Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital

Tests of Putnam’s thesis inEuropean countries and the Netherlands

Prepared for: colloquium civil societyKatholieke Universiteit Leuven

Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital

Putnam’s core claims

The Economist (28-02-2004)Blair schrok van Putnam’s recente bevinding:

Blanke Amerikanen die in overwegend blanke wijken wonen hebben meer vertrouwen in blanken dan zij die in overwegend niet-blanke wijken wonen (anno 2000)Scandinavian Political Studies (2007)

Westerse samenlevingen worden steeds etnisch diverser door immigratie en hogere vruchtbaarheid onder allochtonen

Hoe beïnvloedt (deze toename in) etnische diversiteit het sociaal vertrouwen?

Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital

Putnam’s core claims

Immigration and ethnic diversity challenge social solidarity and inhibit social capital: social networks and the associated norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness

“Diversity (…) seems to bring out the turtle in all of us…”

Ethnic diversity tends to breakdown social capital, at least in the US!

Also in the EU? And in NL?

Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital

Putnam’s core claims

In areas with greater diversity:

Formal social capital:- less likelihood of working on a community project- lower likelihood of giving to charity or volunteering

Informal social capital:- fewer close friends and confidants- less happiness- more time spent watching television

Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital

Putnam’s core claims

Also in the EU?

Gesthuizen, M., Meer, T. van der, Scheepers, P. (2009): Ethnic diversity and social capital in Europe, Scandinavian Political Studies, 32, 2, 121-142.

And in the Netherlands?

Tolsma, J., Meer, T. van der, & Gesthuizen, M. (2009): The impact of neighbourhood and municipality characteristics on social cohesion in the Netherlands. Acta Politica, 44, 286-313.

Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Putnam’s thesis in Europe and the Netherlands?

Ethnic Diversity and Social CapitalTests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Crucial question:

To what extent do contextual level characteristics, like ethnic diversity, next to other contextual characteristics, affect different indicators of social capital of individual citizens in

• European countries• Dutch municipalities and• Dutch neighbourhoods?

Constrict theory

• the more diverse a social context actually is in terms of different (ethnic) groups,

• the less people of one’s ‘own kind’ there are around with whom people can socially identify,

• the more they distrust others and

• the less they will socially connect – to out-groups, – but even to people of their ‘own kind’

Ethnic Diversity and Social CapitalTests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Constrict theory: puzzling mechanism?

• Inconsistent with social identity theory: the more lacking identification(s), the more investments in identifications

• Inconsistent with ethnic conflict theory:the more immigration, the more (perceived) threat, the more in-group solidarity

• Inconsistent with homophily paradigm: the more lacking homophily, the more investment in homogeneous networks

• Theoretical mechanism:• ethnic diversity implies intergroup differences

(language, habits, norms) which creates intergroup ‘social barriers’

– towards out-groups, – but more generally: even within in-group

Ethnic Diversity and Social CapitalTests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Social capital: indicators

Formal• participate in local community projects• member of, volunteer for, or donate to civic organisations

Informal • meet close friends• meet neighbours• providing informal help

Attitudes • social trust• tolerance for neighbours from a different race

Ethnic Diversity and Social CapitalTests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Individual and contextual explanations

Explain social capital by:• characteristics of individuals (e.g., education)• characteristics of countries, municipalities,

neighbourhoods (e.g., ethnic diversity)

Ethnic Diversity and Social CapitalTests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Hypotheses on ethnic diversity• (1) the more ethnic diversity, • (a) the less social trust, • (b) the less informal social capital • (c) the less formal social capital

• (2) the more immigration, • (a) the less social trust, • (b) the less informal social capital, • (c) the less formal social capital

Hypotheses on economic inequality

• The more inequality, the higher the ‘social barriers’, the less people will connect to others, informally or formally,

• (3) the higher the level of economic inequality • (a) the less social trust, • (b) the less informal social capital, • (c) the less formal social capital

• Versus economic prosperity?

