with wing length (the most reliable indicator of body size) increasing by an average of 0.86mm (0.034in) in males, and 0.75mm (0.030in) in females, for each degree further north.[25]Lifespan and demography[edit]

The yellow iris of this juvenile male Eurasian sparrowhawk (caught forringing) may turn orange in later life.The oldest known wild Eurasian sparrowhawk lived more than two decades; it was found dead inDenmark20years and 3months after having beenringed.[26]The typical lifespan is four years. Data analysis by theBritish Trust for Ornithologyshows that the proportion of juveniles surviving their first year of life is 34%; adult survival from one year to the next is 69%.[8]Birds in their first year of life weigh less than adults, and are especially light in the first two months after reaching independence. There is probably high mortality, especially for young males, during this time.[27]A study in southern Scotland suggested that the greater mortality in young male birds may be due to their smaller size and the smaller size of their prey, which means that they can"last less long between meals."Their size also means that their range of prey is restricted. It has been estimated that a female Eurasian sparrowhawk of average weight could survive for seven days without feeding three days longer than a male of average weight.[28]A study of female Eurasian sparrowhawks found "strong evidence" that their rate of survival increased for the first three years of life, and declined for the last five to six years.Senescence(ageing) was the cause of the decline as the birds became older.[29]Distribution and habitat[edit]

Eurasian sparrowhawk in cityPenza, RussiaA widespread species throughout the temperate and subtropical parts of theOld World,[17]the Eurasian sparrowhawk is resident or breeds in an estimated global range of 23,600,000km2(9,100,000sqmi) and had an estimated population of 1.5 million birds in 2009. Although global population trends have not been analysed, numbers seem to be stable, so it has been classified as being ofLeast ConcernbyIUCN.[1]The racegranti, with 100 pairs resident onMadeiraand 200 pairs on theCanary Islands, is threatened by loss of habitat,egg-collectingand illegal hunting, and is listed on Annex I of theEuropean CommissionBirds Directive.[30]It is one of the most common birds of prey in Europe, along with thecommon kestrelandcommon buzzard.[17]TheNorwegianandAlbanianpopulations are declining and, in many parts of Europe, Eurasian sparrowhawks are still shot. However, this low-level persecution has not affected the populations badly.[16]In the UK, the population increased by 108% between 19702005, but saw a 1% decline over 19942006.[31]InIrelandit is the most common bird of prey, breeding even near the city centre ofDublin.

Deciduous woodland is a typical breeding and hunting habitat for the Eurasian sparrowhawk.This species is prevalent in most woodland types in its range, and also in more open country with scattered trees.[32]Eurasian sparrowhawks prefer to hunt the edges of wooded areas, but migrant birds can be seen in any habitat.[17]The increased proportion of medium-aged stands of trees created by modern forestry techniques have benefitedAccipiter nisus, according to aNorwegianstudy.[33]Unlike its larger relative thenorthern goshawk, it can be seen in gardens and in urban areas[34]and will even breed in city parks.[32]Eurasian sparrowhawks from colder regions of northernEuropeandAsiamigratesouth for the winter, some tonorth Africa(some as far as equatorial east Africa) andIndia; members of the southern populations are resident or disperse. Juveniles begin their migration earlier than adults and juvenile females move before juvenile males.[17]Analysis ofringingdata collected atHeligoland,Germany, found that males move further and more often than females; of migrating birds ringed atKaliningrad,Russia, the average distance moved before recovery (when the ring is read and the bird's whereabouts reported subsequently) was 1,328km (825mi) for males and 927km (576mi) for females.[15]A study of Eurasian sparrowhawks in southernScotlandfound that ringed birds which had been raised on "high grade"territorieswere recovered in greater proportion than birds which came from "low grade" territories. This suggested that the high grade territories produced young which survived better. The recovery rate also declined with increased elevation of the ground. After the post-fledging period, female birds dispersed greater distances than did males.[35]Food, feeding and predation[edit]

Eurasian sparrowhawks, like this male, discard the larger feathers from their prey before eating the flesh.The Eurasian sparrowhawk is a major predator of smaller woodland birds,[36]though only 10% of its hunting attacks are successful.[37]It hunts by surprise attack, usinghedges, tree-belts,copses,orchardsand other cover near woodland areas; its choice of habitat is dictated by these requirements. It also makes use of gardens in built-up areas, taking advantage of the prey found there.[15]It waits, hidden, for birds to come near, then breaks cover and flies out fast and low. A chase may follow, with the hawk even flipping upside-down to grab the victim from below or following it on foot through vegetation. It can "stoop" onto prey from a great height.[15]Ian Newtondescribes seven modes of hunting used by Eurasian sparrowhawks:[38] Short-stay-perch-hunting High soaring and stooping Contour-hugging in flight Still-hunting Low quartering Hunting by sound Hunting on footMale Eurasian sparrowhawks regularly kill birds weighing up to 40g (1.4oz) and sometimes up to 120g (4.2oz); females can tackle prey up to 500g (18oz) or more. The weight of food consumed by adult birds daily is estimated to be 4050g (1.41.8oz) for males and 5070g (1.82.5oz) for females. During one year, a pair of Eurasian sparrowhawks could take 2,200house sparrows, 600common blackbirdsor 110wood pigeons.[15]Species that feed in the open, far from cover, or are conspicuous by their behaviour or coloration, are taken more often by Eurasian sparrowhawks. For example,great titsand house sparrows are vulnerable to attack. Eurasian sparrowhawks may account for more than 50% of deaths in certain species, but the extent varies from area to area.[39]Males tend to taketits,finches,sparrowsandbuntings; females often takethrushesandstarlings. Larger quarry (such asdovesandmagpies) may not die immediately but succumb during feather plucking and eating. More than 120 bird species have been recorded as prey and individual Eurasian sparrowhawks may specialise in certain prey. The birds taken are usually adults or fledglings, though chicks in the nest andcarrionare sometimes eaten. Small mammals, includingbats,[40]are sometimes caught but insects are eaten only very rarely.[15]

Birds which feed out in the open, like thishouse sparrow, are more vulnerable to predation.Small birds are killed on impact or when squeezed by the Eurasian sparrowhawk's foot, especially the two long claws. Victims which struggle are "kneaded" by the hawk, using its talons to squeeze and stab. When dealing with large prey species which peck and flap, the hawk's long legs help.[41]It stands on top of its prey to pluck and pull it apart.[20]The feathers are plucked and usually the breast muscles are eaten first. The bones are left, but can be broken using the notch in the bill. Like other birds of prey, Eurasian sparrowhawks producepelletscontaining indigestible parts of their prey. These range from 25 to 35mm (0.98 to 1.38in) long and 1018mm (0.390.71in) wide and are round at one end and more narrow and pointed at the other. They are usually composed of small feathers, as the larger ones are plucked and not consumed.[42]

Video of a Eurasian sparrowhawk subduing a pigeonDuring hunting, this species can fly 23km (1.21.9mi) per day. It rises above tree level mostly to display, soar above territory and to make longer journeys.[15]A study in a forested area ofNorwayfound that the mean size of the home ranges was 9.2km2(3.6sqmi) for males, and 12.3km2(4.7sqmi) for females, which was larger than studies inGreat Britainhad found,"probably due to lower land productivity and associated lower densities of prey species in the [Norwegian study area]".[33]A study looked at the effect on the population ofblue titsin an area where a pair of Eurasian sparrowhawks began to breed in 1990. It found that the annual adult survival rate for the tits in that area dropped from 0.485 to 0.376 (the rate in adjacent plots did not change). The size of the breeding population was not changed, but there were fewer non-breeding blue tits in the population.[43]In woodland, Eurasian sparrowhawks account for the deaths of a third of all young great tits;[37]the two alarm calls given by great tits when mobbing a predator, and when fleeing from a nearby hawk, are within the optimum hearing range of both prey and predator; however, the high-pitched alarm call given when a distant flying Eurasian sparrowhawk is seen"can only be heard well by the tit."[44]Research carried out inSussex, England, found that the impact of Eurasian sparrowhawk predation ongrey partridgeswas highest when the partridge density was lowest,[45]while a 10-year study inScotlandfound that Eurasian sparrowhawks did not select thecommon redshanksthey predated according to the waders' size or condition, probably because of the hawks' surprise-attack hunting technique.[46]Another study found that the risk of predation for a bird targeted by a Eurasian sparrowhawk ornorthern goshawkincreased 25-fold if the prey was infected with the bloodparasiteLeucocytozoon, and birds withavian malariawere 16 times more likely to be killed.[47]Predators[edit]Natural predators of the Eurasian sparrowhawk include thebarn owl, thetawny owl, thenorthern goshawk, theperegrine falcon, thegolden eagle, theeagle owl, thered fox, thestone martenand thepine marten.[48]Breeding[edit]

The chicks stay on the nest until they are 24 to 28 days old.The Eurasian sparrowhawk breeds in well-grown, extensive areas of woodland, often coniferous or mixed, preferring forest with a structure neither too dense nor too open, to allow a choice of flight paths. Thenestcan be located in the fork of a tree, often near the trunk and where two or three branches begin, on a horizontal branch in the lower canopy, or near the top of a tall shrub. If available,conifersare preferred. A new nest is built every year, generally close to the nest of the previous year, and sometimes using an old wood pigeon (A. n. melaschistosfrequently uses the old nests ofjungle crows[23]) nest as a base; the male does most of the work. The structure, made of loose twigs up to 60cm (2.0ft) long, has an average diameter of 60cm (24in). When theeggsare laid, a lining of fine twigs or bark chippings is added.[15]During the breeding season, the adult male Eurasian sparrowhawk loses a small amount of weight while feeding his mate before she lays eggs, and also when the young are large and require more food. The weight of the adult female is highest in May, when laying eggs, and lowest in August after the breeding cycle is complete. A study suggested that the number of eggs and subsequent breeding success are dependent on the female maintaining a high weight while the male is feeding her.[27]Sexual maturityis reached at between 13 years.[12]Most Eurasian sparrowhawks stay on the same territory for one breeding season, though others keep the same one for up to eight years. A change of mate usually triggers the change in territory. Older birds tend to stay in the same territory; failed breeding attempts make a move more likely. The birds which kept the same territories had higher nest success, though it did not increase between years; females which moved experienced more success the year after changing territory.[49]Eggs[edit]

Accipiter nisusMHNT

Illustration of an egg. The background colour of the eggs changes from light blue to white on storage in collections.[50]The eggs are pale blue with brown spots and each measure 3546 x 2835mm (1.41.8 x 1.11.4inches),[50]and weigh about 22.5g (0.79oz) of which 8% is shell in a healthy egg.[8]Usually a clutch of four or five eggs is laid. The eggs are generally laid in the morning with an interval of 23 days between each egg. If a clutch is lost, up to two further eggs may be laid that are smaller than the earlier eggs.[15]Young[edit]Thealtricial, downy chicks hatch after 33days ofincubation.[8]After hatching, the female cares for and feeds the chicks for the first 814days of life, and also during bad weather after that. The male provides food, up to six kills per day in the first week increasing to eight per day in the third and 10per day in the last week in the nest, by which time the female is also hunting.[15]By 2428days after hatching, the young birds start to perch on branches near the nest and take their first flight. They are fed by their parents for a further 2830days, staying close to the nest while growing and practicing flying. The young hawks disperse after their parents stop provisioning them.[51]Though they receive the same amount of food, male chicks (roughly half the size of females) mature more quickly and seem to be ready to leave the nest sooner.[52]In a study in theForest of Ae, south-westScotland, it was found that 21% of nestlings over two days old died, with the causes of death being starvation, wet weather, predation and desertion by the parents.[53]The parasiteLeucocytozoon toddican be passed from parent to nestling at the nest, possibly because of the number of birds sharing a small space, thus allowing transmission.[54]Relationship with humans[edit]Pollutants[edit]

In flight as seen from below, showing barring on underparts.The Eurasian sparrowhawk population inEuropecrashed in the second half of the 20th Century.[17]The decline coincided with the introduction ofcyclodieneinsecticidesaldrin,dieldrinandheptachlor used asseed dressingsinagriculturein 1956. The chemicals accumulated in the bodies of grain-eating birds and had two effects ontop predatorslike the Eurasian sparrowhawk andperegrine falcon: the shells of eggs they laid were too thin, causing them to break during incubation;[34]and birds were poisoned by lethal concentrations of the insecticides.[55]Sub-lethal effects of these substances include irritability,convulsionsand disorientation.[56]In westGermany, around 80% of nests before the 1950s produced young, but only 54% were successful in the 1960s and '70s.[57]In theUnited Kingdom, for example, the species almost became extinct inEast Anglia, where the chemicals were most widely used; in western and northern parts of the country, where the pesticides were not used, there were no declines.[55]TheRoyal Society for the Protection of Birdsbought itsCoombes Valleynature reserveinStaffordshirebecause it was the only Eurasian sparrowhawk breeding site left in theEnglish Midlands.[58]In the UK, the use of cyclodienes as seed dressings for autumn-sowncerealswas banned in 1975 and the levels of the chemicals present in the bird population began to fall.[55]The population has largely recovered to pre-decline levels, with an increase seen in many areas, for example northern Europe.[17]InSweden, the population also decreased drastically from the 1950s, but recovered again once organochlorines were banned in the 1970s.[59]In the UK, the failure rate at the egg stage had decreased from 17% to 6% by the year 2000, and the population had stabilised after reaching a peak in the 1990s.[60]A study of the eggs ofDutchEurasian sparrowhawks found that contamination withDichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene(DDE) a "very persistent compound" produced when DDT breaks down[61] continued into the 1980s, though a decline in the number of clutches with broken eggs during the 1970s suggested decreasing levels of the chemical.[62]Body tissue samples from Eurasian sparrowhawks are still analysed as part of the Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme conducted by theUK government'sJoint Nature Conservation Committee. Although the average liver concentrations ofpolychlorinated biphenyls(PCBs) in Eurasian sparrowhawks were lower in birds that died in 2005 compared to those that died in 2004, there was not a significant or consistent decline in residues between 20002005.[63]Conflict with human interests[edit]The Eurasian sparrowhawk's adaptation for feeding on birds has brought it into conflict with humans;[34]in the 19th century it was described as"the great enemy of small quadrupeds and birds, and often very destructive to young chicks in poultry-yards in the breeding season"[64]and"very destructive to partridges."[65]Writing forgamekeepersin 1851, T.B. Johnson recommended that:"The nest of this bird should be diligently sought... and destroyed, shooting the parent birds first, if possible."[66]

The Eurasian sparrowhawk's natural hunting behaviour can conflict with gamekeepers rearingcommon pheasants.It was written in 1870 that"The sparrowhawk is perhaps only the true enemy of the game-preserver; though at the same time it is probable that if the good and evil it does were justly weighed, the balance would be in favour of the hawk, its favourite quarry being thewood pigeon, which is now increasing to an extent injurious to agriculture."[67]Eighteenth centuryparish recordsforAldworth, Berkshire, in southern England, show that payments were made for 106 Eurasian sparrowhawks' heads, at the same time as efforts were being made to control the numbers ofsparrows.[68]The species suffered heavy persecution by 18th centuryEuropeanlandownersand gamekeepers, but withstood attempts to eradicate it. For example, on the estate atSandringhaminNorfolk, 1,645 'hawks' were killed between 1938 and 1950, with 1,115 taken between 19191926 at Langwell and Sandside inCaithness,Scotland.[68]The population was able to quickly replace lost birds there is a high proportion of non-breeding, non-territorial birds able to fill vacant territories. The habitat conserved with gamebirds in mind also suited this species and its prey; gamekeepers' more successful efforts to wipe out thenorthern goshawkandpine marten predators of the Eurasian sparrowhawk may have benefited it.[48]The population increased markedly when this pressure was relaxed, for example during theFirstandSecond World Wars.[15]In the United Kingdom, research into the effect of predators on bird populations has been "a contentious issue," with "perceived conflict between the interests of nature conservationists and those involved in game shooting."Declines in the populations of some Britishsongbirdssince the 1960s have coincided with considerable changes in agricultural practices and also large increases in the numbers of Eurasian sparrowhawks andEuropean magpies.[69]When the Eurasian sparrowhawk population declined because of organochlorine use, there was no great increase in the populations of songbirds. In a 19491979 study of 13 passerine species breeding in a 16-hectare (40acre) oakwood atBookham Commons,Surrey, England, none was present in significantly greater numbers when Eurasian sparrowhawks were absent from the wood.[31]Many studies, mostly short-term, failed to find an effect on songbird populations caused by predatory birds such as Eurasian sparrowhawks. But analysis of long-term, large-scale national data from the UK's Common Bird Census demonstrated that the declines in farmland songbird populations since the 1960s are unlikely to have been caused by increased predation by Eurasian sparrowhawks and magpies. The results of the study indicated that patterns of year-to-year songbird population change were the same at different sites, whether the predators were present or not.[69]Another study, which examined the effects of predators including the Eurasian sparrowhawk andintroducedgrey squirrel on UK passerine populations, found that "whilst a small number of associations may suggest significant negative effects between predator and prey species, for the majority of the songbird species examined there is no evidence that increases in common avian predators or grey squirrels are associated with large-scale population declines."[70]

Eurasian sparrowhawks are responsible for less than 1% ofracing pigeonlosses.Racing pigeonownersin Great Britain have said for many years that Eurasian sparrowhawks andperegrine falcons"cause serious and escalating losses"of pigeons[45]and some have called for these birds of prey to be killed or removed from areas surrounding homing pigeon lofts.[71][72]In Scotland, a two-year study published in 2004, and funded byScottish Natural Heritageand the Scottish Homing Union (SHU), found there was "no evidence that birds of prey cause major losses of racing pigeons at lofts or during races." It reported that 56% ofracing pigeonswere lost each year but that the proportion taken by Eurasian sparrowhawks "often blamed for major losses" was less than 1%, with at least 2% taken by peregrine falcons. The study was carried out by theCentral Science Laboratory; researchers worked with SHU members who provided data, information on pigeon rings found at peregrine falcon nests and pigeon carcasses.[73]From January to April 2009,[74]theScottish Governmentconducted a trial translocation of Eurasian sparrowhawks from around racing pigeon lofts inGlasgow,Edinburgh,Kilmarnock,StirlingandDumfries. The trial, which cost 25,000, was supported by the Scottish Homing Union, representing the country's 3,500 pigeon fanciers.[75]The experiment was originally scheduled for early in 2008 but was postponed because it would have impinged on the birds' breeding season. It was criticised by the government's own ecological adviser, Dr Ian Bainbridge, the government bodyScottish Natural Heritage[76]and organisations including theRoyal Society for the Protection of Birds[77]and theScottish Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.[78]The findings, released in January 2010,[79]showed that only seven Eurasian sparrowhawks had been removed from the area from five pigeon lofts. One hawk returned twice to the area of the loft, while new birds began to visit two other lofts. The report found thatThe quantity and quality of the observational data collected meant that it was impossible to draw any firm conclusionsand the government stated thatno further research involving the trapping or translocation of raptorswould take place, while the SHU maintained that it was"very optimistic that licensed trapping and translocation could at last provide some protection."[74]Falconry[edit]

The Eurasian sparrowhawk is popular withfalconersinGeorgia.The Eurasian sparrowhawk has been used infalconryfor centuries and was favoured by EmperorAkbar the Great(15421605) of theMughal Empire. There is a tradition of using migrant Eurasian sparrowhawks to catchcommon quailinTunisiaandGeorgia, where there are 500 registeredbazieri(sparrowhawkers) and a monument tobazieriin the city ofPoti. Eurasian sparrowhawks are also popular inIreland.[80]AtCap BoninTunisia, and inTurkey, thousands are captured each year by falconers and used for hunting migrantcommon quails. Although they were formerly released at the end of the season, many are now kept because of the scarcity of migrants.[57]In England in the 17th century, the Eurasian sparrowhawk was used by priests, reflecting their lowly status;[81][82]whereas in theMiddle Ages, they were favoured by ladies of noble and royal status because of their small size.[83]The falconer's name for a male Eurasian sparrowhawk is a "musket"; this is derived from theLatinwordmusca, meaning 'a fly', via theOld Frenchwordmoschet.[84]The famous list in the mediaevalBook of St. Albansrefers to the female sparrowhawk as the "priest's bird" and the musket as "the clerk's bird"."An austringer [falconer] undertaking to train a sparrowhawk should be in doubt that he is taking on one of the most difficult hawks available."A female Eurasian sparrowhawk is considered a bad choice for a novice and the male is very difficult and demanding, even for an experienced handler. They have been described as"hysterical little hawks" but are also praised as courageous and providing"sport of the highest quality."[85]Philip Glasier describes Eurasian sparrowhawks as "in many ways superior to hunting with a larger short-wing[hawk]" and"extremely hard to tame."They are best suited for small quarry such ascommon starlingsandcommon blackbirdsbut are also capable of takingcommon teal,Eurasian magpies, pheasants and partridges.[86]A 19th-century author remarked that this species was"the best of all hawks for landrails",[64]now known ascorn crakes.[87]In 1735, theSportsman's Dictionarynoted that"... she will serve in the winter as well as in the summer, and will fly at all kind of game more than the falcon. If a winter sparrow-hawk prove good, she will kill thepye, thechough, thejay,woodcock,thrush,black-bird,fieldfare, and divers[e] other birds of the like nature."[88]In culture[edit]

An adult male in SlovakiaInTeutonic mythology, the sparrowhawk, known askrahuiorkrahug, is a sacred bird in Old Bohemian songs and lives in a grove of the gods. Holy sparrowhawks perch on the branches of an oak tree that grows from the grave of a murdered man, and "publish the foul deed."[89]In some areas of England, it was believed that thecommon cuckooturned into a Eurasian sparrowhawk in winter.[90]ThenameSpearhafoc(later Sparhawk, Sparrowhawk) was in use as a personal name in England before theNorman conquestin 1066.[91]In 1695, John Aubrey wrote in hisMiscellanies":[4]'Not long before the Death of King Charles II a sparrow-hawk escaped from the Perch, and pitched on one of the Iron Crowns of the White Tower, and entangling its string in the Crown, hung by the heels and died. T'was considered very ominous, and so it proved.'Themusket, or musquet, originally a kind ofcrossbowbolt,[58]and later a smallcannon, was named after the male Eurasian sparrowhawk because of its size.[92]The BritishGloster Aircraft Companynamed one of their Mars series craft[93]theSparrowhawk.[58]InWilliam Shakespeare'sThe Merry Wives of Windsor, Mrs Ford greets Robin,Falstaff'spage, with the words"How now, my eyas musket",eyas musketmeaning a lively young man (an eyas is a hawk nestling).[94]The BritishPoet LaureateTed Hugheswrote a poem entitledSparrow Hawkwhich refers to this species.[95]Hermann Hessementioned this bird in his bookDemian[96]and the bird is also referred to inOne Thousand and One Arabian NightsbyRichard Francis Burton:[97]Good sooth my bones, wheneas they hear thy nameQuail as birds quailed when Nisus o'er them flewThe Eurasian sparrowhawk was written about byAlfred, Lord Tennyson:[4]A sparhawk proud did hold in wicked jailMusic's sweet chorister, the NightingaleTo whom with sighs she said: 'O set me free,And in my song I'll praise no bird but thee.'The Hawk replied: 'I will not lose my dietTo let a thousand such enjoy their quiet.'Notes[edit]1. ^Jump up to:abBirdLife International(2013)."Accipiter nisus".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.Version 2013.2.International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved26 November2013.2. Jump up^"AccipiterBrisson, 1760".ITIS reports. Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS). Retrieved28 November2009.3. Jump up^Martin, Brian P. (1992).Birds of prey of the British Isles. Newton Abbot: David & Charles plc. p.132.ISBN0-7153-9782-6.4. ^Jump up to:abcAddison, Josephine; Hillhouse, Cherry (1998).Treasury of Bird Lore. London: Andre Deutsch Limited. pp.122124.ISBN0-233-99435-1.5. Jump up^Greenoak, Francesca (1979).All The Birds of the Air. Book Club Association. pp.8485.ISBN0-233-97037-1.6. Jump up^Linnaeus, C.(1758).Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata.(in Latin). Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. p.92.F. cera viridi, pedibus flavis, pectore albo fusco undularo, cauda fasciis nigricantibus.7. Jump up^Brisson, Mathurin Jacques (1760).Ornithologie; ou, Mthode contenant la division des oiseaux en ordres, sections, genres, espces & leurs varits[Ornithology; or a Method containing the division of birds into orders, sections, genera, species and their varieties] (in French). pp.28, 310.8. ^Jump up to:abcdefgRobinson, R.A."SparrowhawkAccipiter nisus[Linnaeus, 1758]".BirdFacts: profiles of birds occurring in Britain & Ireland.British Trust for Ornithology. Retrieved26 February2009.9. Jump up^"Philosophical Dictionary by Voltaire (chapter 454)".eBooks@Adelaide.University of Adelaide. Retrieved1 February2009.10. ^Jump up to:abcdFerguson-Lees, James; Christie, David A. (2001).Raptors of the World. London: Christopher Helm. pp.578581.ISBN0-7136-8026-1.11. ^Jump up to:abBaker, Kevin (1993).Identification Guide to European Non-Passerines. BTO Guide 24. Thetford:British Trust for Ornithology. pp.174176.ISBN0-903793-18-0.12. ^Jump up to:abcdefghijdel Hoyo, Elliott & Sargatal 1994, p.15813. Jump up^Karasyov, Vladilen; Isabekov, Askar."Eurasian Sparrowhawk".Birds of Kazakhstan. Retrieved28 September2012.14. ^Jump up to:abRasmussen, P.C.; Anderton, J.C. (2005).Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Vol 2. Smithsonian Institution & Lynx Edicions. p.99.ISBN84-87334-67-9.15. ^Jump up to:abcdefghijklmnBWPi:The Birds of the Western Palearcticon interactive DVD-ROM. London: BirdGuides Ltd. and Oxford University Press. 2004.ISBN1-898110-39-5.16. ^Jump up to:abcGnsbl, Benny (2008).Birds of Prey. Collins. pp.146153.ISBN0-00-724814-8.17. ^Jump up to:abcdefgForsman, Dick (1999).The Raptors of Europe and The Middle East: a Handbook of Field Identification. London: Christopher Helm. pp.244255.ISBN0-7136-6515-7.18. ^Jump up to:abdel Hoyo, Elliott & Sargatal 1994, p.5619. Jump up^Wheeler, P.; Greenwood, P.J. (1983). "The evolution of reversed sexual dimorphism in birds of prey".Oikos40(1): 145149.doi:10.2307/3544210.JSTOR3544210.20. ^Jump up to:abcNewton 1986, pp.283021. Jump up^Welbergen, J.; Davies, N.B. (2011). "A parasite in wolf's clothing: hawk mimicry reduces mobbing of cuckoos by hosts".Behavioral Ecology22(3): 574579.doi:10.1093/beheco/arr008.22. Jump up^Mullarney, Killian; Svensson, Lars; Zetterstrom, Dan; Grant, Peter (1999).Collins Bird Guide. London: HarperCollins. pp.9293.ISBN0-00-219728-6.23. ^Jump up to:abAli, Salim; Ripley, S.D. (1978).Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 1 (2 ed.). New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp.243246.ISBN978-0195655063.24. Jump up^Hackett, J. (1998)."A high altitude breeding record of Besra Accipiter virgatus"(PDF).Forktail14: 7374.25. Jump up^Wyllie, I.; Newton, I. (1993)."Latitudinal variation in the body-size of sparrowhawksAccipiter nisuswithin Britain".Ibis136(4): 434440.doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1994.tb01118.x.26. Jump up^"European Longevity Records". EURING: The European Union for Ringing. Retrieved21 Feb2010.27. ^Jump up to:abNewton, I.; Marquiss, M.; Village, A. (April 1983)."Weights, breeding, and survival in European Sparrowhawks"(PDF).The Auk100(2): 344354.28. Jump up^Newton 1986, pp.29129429. Jump up^Newton, I.; Rothery, P.; Wyllie, I. (January 1997)."Age-related survival in female SparrowhawksAccipiter nisus".Ibis139(1): 2530.doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1997.tb04500.x.30. Jump up^"Sparrowhawk (Canarian-Madeirian subspecies) Accipiter nisus granti".Environment Nature & Biodiversity: Threatened Birds.European Commission. Retrieved1 February2009.31. ^Jump up to:abGibbons, D.M.; Amar, A.; Anderson, G.Q.A.; Bolton, M.; Bradbury, R.B.; Eaton, M.A.; Evans, A.D.; Grant, M.C.; Gregory, R.D.; Hilton, G.M.; Hirons, G.J.M.; Hughes, J.; Johnstone, I.; Newbery, P.; Peach, W.J.; Ratcliffe, N.; Smith, K.W.; Summers, R.W.; Walton, P.; Wilson, J.D. (2007).The predation of wild birds in the UK: a review of its conservation impact and management. RSPB Research Report no 2.(PDF). Sandy:Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. pp.2829.32. ^Jump up to:abJonsson, Lars (1996).Birds of Europe. London: Helm. pp.134135.ISBN0-7136-4422-2.33. ^Jump up to:abSels, V.; Rafoss, T. (1997)."Ranging behaviour and foraging habitats of breeding Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus in a continuous forested area in Norway".Ibis141(2): 269276.doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1999.tb07549.x.34. ^Jump up to:abc"Sparrowhawk".BTO Garden Birdwatch.British Trust for Ornithology(BTO). Retrieved1 February2009.35. Jump up^Newton, I.; Rothery, P. (2000). "Post-fledging recovery and dispersal of ringed Eurasian Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus".Journal of Avian Biology31(2): 226236.doi:10.1034/j.1600-048X.2000.310214.x.JSTOR3676996.36. Jump up^Post, P.; Gtmark, F. (1996). "Prey selection by Sparrowhawks,Accipiter nisus: relative predation risk for breeding passerine birds in relation to their size, ecology and behaviour".Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences351(1347): 15591577.Bibcode:1996RSPTB.351.1559G.doi:10.1098/rstb.1996.0141.37. ^Jump up to:abBurton, Robert (2006).Garden Bird Behaviour. New Holland. p.134.ISBN1-84537-597-1.38. Jump up^Newton 1986, pp.10210539. Jump up^Newton 1986, pp.13740. Jump up^Speakman, J.R. (1991)."The impact of predation by birds on bat populations in the British Isles".Mammal Review21(3): 12342.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2907.1991.tb00114.x.41. Jump up^Newton 1986, pp.10710842. Jump up^Brown, R.; Ferguson, J.; Lawrence, M.; Lees, D. (1999).Tracks & Signs of the Birds of Britain & Europe an Identification Guide. London: Helm. pp.76, 89.ISBN0-7136-3523-1.43. Jump up^Dhondt, A.A.; Kempenaers, B.; Clobert, J. (1998)."Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus predation and Blue Tit Parus caeruleus adult annual survival rate".Ibis140(4): 58084.doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1998.tb04702.x.44. Jump up^Klump, G.M.; Kretzschmar, E.; Curio, E. (1986)."The hearing of an avian predator and its avian prey".Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology18(5): 317323.doi:10.1007/BF00299662.45. ^Jump up to:ab"Policy on Raptors".Council Meeting, 20th July, 2006.British Association for Shooting and Conservation. Retrieved23 November2009.46. Jump up^Whitfield, D.P.; Cresswell, W.; Ashmore, N.P.; Clark, N.A.; Evans, A.D. (1999). "No evidence for Sparrowhawks selecting Redshanks according to size or condition".Journal of Avian Biology30(1): 3139.doi:10.2307/3677240.JSTOR3677240.47. Jump up^"Parasites may help put songbirds on this European sparrowhawk's dinner plate".Veterinary Sciences Tomorrow.American Association for the Advancement of Science. 14 May 2007. Retrieved10 July2009.48. ^Jump up to:abHolloway, S. (1996).The Historical Atlas of Breeding Birds in Britain and Ireland. London: T. & A.D. Poyser Ltd. pp.116117.ISBN0-85661-094-1.49. Jump up^Newton, I. (2001)."Causes and consequences of breeding dispersal in the Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus"(PDF).Ardea89: 143154.50. ^Jump up to:abWalters, Michael (1994).Eyewitness Handbooks: Birds' Eggs.Dorling Kindersley. p.57.ISBN1-56458-175-6.51. Jump up^Newton 1986, pp.21352. Jump up^Sherley, G.H. (1993)."Parental investment, size sexual dimorphism, and sex ratio in the rifleman Acanthisitta chloris".New Zealand Journal of Zoology20(3): 211.doi:10.1080/03014223.1993.10422862.53. Jump up^Moss, D. (1978)."Growth of nestling sparrowhawks".Journal of Zoology187(3): 297314.doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1979.tb03371.x.54. Jump up^Ashford, R.W.; Wyllie, I.; Newton, I. (1990)."Leucocytozoon toddi in British sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus: observations on the dynamics of infection".Journal of Natural History24(5): 11011107.doi:10.1080/00222939000770691.55. ^Jump up to:abcWalker, C.H. (2001).Organic Pollutants: An Ecotoxicological Perspective. CRC Press. p.113.ISBN0-7484-0962-9.56. Jump up^Walker, C.H.; Hopkin, S.P.; Sibly, R.M.; Peakall, D.B. (2001).Principles of Ecotoxicology. Taylor & Francis. p.211.ISBN0-7484-0940-8.57. ^Jump up to:abdel Hoyo, Elliott & Sargatal 1994, pp.929358. ^Jump up to:abcCocker, Mark; Mabey, Richard (2005).Birds Britannica. London: Chatto & Windus. pp.127131.ISBN0-7011-6907-9.59. Jump up^Widn, P. (1997)."How, and why, is the Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) affected by modern forest management in Fennoscandia?"(PDF).Journal of Raptor Research31(2): 107113.60. Jump up^Baillie, S.R.; Crick, H.Q.P.; Balmer, D.E.; Bashford, R.I.; Beaven, L.P.; Freeman, S.N.; Marchant, J.H.; Noble, D.G.; Raven, M.J.; Siriwardena, G.M.; Thewlis, R.; Wernham, C.V. (2000).Breeding Birds in the Wider Countryside: their conservation status 2000. Thetford:British Trust for OrnithologyResearch Report No. 252. p.206.ISBN0-00-219728-6.61. Jump up^"Public Health Statement for DDT, DDE, and DDD".Public Health Statements. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Retrieved27 November2009.62. Jump up^Burgers, J.; Opdam, P.; Mskens, G.; de Ruiter, E. (1986)."Residue levels of DDE in eggs of Dutch Eurasian Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus following the ban on DDT".Environmental Pollution Series B, Chemical and Physical11(1): 2940.doi:10.1016/0143-148X(86)90030-3.63. Jump up^Walker, L.A.; Lister, L.J.; Long, S.M.; Pereira, M.G.; Turk, A.; Townsend, T.; Wienburg, C.L.; Wright, J.A.; Shore, R.F. (2007).JNCC Report No. 399. Wildlife and pollution: 2005/06 Annual report(PDF).Joint Nature Conservation Committee. p.8.64. ^Jump up to:abSociety for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (1838).The Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Vol. 10. London: Charles Knight and Co. p.179.65. Jump up^Jenyns, L. (1835).A manual of British vertebrate animals. Pitt Press. p.86.66. Jump up^Johnson, T.B. (1851).The Gamekeeper's Directory: Containing Instructions for the Preservation of Game, Destruction of Vermin and the Prevention of Poaching, etc., etc.London: Piper Brothers, and Co. pp.6566.ISBN978-1-905124-28-2.67. Jump up^Murray, John (1870).Report of the Thirty-ninth Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. British Association for the Advancement of Science.68. ^Jump up to:abLovegrove, R. (2007).Silent fields: the long decline of a nation's wildlife.Oxford University Press. pp.132134.ISBN0-19-852071-9.69. ^Jump up to:abThomson, D.L.; Green, R.E.; Gregory, R.D.; Baillie, S.R. (1998)."The widespread declines of songbirds in rural Britain do not correlate with the spread of their avian predators".Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences265(1410): 20572062.doi:10.1098/rspb.1998.0540.PMC1689492.70. Jump up^"Are predators to blame for songbird declines?"(Press release).British Trust for Ornithology. March 2010. Retrieved9 March2010.71. Jump up^RSPB Scotland Parliamentary Briefing: Sparrowhawks and Racing Pigeons(PDF). Edinburgh:Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. 2008.72. Jump up^Lusher, Adam; Welbourn, Peter (11 March 2001)."Pigeon lovers pin hopes on sequins to repel predators". London:Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved23 November2009.73. Jump up^"Report shows birds of prey take few pigeons".Press Releases.Scottish Natural Heritage. 23 March 2004. Retrieved23 November2009.74. ^Jump up to:abEdwards, Rob (24 January 2010)."Government in flap over birds of prey".Sunday Herald. Retrieved30 January2010.75. Jump up^Edwards, Rob (1 February 2009)."Bid to save pigeons from sparrowhawks provokes legal warning".Sunday Herald. Retrieved10 July2009.76. Jump up^"About SNH: What is Scottish Natural Heritage?".Scottish Natural Heritage. Archived fromthe originalon 12 April 2008. Retrieved21 November2009.77. Jump up^"Sparrowhawks and Racing Pigeons: RSPB Scotland response to the licensed translocation of sparrowhawks"(PDF).Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. Retrieved10 July2009.78. Jump up^Edwards, Rob (23 August 2008)."Experts scoff at plans to save pigeons by removing sparrowhawks".Sunday Herald. Retrieved10 July2009.79. Jump up^"A Review of an Exploratory Trial of Two Management Practices Designed to Reduce Sparrowhawk Attacks on Racing Pigeons at Pigeon Lofts".Publications.Scottish Government. Retrieved30 January2010.80. 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Jump up^Murray, John (1735).The Sportsman's Dictionary: or, The country gentleman's companion. Vol. II. London: Printed for C. Hitch and C. Davis.89. Jump up^Grimm, J. (2003).Teutonic Mythology Part 2. Kessinger Publishing. p.675.ISBN0-7661-7743-2.90. Jump up^Spence, L. (1979).Minor Traditions of British Mythology. Ayer Publishing. p.115.ISBN0-405-08989-9.91. Jump up^Reaney, P.H.; Wilson, R.M. (1997).A Dictionary of English Surnames. Oxford:Oxford University Press. p.420.ISBN0-19-860092-5.92. Jump up^Stone, G.C.; LaRocca, D.J. (1999).A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration, and Use of Arms and Armor in All Countries and in All Times. Courier Dover Publications. p.461.ISBN0-486-40726-8.93. Jump up^"Royal Air Force Museum Aircraft Thesaurus". Archived fromthe originalon 12 June 2008. Retrieved1 February2009.94. Jump up^Harting, James Edmund (1965).The Birds of Shakespeare, or the Ornithology of Shakespeare Critically Examined, Explained and Illustrated. Chicago: Argonaut Inc. pp.7475.95. Jump up^Gifford, T. (2009).Ted Hughes: Routledge guides to literature. Taylor & Francis. p.61.ISBN0-415-31189-6.96. Jump up^"Demian: Themes, Motifs, and Symbols". SparkNotes. Retrieved11 June2009.97. Jump up^Burton, R.F.One Thousand and One Arabian Nights, Vol. 3 of 16. Forgotten Books. p.58.ISBN1-60620-830-6.References[edit] Newton, Ian (1986).The Sparrowhawk. Calton: T & A.D. Poyser Ltd.ISBN0-85661-041-0. del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi, eds. (1994).Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol 2. New World Vultures to Guineafowl. Barcelona:Lynx Edicions.ISBN84-87334-15-6.External links[edit]Wikimedia Commons has media related toAccipiter nisus.

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BirdLife species factsheet forAccipiter nisus Ageing and sexing (PDF; 5.8 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze RSPB webpage with sound and video files. Retrieved 10 July 2009 Global Raptor Information Network species account. Retrieved 4 March 2010 Eurasian sparrowhawk videos, photos, and soundsat the Internet Bird Collection Eurasian sparrowhawk photo galleryat VIREO (Drexel University)Categories: IUCN Red List least concern species Falconry True hawks Accipiter Birds of prey Birds of Europe Birds of Pakistan Birds of the Middle East Birds of India Animals described in 1758 Birds of North Africa African birds of prey