Competing theories: social security and democratic history

• Some welfare state regimes may ‘crowd out’ formal and informal help

• (4) the higher the level of social security • (a) the less informal social capital, • (b) the less formal social capital

• Some (former communist or totalitarian) regimes, drove their people to retreat into private (family) lives

• (5) the longer the history of continuous democracy, • (a) the more interpersonal trust, • (b) the more informal social capital, • (c) the more formal social capital

Contextual Determinants of Social Capital:Complementary Explanations

Country determinants• Immigration and/or Ethnic Diversity (-)• Economic Inequality (-)• (Economic Prosperity) (+)• Social Security (-)• Democratic History (+)

Neighbourhood and municipality determinants • Ethnic Diversity (-)• Economic Inequality (-)• Economic prosperity (+)• Crime (-)• Residential mobility (-)

Ethnic Diversity and Social CapitalTests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Data and measurements• Eurobarometer 62.2. collected in 2004• 27.000 people in 28 countries

• Dependent Variables: Interpersonal Trust, Formal and Informal Social Capital

• Independent variables at the contextual level:• Ethnic diversity + Migrant stock + Net migration• Economic inequality + Economic prosperity

• Social security• Years of continuous democracy

• Independent variables at the individual level

Multi-level analyses • Empty models: variance at individual and contextual level?• Plus individual level determinants (composition effects)• Plus contextual level determinants:- Various measures of ethnic diversity, step by step - Various measures of ethnic diversity, simultaneously - Other contextual measurements

• Tests for robustness• Tests for stability

• Improvements: test for measurement equivalence

Results: Europe Social trust Informal

social capitalFormal social

capital

Ethnic diversity

Immigration - + +Economic inequality - -Economic prosperity - +Level of social security +History of democracy + + +

Ethnic Diversity and Social CapitalTests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Conclusions on Europe• To what extent do national level characteristics, like ethnic diversity,

next to other national characteristics, actually affect social capital of individual citizens in European countries?

• Not: ethnic diversity• Not: migrant stock• One exception: net migration reduces social trust• Not: social security

• Economic inequality reduces volunteering and helping

• Democratic history: increases social trust, formal social capital and providing help

Improvements: the Netherlands

• In EU: 2 levels in multi-level analysis including many countries (28) with different histories of immigration and levels of ethnic diversity

• In NL: 3 rather than 2 levels in multi-level analysis: municipalities (245), neighbourhoods (503), individuals

• Testing more rigorously:Effects of ethnic diversity against other social barriers

Ethnic Diversity and Social CapitalTests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Focus on the Netherlands: High on Social Capital

3 levels in multi-level analysis: • municipalities, neighbourhoods, individuals

Effects of contextual characteristics on:• Contact with neighbours (informal social capital)• Volunteering for civic organization (formal social capital)

• Tolerance for neighbours from a different race• Social trust• Quality of social contacts

Ethnic Diversity and Social CapitalTests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Focus on the Netherlands:High on Social Capital

Not only ethnic diversity as contextual characteristic but also:• Economic Inequality• Economic Prosperity• Crime Rates• Residential Mobility

Contextual characteristics matter for whom?• Different effects for native Dutch and minorities? No!• Different effects for the rich and the poor? Yes!

Ethnic Diversity and Social CapitalTests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Results: average context effects in the Netherlands

Ethnic Diversity and Social CapitalTests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Contact with neighbours

Volunteer Ethnic tolerance

Social trust Quality of contacts

NB MP NB MP NB MP NB MP NB MP

Ethnic diversity

- + +Economic inequality

+Economic prosperity

+ + - + -Crime rates

Residential mobility

+ - +

Results: context effects for the poor in the Netherlands

Ethnic Diversity and Social CapitalTests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Contact with neighbours

Volunteer Ethnic tolerance

Social trust Quality of contacts

NB MP NB MP NB MP NB MP NB MP

Ethnic diversity

- - + +Economic inequality

+ +Economic prosperity

+ + - -Crime rates

Residential mobility

+ - +

Conclusions on the Netherlands

• “Diversity (…) seems to bring out the turtle in all of us…”?

• Ethnic diversity does not (yet?) consistently affect social capital negatively, not in Europe nor in the Netherlands

• Only the less affluent in ethnically diverse social contexts appear to ‘hunker down’: they have less social contacts with neighbours.

• Economic prosperity contributes to social capital

Ethnic Diversity and Social CapitalTests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Implications: policies

• Focus on economic prosperity instead of on ethnic diversity: improve local economy.

• Reduce and avoid high levels of ethnic concentration in neighbourhoods:

– will refrain poor people from hunkering down– is very likely to reduce a ‘white flight’ – will increase inter-ethnic contact for ethnic minorities

(SCP)

Ethnic Diversity and Social CapitalTests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Take home message

So far, there is no convincing study which demonstrates that:

ethnic diversity within European countries or within local communities of a specific European country reduces social capital.

Ethnic Diversity and Social CapitalTests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands