epilogue—the nature of emotion: a research agenda for the...
TRANSCRIPT
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue1
Epilogue—Thenatureofemotion:Aresearchagendaforthe21stcentury
AndrewS.Fox*
Department of Psychology and California National Primate Research Center, University of California,Davis,CAUSA
ReginaC.Lapate
DepartmentofPsychologyandHelenWillsNeuroscienceInstitute,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,CAUSA
RichardJ.Davidson
CenterforHealthyMinds,UniversityofWisconsin—Madison,Madison,WIUSA
AlexanderJ.Shackman*
Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Cognitive Science Program, andMarylandNeuroimagingCenter,UniversityofMaryland,CollegePark,MDUSA
*A.S.FandA.J.S.contributedequallytothiswork;theorderofauthorswasdeterminedbyacoinflip.
Pleaseciteas:
Fox,A.S.*,Lapate,R.C.,Davidson,R.J.&Shackman,A.J.*(inpress).Epilogue—Thenatureofemotion:Aresearchagendaforthe21stcentury.InFox,A.S.,Lapate,R.C.,Shackman,A.J.&Davidson,R.J.(Eds.).Thenatureofemotion:Fundamentalquestions(2nded.).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
AddressCorrespondenceto:
AndrewS.Fox([email protected])–or–AlexanderJ.Shackman([email protected])
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue2Emotion plays a central role in human experience and there is an abiding interest, among scientists,
clinicians, and the public at large, in understanding the nature of emotion, identifying its biological
underpinnings, and determining its contribution to other psychological processes, from cognition and
decision‐making,tohealthanddisease.Overthepasttwenty‐fiveyears,methodsforeliciting,assessing,
and analyzing emotion have become increasingly refined (e.g., Coan & Allen, 2007; Dan‐Glauser &
Scherer,2011;Kramer,Guillory,&Hancock,2014;Samson,Kreibig, Soderstrom,Wade,&Gross,2015;
Soto&John,inpress)andtechniquesformakingsenseoftheunderlyingneurobiologyhavebecomemore
powerfulandprecise(e.g.,Glasseretal.,2016;Kim,Adhikari,&Deisseroth,2017;Urban&Roth,2015;
Woo, Chang, Lindquist, &Wager, 2017). The 92 essays that compriseTheNature ofEmotion embody
these exciting developments andmake plain the important conceptual advances that have beenmade
sincethepublicationofthefirsteditionin1994.Despitethisprogress,itisclearthatourunderstanding
remainsfarfromcomplete.Here,weoutlinearoadmaptothemostimportantstrategiesandavenuesfor
futureresearchintheaffectivesciences.Webeginbydiscussingtwooverarchingconceptualissuesthat
are likely to be of interest to all students of emotion. In the second section, we highlight the most
importantmethodologicalchallengesconfrontingthefieldandprovidesomespecificrecommendations
foraddressingthem.Finally,inthethirdsection,wedescribeseveralofthemostexcitingandpotentially
fruitfulspecificavenuesforfutureresearch.
OVERARCHINGCONCEPTUALISSUES
In this section, we describe two overarching conceptual issues: first, the need to develop a deeper
understandingoftheprocesseslinkingemotionalantecedentstotheirresponsesand,second,thevalue
andproperplaceofneurobiologyinthestudyofemotion.Webelievethatbothoftheseissueshavefar‐
reachingimplicationsforallstudentsofemotion.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue3UnderstandingtheLinksConnectingEmotionalStimuliandResponses
Oncedetected,emotionstimulicansparkarangeofresponses,includingthoughts,behaviors,peripheral
physiological changes, and, of course, feelings. Most of the contributors agree that emotions are
functional,andinvolvethiskindofcomplex,multi‐componentialresponse(Question1),butthereisno
clear consensus on how emotional inputs—including foreground cues (e.g., predator), contextual cues
(e.g., escape route), and interoceptive cues (e.g., fatigue)—are evaluated and used to select the most
adaptiveemotionalresponse(Blanchard&Pearson,thisvolume;Moaz&Bar‐Haim,thisvolume;Averill,
1983;Clore,1994;Ekman,1977,1994b;Ekman&Cordaro,2011;Ekman&Friesen,1975;Frijda,1994a,
1994b, 1994c; Lazarus, 1991, 1994a, 1994b; LeDoux, 1994, 2014; Levenson, 2011), although some
valuablecluesarejustbeginningtoemerge(e.g.,Fadoketal.,2017).Inshort,westilldonothavesolid
answerstoquestionssuchas,Howdoestheorganismdeterminethemostappropriatefeeling(e.g.,anger
vs.fear),titratetheintensityoftheresponse(e.g.,mutteringunderone’sbreathvs.overtphysicalviolence),
and selectanappropriate suiteof somatomotor responses (e.g., flightvs.defensiveattack)?Howdoesan
individual “know” (i.e.,predict)which response ismostadaptive?Howdo these selectionprocessesdiffer
acrossemotions,antecedents,andcontexts?
Themostinfluentialcontemporarytheoriesofemotionincludebasicemotionmodels(e.g.,Panksepp,this
volume; Ekman & Cordaro, 2011), appraisal models (Ellsworth, this volume; Scherer, Schorr, &
Johnstone, 2001), and constructivist models (e.g., Barrett, this volume). Each suggests a different
mechanismbywhichemotionscometobeand,althoughno theoryhasclearlyemergedasa “winner,”
eachapproachhasprovedusefulinitsownright.Basicemotionmodelshaveprovidedaframeworkfor
cross‐culturalandcross‐speciesstudiesofemotionsandhelpedtoorganizethefield.Thebasicemotions
model argues that emotions stem from an automatic appraisal process of distinct and universal
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue4antecedent events. Appraisal models, which have guided our understanding of emotion regulation,
propose a substantial and elaborate appraisal process thatdynamicallyunfolds over time and suggest
that intermediate cognitions lead to an emotional response. Finally, constructivist models, posit that
every emotional experience is different; that emotions are social constructs rather thannatural kinds.
Theyaimtoexplainthevarietyofemotionalexperiencesbyinvokingprinciplesofprediction—emotions
aresaidtoexisttomakemeaningof incomingsensationsandfundamentallydependonanindividual’s
conceptualrepresentationsoftheworld.Althoughthebasicemotionsmodelandtheconstructivistmodel
are often pitted against each other, most of the contributors to The Nature of Emotion seem to
acknowledge and, more importantly, make use of both perspectives. For example, Lee & Anderson
suggestthat“Basicexpressionsmaynotbestronguniversalcategoriesbuttheevidencefortheirfunctional
origins provides a parsimonious, empirical account of their cultural consistency.… it is likely that these
adaptive action tendencies were socially co‐opted for communication, serving as anchoring sources of
invarianceinexpressionperceptionacrossculturesandcontexts”(Lee&Anderson,thisvolume).Likewise,
Freeman proposes a dynamicmodel of emotion perception that links basic‐emotion‐like (bottom‐up)
cueswith constructivist‐like (top‐down) influences that interact and stabilize onto particular percepts
overtime(Freeman,thisvolume).
Akeychallengeforthefieldwillbetodevelopnewtheoriesthatexplainhowemotionscometobe.There
isclearneedfortestable,biologicallyplausiblehypothesesthataddressthecomplexmappingbetween
emotionalantecedentsandtheirconsequents.Wehopethat inthenexteditionthetimewillberipeto
ask,“Howareemotionalstimulilinkedtoemotionalresponses?”
TheConceptualValueofNeuroscience
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue5OneofthemoststrikingdevelopmentssincetheinitialpublicationofTheNatureofEmotion(1994)has
beenthegrowingprominenceofneuroscientificapproaches toemotionorwhathasbecomepopularly
knownasaffectiveneuroscience (R. J.Davidson&Sutton,1995;Panksepp,1992,1998).Butwhatisthe
addedvalueofstudyingthebrainforunderstandingemotion?Canaffectiveneurosciencereallyprovide
theoretical insights that go beyond the reach of more traditional measures—behavior, ratings, and
peripheralphysiology(Bradley,2000;Bradley&Lang,2000,2007)?Thisisnotanabstractorrhetorical
question.Skepticshavequestionedwhetherneurosciencecanprovideconceptuallyimportantevidence
oradjudicatebetweenalternativetheoreticalmodels(e.g.,Coltheart,2013)andhundredsofmillionsof
research dollars have been spent on the assumption that it can.Many of the essays contained in the
presentvolumesay theanswer isYes.Taken together, theyprovidecompellingevidence thatstudying
thebrainisusefulfordeterminingthenature,andnotjustthebiologicalbases,ofemotion.
Neurobiologyhasproven tobeparticularlyhelpful forunveilingotherwisehidden featuresofemotion
(Questions 4 and 5; see also Adolphs, 2017). Neurobiological evidence teaches us, for example, that
reward (orpleasure) isnota single, indivisible thing,but can insteadbe split intowanting (appetitive
motivation, craving, and desire) and liking (hedonic pleasure and positive affect). Under normal
conditions, wanting and liking are exceedingly difficult to tease apart using behavioral or self‐report
methods(Havermans,2011).Thischallengereflects the fact thatwantingand likingareusually tightly
coupled:humansandotheranimalsaremotivatedtoworkharderforthingsthatweenjoymore(e.g.,an
expertlyprepared,gourmetdishvs.lukewarmporridge)andthisappetitivedriverapidlydeclinesonce
ourdesiresaresated.Yet,twodecadesofcarefulstudyprovidescompellingevidencethatwantingand
liking reflect the operation of dissociable neural systems (Berridge & Kringelbach, 2015; Berridge &
Robinson,2016;Kringelbach&Berridge,2012).Wantingcriticallydependsondopaminergicprojections
coursing from the brainstem to the nucleus accumbens,whereas liking reflects tiny ‘hotspots’ nestled
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue6withintheaccumbensandneighboringregionsof theventralstriatum. Inrodents,stimulationof these
hedonic hotspots with opioids or cannabinoids—the endogenous neurochemicals underlying the
pleasures of heroin and marijuana—selectively amplifies facial expressions of liking without altering
wanting (i.e., willingness to work for reward). A similar story has emerged for fear, with mounting
evidence that fear can be fractionated on neurobiological grounds into two or even threemore basic
constituents, looselytermedpanic, fear,andanxiety(althoughseethesectiononnomenclature,below)
(Adolphs, 2017; Davis, Walker, Miles, & Grillon, 2010; Shackman & Fox, 2016b). Beyond their
implications for emotion theory (e.g., How many emotions are there? Are emotions organized into
families?), these data have provided new insights into both the phenomenology and mechanistic
underpinningsofsubstanceabuseandanxietydisorders.
WeencouragereaderstoreflectonthevalueofneuroscienceastheyperuseTheNatureofEmotion.We
urge the curious and the skeptical alike to read the responses to Questions 4 and 5 of this volume.
Neuroscience generally does not provide easy answers: neurons in the same region often do entirely
different things, the same neurons can be involved in entirely different processes depending on the
context,andinformationisoftenstoredacrosscomplexnetworksofneuronsdistributedthroughoutthe
brain (e.g., Berridge&Kringelbach, 2015; Fadok et al., 2017; Faull& Pattinson, 2017; Gungor&Paré,
2016;Janak&Tye,2015;Namburi,Al‐Hasani,Calhoon,Bruchas,&Tye,2016;Pearson,Watson,&Platt,
2014;Pessoa,2017;Reynolds&Berridge,2008;Sennetal.,2014;Shackman&Fox,2016a;Tovoteetal.,
2016;Xiuetal.,2014).Nevertheless,importantprogresshasalreadybeenmade.Affectiveneuroscience
has revealeddissociable circuits—enablingusparseemotions into theirmoreelementary constituents
(e.g. likingvs.wanting, describedabove) and identifieddeep similarities between seeminglydisparate
psychological constructs, including emotion, pain, and cognition (Cavanagh & Shackman, 2015; de la
Vega,Chang,Banich,Wager,&Yarkoni,2016;Pessoa,2017;Shackman,Salomons,etal.,2011).
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue7
Although neuroscience holds great promise for our understanding of emotion, neuroscience is not
sufficienttogain insight intothenatureofemotion.“Withoutwell‐characterizedbehaviorandtheories
thatcanactasaconstraintoncircuit‐levelinferences,brainsandbehaviorwillbeliketwoshipspassing
inthenight”(Krakauer,Ghazanfar,Gomez‐Marin,MacIver,&Poeppel,2017,p.484).Ourbiologycanonly
beasstrongasourbehavioralmodelsandassays.Thisneedforscientificcross‐talkisevenmorecrucial
when it comes tounderstanding the rootsofemotional traitsandemotionaldisorders, constructs that
reflect bidirectional interactions between the brain and different kinds of psychosocial experiences,
includingparentingpractices,socialsupport,maritalconflict,andsocioeconomicadversity(Crameretal.,
2012a, 2012b; Kendler, 2012a, 2012b; Kendler & Halberstadt, 2013; Schwartz, Lilienfeld, Meca, &
Sauvigné, 2016; Shackman, Tromp, et al., 2016; Zhang&Meaney, 2010). In short, scientistswho view
emotion through the lens of the neurobiology have much to learn from their non‐neuroscientist
colleagues.Likewise,studentsofemotionwhodonotthemselves“doneuroscience”havemuchtogainby
attendingtothediscoveriesofaffectiveneuroscience.
METHODOLOGICALISSUESANDRECOMMENDATIONS
In this section,we discuss some of themost importantmethodological challenges facing the affective
sciences,andprovidesomerecommendationsforaddressingthem.Ourhopeisthattheseguidelineswill
proveusefultobothproducersofaffectivescience—thosechargedwithdesigning,executing,analyzing,
interpreting, anddisseminating research—aswell as consumers and gatekeepers, including reviewers,
editors, and funders.Wider adoption of these best practiceswould enhance the credibility, inferential
utility,andpracticalsignificanceofemotionresearch.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue8
OpenandReproducibleAffectiveScience
Understandingthenatureofemotiondemandsreproducibleresearch.Yet, theactualreproducibilityof
publishedresearchinthesocialandbiomedicalsciencesisalarminglylow(Baker,2016;Engber,2017;
Motyletal.,2017;L.D.Nelson,Simmons,&Simonsohn, inpress;Nuzzo,2015;Palmers,2016;Shrout&
Rodgers,inpress;Spellman,2015;Tackettetal.,inpress;Yong,2016)(butcf.Gilbert,King,Pettigrew,&
Wilson,2016).Theresulting‘replicationcrisis’providesacriticalopportunityformethodologicalreform
and we would be remiss if we did not highlight a few of the most important recommendations and
implications for emotion researchers (for detailed reviews, see Chambers, 2017; Munafò et al., 2017;
Nicholsetal.,2017).
DesigningEmotionResearch:Pre‐RegistrationandPower.AddressingtheCalTechgraduatingclass
of1974,theNobellaureatephysicistRichardFeynmanfamouslywarnedthat:
“Youmustnotfoolyourself—andyouaretheeasiestpersontofool…Ifyou’vemadeupyourmindtotesta
theory,oryouwanttoexplainsomeidea,youshouldalwaysdecidetopublishitwhicheverwayitcomesout.
Ifweonlypublishresultsofacertainkind,wecanmake theargument lookgood. [But]Wemustpublish
bothkindsofresult”(Feynman,1974,p.12).
Studypre‐registrationisahighlyeffectivemeansofaddressingFeynman’sconcern(Munafòetal.,2017).
Thepre‐registrationofbasicstudyelements—generaldesignandsamplingplan,analyticapproach,key
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue9outcomesandpredictions—isa‘broadspectrumtreatment’thatinoculatesagainstbothcognitivebiases
(e.g., confirmation and hindsight biases) and questionable research practices (e.g.,p‐hacking, selective
censoring,undiscloseddatadredging, and flexible rules for terminatingdata collection).Althoughpre‐
registration has become standard practice in clinical medicine, it remains underutilized by emotion
researchers, perhaps reflecting nagging doubts about stifling scientific creativity or ‘extra paperwork.’
Neitherconcernholdsmuchwater.Pre‐registrationdoesnotprecludethepossibilityofserendipity—all
analysesremainfairgame(Poldrack,2016).Pre‐registrationsimplyforcesresearcherstobetransparent,
with ourselves and with others, about which results were genuinely predicted and which are new
discoveries (or a posteriori explanations) in need of replication. Once a study has been devised, pre‐
registrationiscomparativelypainlessusingweb‐basedtoolsmaintainedbytheOpenScienceFoundation
(https://osf.io)orothergroups(e.g.,https://clinicaltrials.gov).
Performing studies with inadequate statistical power represents another, perhaps more widely
recognized,waytofoolourselvesandadangertoreproduciblescience(Munafòetal.,2017;Poldracket
al.,2017).What is lesswellappreciatedisthat lowpowerdoesnot just increasethe likelihoodof false
negatives (‘null results‘), it also increases theprobabilityof falsediscoveriesandproducesoverly rosy
estimatesofeffectsize(Buttonetal.,2013a,2013b;Cohen,1992;Yarkoni,2009;Yarkoni&Westfall,in
press), a lesson learned the hard way by geneticists over the past decade (Bastiaansen et al., 2014;
Culverhouseetal.,inpress;Iacono,Vaidyanathan,Vrieze,&Malone,2014;Okbay&Rietveld,2015).Low
poweroftenreflectsalackofresources(e.g.,funds,time,accesstospecialpopulations),ratherthanalack
of knowledge; after all, software for computing power is freely available and power estimates are
required formostgrantapplications.Thischallenge isnotnecessarilyeasilyaddressed,givenresource
constraints, but inmany cases, canbe circumventedby teamscienceapproaches, consortia, andother
kindsofdatasharing.Theseapproachesareparticularlywell‐suitedtoareaswherethemeasurescanbe
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue10readily collected and quantified using standardized techniques (e.g., surveys of emotional traits, and
anatomicalMRIdata).
OpenReportingandSharing.Inthesamecommencementaddress,Feynmanunderscoredasecondkey
principle,theneedforfulldisclosurewhencommunicatingscientificresearch:
“…theideaistogivealloftheinformationtohelpothersjudgethevalueofyourcontribution;notjustthe
informationthatleadstojudgmentinoneparticulardirectionoranother”(Feynman,1974,p.11).
Providingacompleteandtransparentreportofthemethodsusedinaparticularstudyhasanumberof
benefits. Itenablesotherresearchersto fairlyevaluatethemeritsand limitationsof thework, tomore
readily reuse the methods in their own work, and to unambiguously incorporate the results into
narrativereviewsandmeta‐analyses(Munafòetal.,2017).Publicrepositoriesandothernewtoolsmake
iteasytogoastepfurtheranddirectlysharedata,code,andresults(e.g.,thresholdedmapsfrombrain
imaging studies;http://neurovault.org). Shareddataand results canbe combinedand reused innovel
ways.Opensourcecodecanbeexamined,corrected,andrefinedinwaysthatareimpossiblewithclosed
programs (Cox, Chen,Glen, Reynolds,&Taylor, 2017; Eglen et al., 2017; Eklund,Nichols,&Knutsson,
2016,2017).Publicsharingalsomakesiteasiertorecreateoldexperimentsandanalyses,evenwhenthe
personwhospearheadedtheprojecthasmovedon(Eglenetal.,2017).
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue11Although the replication crisis provides new urgency, the spirit motivating these four specific
recommendations—pre‐registration, power, reporting, and sharing—is not new. Skepticism,
transparency, and communalism (‘sharing’) are all longstanding scientific values (M. S. Anderson,
Martinson,&DeVries,2007;Merton,1942/1973)andconcernsaboutstatisticalpowerhavebeenvoiced
formore than a half‐century (Cohen, 1962).What has changed is thedevelopment of awide range of
digitaltoolsthatmakeadoptioneasierthanever.Embracingalloftheserecommendations,orevenone
ortwo,promisestoincreaseefficiency,enhancereproducibility,andaccelerateourunderstandingofthe
natureofemotion.
ClearNomenclature
Scientistshavelongrecognizedthatthewordsweusetodescribenaturehavethepowertoilluminateor
toobfuscate.FrancisBacon,oneoftheoriginalarchitectsofthescientificmethod,wrotethatthe“shoddy
andineptapplicationofwordslayssiegetotheintellectinwondrousways…wordsclearlyforcethemselves
on the intellect, throw everything in turmoil, and side‐track men into empty disputes, countless
controversies, and complete fictions" (Barber, 2017, p. 500). Four hundred years later, Poldrack and
Yarkoni made nearly the same point, arguing that “many of the theoretical disputes that arise in
psychology are…driven to a large extent by tacit differences in terminology that ramify as substantive
disagreements”(Poldrack&Yarkoni,2016).
Understandingthenatureandoriginsofemotionrequiresthatresearchersdescribeemotionsinaclear
andunambiguousway.Yet,aswithotherareasofpsychologyandneurobiology, this israrelythecase.
Since the publication of the first edition of this volume, a growing number of commentators have
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue12highlightedproblemswiththelanguageusedtodescribeemotionperception(Schaafsma,Pfaff,Spunt,&
Adolphs,2015);emotionalstates(LeDoux,2015;Shackman&Fox,2016b);stress(Kagan,2016a,2016b;
Koolhaasetal.,2011;Romeroetal.,2015);emotional traits (Block,1995;Morrison&Grammer,2016;
Nigg,2017;Poldrack&Yarkoni, 2016; Sharma,Markon,&Clark,2014); andemotional symptomsand
disorders,suchasanhedoniaanddepression(Zald&Treadway,2017).Thecommonrefrainacrossthese
commentariesisthat“seeminglyharmlessdifferencesinnomenclature”(Zald&Treadway,2017,p.476)
obscure important differences in neurobiology and phenomenology, impeding the development of
cumulativeknowledge.
Thispervasiveproblemreflectsseveralsemanticsins,includingtheuseofdifferenttermstorefertothe
same idea (jangle fallacy; Thorndike, 1904) and a single term to refer tomultiple ideas (jingle fallacy;
Kelly,1927).Takethecaseoffear.Nakedandunadornedwithinformationaboutantecedentsorcontext
(e.g., imminence of threat, possibility of escape), the word fear is insufficient for clear scientific
communication.LikeotherEnglishwordsforemotion,itcan,andoftenis,usedtorefertotheperception
of fearful or threatening stimuli, the expression of a range of defensive responses to threat, and the
experience of fearful feelings, three processes that reflect overlapping but qualitatively distinct neural
circuits(R.J.Davidson,1993;LeDoux,2012,2014,2015,inpress).Amongscientistsandlaypeople,fear
referstoabroadspectrum—or‘family’(http://atlasofemotions.org;Ekman,1994a;Ekman&Davidson,
1994)—of subjective states, frommortal danger to existential angst, and there is ample evidence that
these fearful states reflectpartiallydissociableneural systems (Blanchard,Griebel,&Blanchard,2001;
Calhoon&Tye,2015;Fanselow&Lester,1988;Fox&Shackman,inpress;Kalin&Shelton,1989;Mobbs
etal.,2007;Shackman&Fox,2016b).Preliminaryattemptstonamethesesystemshavefallenpreytothe
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue13sinofinconsistentusage.Inspiredbyevidencethatfear,likerewardandaggression1,canbefractionated
onetiologicalgroundsintoatleasttwokinds,agrowingnumberofresearchersdrawasharpdistinction
betweenfear(aphasicresponsetoimminentdanger)andanxiety(asustainedresponseintheabsenceof
imminentdanger;e.g.,Barlow,2000;Davisetal.,2010;LeDoux,2015;Tovote,Fadok,&Luthi,2015).In
fact,aversionofthisdichotomyisnowembodiedintheNational InstituteofMentalHealth’sResearch
DomainCriteria(RDoC)asAcuteThreatandPotentialThreat(Kozak&Cuthbert,2016)2.Confusionarises
fromthefactthat laypeople,scholarsinotherareas,theAmericanPsychiatricAssociation’sDiagnostic
andStatisticalManual (AmericanPsychiatricAssociation,2013),psychometricians(Kotovetal.,2017),
and even domain experts—at least in unguarded moments—use these terms interchangeably or
inconsistently (Kagan, in press;Watson, Stanton, & Clark, in press). Even the seemingly more precise
phrase‘diffuse,uncertain,orremotethreat’isusedtorefertoabewilderingarrayofparadigms,from15
minutesofexposuretoaunfamiliararenainrodentstoaseveralsecondsofuncertainanticipationofan
aversiveimageinhumans(Shackman,Tromp,etal.,2016).TheupshotisthatEnglishlanguagewordsfor
emotion—anger, fear, disgust, joy, sadness and so on—and even more recently coined phrases, like
‘uncertain threat,’ can, andoftendo, refer tomultiple phenomena (Wager,Krishnan,&Hitchcock, this
volume;Barrett,2017;Kagan,2010)andassuchrepresentapoorguidetotheunderlyingmechanisms.
Sowhatistobedone?Therewillalwaysbeaplaceforverbalshorthandandsosomeoftheseproblems
areinevitable,butwecaneasilydomuchbetter.Weurgeemotionresearchersto:
Bemindfulofthejingleandjanglefallacieswhenconsideringtheemotionliterature 1Aggressioncanbesplitonfunctionalandneurobiologicalgroundsintosystemsinvolvedindefensive,offensive(predatory),andconspecificaggression,withthelatterincludingmaternalaggressionandresourcecompetition(food,mates,andterritory/shelter)(Adams,2006;Berkowitz,1993;R.J.Nelson&Trainor,2007). 2Seealsohttps://www.nimh.nih.gov/research‐priorities/rdoc/constructs/potential‐threat‐anxiety.shtml;https://www.nimh.nih.gov/research‐priorities/rdoc/negative‐valence‐systems‐workshop‐proceedings.shtml.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue14
Eschewproblematicredefinitionsofeverydaylanguage
Minimize or eliminate misleading single‐word descriptors, such as fear, that lump together
multipleprocessesandsubstrates.
Bewareofreification—theindexisnottheconstruct(Kagan,1988;Kendler,2016).Donotconfuse
‘fear’withpotentiationofthestartlereflexorfreezingintheelevatedplus‐maze.
Accurately specify thespecificparametersof theantecedent stimuli, the context inwhich those
stimuli are encountered, and the subsequent pattern of responses. Scientific constructs (e.g.,
gravity),gainstrengthwhentheyarecloselytiedtoempiricalmeasurements(Marx,1951).
Insomecases,aswithstimuliorresponsesthatvaryindegree(e.g.,physicalimminenceofthreat,
intensityofthermalstimulation,magnitudeofmonetaryreward),itwillbefruitfultodevelopand
usecomputationalmodels,whichenabletheuseofunambiguousmathematicalexpressionsthat
makeprecisepredictions.
RigorandRealisticInference
Drawing strong inferences about emotions, their underlyingneurobiology, and their consequences for
cognition,decision‐making,interpersonalprocesses,andotherpsychologicalprocesses,demandstheuse
of carefully designed experimental paradigms, psychometrically sound measures, intelligent analytic
choices, and sober interpretation of the results (Luck, 2005; Shackman et al., 2006; Tomarken, 1995).
Tasksorconditionsmustbewellequatedformotorrequirementsandperceptualcharacteristics.Insome
cases, psychometric matching will be fruitful. Affect is notoriously fleeting and induction procedures
typicallyfailtoelicitthetargetaffectinasubsetofsubjects(Shackmanetal.,2006).Thus,itisimperative
thatthepresenceofthetargetemotion(s)beverified.Emotionalstatesdifferintheirintensityaswellas
their persistence, which makes it crucial to understand the chronometry of affective responses (R. J.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue15Davidson, 1998; Shackman, Tromp, et al., 2016; Tracy, Klonsky, & Proudfit, 2014). Emotionmeasures
oftenshowweakcoherenceand,thus,itisusefultoacquireseparatemeasuresofemotionalexperience,
peripheralphysiology,andbehavior(Bradley&Lang,2007;Ekman&Davidson,1994;Mauss,Levenson,
McCarter,Wilhelm,&Gross, 2005; Shackman et al., 2013). Investigators should be especially cautious
whencomparingresponses,whetherneuralorbehavioral,acrosstasksthatmarkedlydifferinduration
ornumberoftrials(i.e.,inthevarianceoftheread‐out),asinparadigmswherelongblocksarecompared
tobriefevents.
Parametric manipulations of the emotion‐eliciting stimuli (e.g., probability, duration, magnitude, or
intensity) can be especially powerful. Strong claims of specificity require comparison with an
appropriately arousing control condition. To draw strong inferences about disgust, for example, one
needs to contrast the effectswith those associatedwith an equally intense state of anger, fear, or joy.
Likewise,strongclaimsaboutpositiveaffectdemandcomparisonwithanequallypotentstateofnegative
affect.Moregenerally,inferencesaboutspecificityorconstructvalidityrequirecomparisonwitharange
of other tasks and conditions (Passingham, Stephan,&Kotter, 2002; Poldrack et al., 2017; Tomarken,
1995). Putative double dissociations need to be rigorously assessed by testing the appropriate
interaction(e.g.,RegionxCondition,ERPComponentxCondition,EmotionxCognitiveTask;Shackman,
Maxwell,McMenamin,Greischar,&Davidson,2011;Shackmanetal.,2006;Somerville,Whalen,&Kelley,
2010). Investigators shouldbe circumspectwhen interpretingunusually strongeffects (Lakens,2017).
Concludingthataparticularbrainregionis‘notinvolved’insomethingascomplexandmulti‐dimensional
as an emotion based on a significant difference in activity, a null test, or a single assay is completely
unwarranted. For neurophysiological techniques, such as functional MRI (fMRI) and
electroencephalography(EEG), trial‐by‐trialrelationsbetweenneuralsignalsandemotionalexperience
provide some of the strongest and most direct links between the brain and emotion (Atlas, Bolger,
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue16Lindquist, & Wager, 2010; Cavanagh & Shackman, 2015; Lim, Padmala, & Pessoa, 2009). Machine‐
learning techniques, though not without their limitations (Paulus, 2015; Woo et al., 2017; Yarkoni &
Westfall,inpress),providenewopportunitiesforidentifyingpatterns(e.g.,neuralactivation,symptoms,
behaviors)thatrobustlypredictemotionalstates,traits,anddisorders.Regardlessofapproach,itwillbe
increasingly important to employ techniques that examine the generalizability of our findings (e.g., by
cross‐validatingpredictionsacross rather thanwithin subjects). In summary, for optimal progress,we
mustbeclearwhatwearestudying,testourclaims,andacknowledgethelimitationsofourresearch.
Emotions vary in important ways across sexes and cultures (e.g., Chiao, this volume; Shansky, this
volume).Yet,scientistsoftenmakefundamentalclaimsaboutthenatureofemotiononthebasisofdata
drawnfromanarrowsliceofthisdiversity.Thevastmajorityofhumanstudiesrelyonindividualsdrawn
fromWestern,educated,industrialized,richanddemocratic(WEIRD)societies—whorepresentperhaps
asmuchas80percentoftheparticipantsinbiopsychosocialresearch,butonly12percentoftheworld’s
population(Henrich,Heine,&Norenzayan,2010)—andlaboratorystudiesofanimalsdisproportionately
rely onmale rats andmice (Institute ofMedicine, 2001).Whether the fruits of thiswork translate to
‘everyoneelse’remainsunclear.Asimilarconcernappliestotheissueofmeasurementcontext(Ekman&
Davidson,1994;LeDoux,2014).Thecontext inwhichanemotioniselicitedcantransformtheemotion
that is experienced (e.g., anger vs. fear), the way in which it is expressed (e.g., freezing vs. flight vs.
defensiveattack),andthebraincircuitsthatsubserveit(Blanchard&Pearson,thisvolume;Kagan,this
volume; Barrett, 2017; Kagan, in press;Khalsa et al., 2016; LeDoux, 2014;Wager & Atlas, 2015). Yet,
laboratory studies of emotion rely on a narrow range ofmeasurement contexts (e.g., lying alone in a
scanner).Studentsofemotionshouldberealisticabouttheirconclusionsandnotassumethatinferences
derivedfromonecontextorgroupwillnecessarilyproveuniversal.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue17
CoordinatedCross‐SpeciesResearch
MuchoftheneurobiologicaldatareviewedintheNatureofEmotioncomesfromhumanEEGandimaging
studies.Themostcriticallimitationofimagingstudiesisthattheyarecorrelationalandcannotaddress
causation.Fullyaddressingthischallengemandatesmechanisticstudiesinhumansandanimals,aswell
ascoordinatedcross‐speciesresearchefforts.Animalmodelsenableadegreeofresolution,precision,and
control that are nearly impossible to achieve in studies of humans. In contrast, human studies are
essential for understanding the precise neural mechanisms supporting the subjective experience of
emotions (D. J. Anderson & Adolphs, 2014; LeDoux, 2015) and for identifying the features of animal
modelsthatareconservedand,hence,mostrelevanttounderstandinghumanemotionaldisordersand,
ultimately,todevelopingimprovedinterventionsforhumansuffering('forwardtranslation;'Birnetal.,
2014; Hyman, 2016). Human studies also afford important opportunities for developing objective
biomarkersofdiseaseordiseaserisk(Wooetal.,2017)andforgeneratingnovelhypothesesthatcanbe
mechanisticallyassessedinanimalmodels('reversetranslation’).
In animalmodels, focal perturbation techniques can be combinedwith the samewhole‐brain imaging
strategies routinely applied in humans, facilitating the development of integrated, bidirectional
translationalmodels(Borsook,Becerra,&Hargreaves,2006;Caseyetal.,2013;Desaietal.,2011;Foxet
al., 2010;Grayson et al., 2016;Kalin et al., 2016).This combined approach is particularly valuable for
determining whether changes in emotional behavior are mediated by alterations in the function of
downstream regions, as occurs followingOFC lesions inmonkeys (Fox et al., 2010)orOFCdamage in
humans (Motzkin, Philippi, Oler, et al., 2015). Combining cognitive‐behavioral, neurofeedback,
neurostimulation,orpharmacologicalinterventionswithfMRIorEEGinhumanscanprovideadditional
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue18opportunities for understanding the neural mechanisms underlying the experience and expression of
emotion (Duff et al., 2015; Lapate et al., in press; Paulus, Feinstein, Castillo, Simmons, & Stein, 2005;
Schnyeretal., 2015;Sitaramet al., 2017). Similarly, imagingapproaches canandshouldbeapplied to
rare patients with circumscribed brain damage (Adolphs, 2016; Motzkin, Philippi, Oler, et al., 2015;
Motzkin,Philippi,Wolf,Baskaya,&Koenigs,2014,2015;Spuntetal.,2015).
Oncewe establish candidate proximal causes for a particular emotion,we can begin to address some
other crucial questions. For example, how specific is this circuitry (at the neuronal, voxel, or regional
levels;Passinghametal.,2002;Pessoa,2017;Wooetal.,2017;Zaki,Wager,Singer,Keysers,&Gazzola,
2016)?How is it related tomorepersistent affectivephenomena, such asmoods and emotional traits
(Shackman,Tromp,etal.,2016)?Addressingspecificityisparticularlyimportantforunderstandinghow
emotionisintegratedintocognition,decision‐making,andsocialprocessesandwouldprovidevaluable
clues about why disparate features of emotion, such as vigilance and worrisome thoughts (Grupe &
Nitschke,2013)oranxietyandconflictmonitoring(Cavanagh&Shackman,2015),oftenco‐vary.Itwould
also help to address on‐going debates about the degree towhich emotions reflect specialized centers,
domain‐generalmodules,orsomecombinationofthesebuildingblocks(Adolphs,2017;Barrett,2017).
EmotionsintheRealWorld
Physiological studiesofemotionhavereliedheavilyona limitednumberofwell‐controlled,buthighly
artificial manipulations—static faces, sounds, images, small monetary rewards, and so on—presented
under unnatural conditions. Subjectsmay, for example, be instructed to passively view a randomized
streamofpositiveandnegativephotographswhilelyingmotionlessinthecramped,dimlylitconfinesof
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue19anMRIscanner.Byandlarge,thesemanipulationsarefarlessarousingandmuchlessengagingthanthe
kinds of antecedents regularly encountered in daily life or those routinely used in animal models
(Levenson,thisvolume;LeDoux,2015;Levenson,2011;Shackmanetal.,2006).Althoughthisapproach
has afforded a number of important insights, it is unclear howmuch of this knowledge is relevant to
emotionintherealworld—inthebedroomandtheclassroom,theboardroomandthebar.
Given the limitations of ambulatory measures of brain activity—there is no ‘fMRI helmet’ as yet—
addressing this question requires integrating assays of brain function and behavior acquired in the
scannerwithmeasuresofemotionandmotivatedbehaviorassessedundermorenaturalisticconditions
in the laboratory (e.g., during semi‐structured interactions;Creed&Funder, 1998; Laidlaw, Foulsham,
Kuhn,&Kingstone,2011;Perez‐Edgaretal.,2010;Pfeiffer,Vogeley,&Schilbach,2013)orinthefield,a
pointalsomadebyEkmanandDavidsoninthefirsteditionofTheNatureofEmotion(Ekman&Davidson,
1994).Recentworkcombining fMRIwithexperience‐sampling techniquesunderscores thepotentialof
this approach for identifying the neural systems associated with naturalistic variation in mood and
motivated behavior—a central goal of psychology, psychiatry, and the behavioral neurosciences
(Berkman & Falk, 2013; Forbes et al., 2009; Heller et al., 2015; Lopez, Hofmann, Wagner, Kelley, &
Heatherton,2014;Wilson,Smyth,&MacLean,2014).Prospective longitudinaldesignswouldprovidea
valuable opportunity to discover the relevance of specific emotional circuits in the brain to the
development of maladaptive mood and pathology‐promoting behaviors, such as avoidance and social
isolation(Admonetal.,2009;McLaughlinetal.,2014;Swartz,Knodt,Radtke,&Hariri,2015).
Thedevelopmentof robustmobileeye trackers, theemergenceof commercial software forautomated
analyses of facial expressions (Olderbak, Hildebrandt, Pinkpank, Sommer, &Wilhelm, 2014), and the
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue20widespread dissemination of smart‐phone and other kinds of ‘wearable’ technology for adults and
childrenaffordadditionalopportunitiesforobjectively,efficiently,andunobtrusivelyquantifyingcontext,
emotion,andmotivatedbehaviorinvivo(Gilmore,2016;Gosling&Mason,2015;Onnela&Rauch,2016;
Sano et al., 2015; Wrzus & Mehl, 2015). Combining these measures with laboratory assays of brain
functionandperipheralphysiology(e.g.,emotion‐modulatedstartle)wouldprovidenovelcluesaboutthe
neuralsystemssupportingmoodandmotivatedbehavior indaily life,closetoclinicallyandpractically
importantend‐points.Thisapproachpromisesadepthofunderstandingthatcannotbeachievedusing
eitheranimalmodelsorisolatedmeasuresofbrainfunction.Evenintheabsenceofbiologicalmeasures,
thesenewtoolspromiseimportantcluesaboutthedynamicsofemotionalstatesindailylife(e.g.,spill‐
overofmoodacrosssequential contextsandassessments)and thesocial factorsandcopingbehaviors
that help govern the momentary expression of emotional traits (Shackman, Tromp, et al., 2016;
Shackmanetal.,inpress;Tambini,Rimmele,Phelps,&Davachi,2017).
SPECIFICCHALLENGESFORFUTURERESEARCHINTHEAFFECTVESCIENCES
The 92 essays thatmake up the present volume tell uswhatwe as a field know about the nature of
emotion.Buildingonthisfoundation,inthisthirdandfinalsectionoftheEpilogue,wehighlightsomeof
themostimportantsubstantiveareasforfutureresearchintheaffectivesciences.
TheIntegrationofEmotionandCognition
Emotion and cognition can seem quite different at first glance. Emotion is infused with feelings of
pleasureorpainandmanifests inreadilydiscernedchanges inthebody,whilecognitionoftenappears
devoid of these features. From classical times to the present, these apparent differences in
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue21phenomenological experience and peripheral physiology have ledmany scholars to treat emotion and
cognition as categorically distinct, even oppositional, mental faculties (Barrett, 2017; de Sousa, 2014;
Schmitter,2014).Asimilardichotomypervadespsychiatricnosology.Butwiththeadventofnewtools
fornoninvasivelyassayingthebrain,theideathatemotionandcognitionaredifferentinkindbeganto
dissolve(Okon‐Singer,Hendler,Pessoa,&Shackman,2015).AtthetimeTheNatureofEmotionwasfirst
published,in1994,onlyafewcommentatorsemphasizedtheneuralintegrationofemotionandcognition
(R. J. Davidson, 1994; Lazarus, 1991). A quarter century later, there is widespread agreement that
emotionandcognitionaredeeplyinterwoveninthefabricofboththemindandthebrain(Questions1,5,
and8).Thisshouldnotbesurprising—afterall,thehumanbraindidnotevolvetooptimizeperformance
onlaboratorymeasuresof‘cold’cognitionortopassivelyrespondtoexperimentalmanipulationsof‘hot’
emotions.Ourbrain,likethatofotheranimals,istheproductofevolutionarypressuresthatdemanded
neural systems capable of using information about pleasure and pain, derived from stimuli saturated
withhedonicandmotivationalsignificance,toregulateattention,learning,andbehaviorintheserviceof
maximizingfitness.
Despite this progress, a number of important questions remain unresolved. For example, what is the
functional significance of regions—like the anterior insula, mid‐cingulate cortex, and dorsolateral
prefrontal cortex—that are recruited by both cognitive and affective challenges (e.g., de la Vega et al.,
2016;Shackman,Salomons,etal.,2011).Doesthisreflectasingleinvariantfunctionormultiplefunctions
(i.e.,functional‘superimposition’ormoredynamickindsofmultiplexing)?Doesthefunctiondependon
the state of the larger networks in which these regions are embedded? Another general question
concerns the relationship between emotions, on the one hand, and the kinds of functional circuits
identifiedbycognitiveneuroscience,ontheother.Howisthreat‐relatedvigilance,forexample,relatedto
thecircuitry thatunderliessustainedattention(Davis&Whalen,2001;Shackman,Kaplan,etal.,2016;
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue22Shackman,Maxwell,etal.,2011)?Howdoesruminationrelatetoshort‐andlong‐termmemorysystems?
Addressing these questions is practically, as well as theoretically, important and would inform our
understandingofpsychiatricsigns(e.g.,threatover‐generalization,aberrantreinforcementlearning)and
disorders(e.g.,schizophrenia)thatlieattheintersectionofemotionandcognition.
ControllingOurEmotions
There have been tremendous advances in our scientific understanding of how thinking can exert
bidirectionalcontroloveremotion(Questions5,7,and8).Cognitivereappraisalisrecognizedasameans
for deliberate emotion regulation and has had success as a core component of many treatments for
emotionaldisorders(Gross,2014).Thereisclearevidencethatrumination,worry,andhopelessnesscan
maladaptivelypromoteandmaintainnegativeaffectandcancontributetothedevelopmentofmoodand
anxietydisorders(Barlow,Sauer‐Zavala,Carl,Bullis,&Ellard,2013;Hyde,Mezulis,&Abramson,2008;
Nolen‐Hoeksema,Wisco,&Lyubomirsky,2008;Watkins,2008).Despitethisprogress,itisclearthatwe
haveonlyscratchedthesurfaceofemotionregulation.Anumberofcontributorsdiscussedhowthinking
cangenerateandtransformemotions.AkeenexamplecomesfromCarolineBlanchard’sstoryofhowshe
“sleptfornearlytwoyearswithascarftiedaroundherneckafterreadingBramStoker’sDraculaatan
unwisely precocious age” (Blanchard& Pearson, this volume). This childhood anecdote highlights the
power of cognition—oftenpassed fromperson‐to‐person through story, conversation, and thewritten
word—totriggerstrongemotionsandmotivateenduringbehavioralchanges.Weinvitereaderstoreflect
onwhatthisimpliesaboutthelimits(orlackoflimits)—onourcapacitytouseourthoughtstocontrol
ouremotions.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue23Thoughtscannotonlygenerateanemotionalresponse,buttheycanalsomodulatethetypeofemotion
thatisprovoked.Forinstance,thoughtscanbridgebetweencontextandcontext‐appropriateemotions.
For example, asMaoz & Bar‐Haim note, our feelings about a colleague running late to ameeting are
inherentlylinkedtoourthoughtsabouthernormalbehavior,andcanrangefromangerandfrustration
(ifsheishabituallylate)toconcernandapprehension(ifsheishabituallypunctual)(Maoz&Bar‐Haim,
this volume).More generally, thoughts can transform thenatureof an emotional stimulus.Adelicious
juice can quickly become disgusting following exposure to a perceived contaminant, such as a bug or
bedpan (even after it has been sterilized!) (Rozin, Haidt, & McCauley, 2008). Moreover, this disgust‐
linked contamination changes across development, enabling older children to become disgusted by
increasinglyabstractideas(e.g.,aswastikaorklansman’swhitehood)astheircognitiveabilitiesmature
(Rozin et al., 2008). These data underscore the intimate links between cognition and emotion, and
reaffirmtheabilityofthoughtsandideastocontrolourfeelings.
In short, our thoughts are linked to our emotions along the entire cascade of emotionprocessing and
across a range of time‐scales. A significant challenge for affective scientists is to develop a deeper
understandingofpreciselyhowthesecognitiveappraisalsinemotionalprocessingoperate.Forexample,
relatively little is known about the more elementary cognitive processes that underlie appraisal and
appraisal tendencies (but cf. Scherer, 2009). What role do trait‐like appraisal tendencies play in
determiningaffective‐styleandtowhatextentare theseprocessessusceptible tovoluntaryorhabitual
training?Onehintthattrait‐likeappraisaltendenciescanchangecomesfromtheworkofCarstensenand
colleagues, who suggest that a changing appraisal of the subjective sense of time left on this planet
mediates the increases inwell‐being seenduringold‐age (Carstensen, this volume).Reconceptualizing
andelucidating theappraisalprocess to include these long‐lastingappraisalscanprovidea framework
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue24fornew,andpotentiallyrevolutionary,methodstomanageandregulateemotions,andtreatemotional
disorders.
InfluencingOthers’Emotions
Emotionisprofoundlysocial(Questions9‐10).Emotionalexperiencesareroutinelysharedanddissected
with friendsand family (Rime,2009)andsocial engagement tends topromotepositiveaffect (Clark&
Watson, 1988a, 1988b;Watson, 1988; Watson, Clark, McIntyre, & Hamaker, 1992). Most attempts at
emotionregulationoccurinsocialcontexts(Gross,Richards,&John,2006)andthereisampleevidence
that close companions play a vital role in copingwith stress and regulating negative affect (Bolger &
Eckenrode, 1991;Myers, 1999). Individualsdiffer in their ability to capitalize on these kinds of socio‐
emotionalsupport(Shackmanetal., inpress)andthosepronetolonelinessandlowlevelsofemotional
intimacy aremore likely to experience adverse outcomes, such as divorce and depression (Cacioppo,
Grippo, London, Goossens, & Cacioppo, 2015; Editors, 2010; Kendler & Halberstadt, 2013; Shackman,
Tromp, et al., 2016). In short, it is clear that other individuals can, and frequently do, influence our
emotionsinavarietyofimportantways(Coan&Sbarra,2015;Zaki&Williams,2013).
Of course, interpersonal processes are a two‐way street, creating numerous opportunities for the
bidirectional control of emotion. Parents and teachers, spouses and therapists, entertainers and
politiciansall leverage thecapacity to strategically regulate theemotionsofothers tovaryingdegrees,
butwehaveonlyjustbeguntodevelopascientificunderstandingoftheunderlyingmechanisms(Reeck,
Ames, & Ochsner, 2016). Intentionally managing others’ emotions may depend on the same kinds of
techniques commonly applied to the self‐regulation of emotion, including situation selection and
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue25modification, distraction, cognitive reappraisal, and response modulation (Reeck et al., 2016). Recent
workalsohighlights thepossibilityofdeliberatelycultivatingstates,suchascompassion, thatpromote
prosocial responses to others suffering and distress (Engen & Singer, this volume; Stellar & Keltner,
2014;Weisz&Zaki, inpress;Wengetal., 2013).Allof these regulatory strategies criticallydependon
accuratelyinferringothers’emotions,oftenonthebasisoflimitedorambiguousinformation(Question
10).Becausetheverynatureofperceptioncanbesusceptibletotheinfluencesofstereotypesandbias,it
will be critical to develop techniques to overcome biases in active perception. Developing a deeper
understanding of the underlying perceptual, computational, and neurobiological mechanisms that
support interpersonal regulation of emotion is important and would guide the development of novel
interventions focused on dyads (e.g., parents and their offspring) and other more complex social
networks (Baucom, Belus, Adelman, Fischer, & Paprocki, 2014; Chronis‐Tuscano et al., 2015; Kok &
Singer,2017;Marroquin,2011).
ExpandingthePhysicalBasesofEmotion
Scholarshavelongrealizedthatitisproblematictoconsideremotionwithouttakingsignalsfromthe
bodyintoaccount.Classicalperspectivesonphysicalembodimentfocusontransientchangesinthe
expressivemusclesoftheface,theheart,andtheperipheralnervoussystemthatpreparethebodyto
adaptivelyrespondtoacuteemotionalchallenges(Damasio&Damasio,thisvolume;Wood,Martin&
Niedenthal,thisvolume;LeDoux,2015).However,ithasbecomeclearthatweneedtoexpandthese
classicalperspectivesonembodiment.Whileourcentralnervoussystemevolvedtoemote(Fox,this
volume),otherbodilysystemsandorganismsseemtohaveevolvedthecapacitytoinfluenceour
emotions,somethingnotaddressedbyexistingtheoriesofemotion.Futuretheorieswillneedtoaccount
fortheinfluenceoftheimmunesystemaswellasthemanytrillionsofmicroorganismsthatliveonand
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue26withinourbodies.Sicknessbehavior—whichischaracterizedbyoutwardsignsthataresimilarto
depression,includinglethargy,apathy,andadesiretobealone—providesanexcellentandrelatively
well‐understoodexampleoftheimmunesystem’sroleingoverningmoodandemotionalbehavior
(Rosenkranz,thisvolume).Likewise,thecuriouscaseoftheparasitetoxoplasmagondiiprovides
compellingevidencethatmicroorganismscandramaticallyinfluencemotivatedbehavior(Rosenkranz,
thisvolume;House,Vyas,&Sapolsky,2011;Vyas,Kim,Giacomini,Boothroyd,&Sapolsky,2007).T.gondii
canonlysexuallyreproduceinthecatgut.Theproblemisthattheyareregularlyexcretedandtherefore
requireanintermediatehost,suchasabirdorrodent,tomaketheirwayback.Afterinfectingtheir
intermediatehost,T.gondiialterthehost'sneuralresponsetocatodor,changingtheirinnateaversionto
attractionandincreasingthelikelihoodthatacatwilleattheintermediatehost.Thesekindsof
observationstellusthattheuniverseofinteractionsbetweenemotionandthebodyisvastlylarger,
considerablymorecomplex,andcanplayoutovermuchlongerspansoftimethanJamesandLange
probablyhadinmind.Inparticular,theyhighlighttheneedtoexpandembodiedmodelsofemotionto
encompassabroaderspectrumofperipheralbiology,includingtheimmunesystemandthebody’s
microbiome.
EmotionsandDecision‐Making
Another major development since the initial publication of this volume has been the realization that
affective processes are central to value‐based decision‐making. The observation that optimal and
adaptivedecisionsrelyonaffectivevaluationratherthan‘coldcognition’wasanimportantadvancefor
bothaffectiveandeconomicscience.Duringthissamespan,asubstantialbodyofevidencehasamassed
to indicate that the neural systems underlying emotion largely overlap with those supporting value‐
baseddecision‐making; that emotion‐altering lesionsordrugs frequently changedecision‐making; and
thattask‐irrelevantemotioncanbiasdecisions(e.g.,Engelmann&Hare,thisvolume;Knutson&Stallen,
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue27this volume; Murray, this volume; Tymula & Glimcher, this volume. These data dovetail with earlier
observations that emotions help organisms choose adaptive behaviors that facilitate survival and
reproduction. Determining exactly how emotions influence decisions can feed‐back and inform our
understandingofemotionandhaspotentiallyimportantimplicationsforpublichealthandpublicpolicy,
withapplicationstoobesity,addiction,anddepression.
Looking to the future, it will be important to develop increasingly accurate models of choice that
incorporate the biasing influence of emotional states, traits, and disorders. Choices often hinge on
predictions about the value of potential outcomes. A number of contributors suggested that these
economicvaluationsignalscanbeconceptualizedasaformofaffect,andthatsimulatedemotionforms
the basis of value based decision‐making (e.g., Chang & Jolly, this volume; Engelmann & Hare, this
volume;Hartley&Sokol‐Hessner,thisvolume;Reber&Tranel,thisvolume).Achiefstrengthofdecision‐
making research has been the development of formal and precisemathematicalmodels that underlie
decision‐making. These models have allowed researchers to tease apart the hidden processes that
contribute to decision‐making, and search for their neural and psychological correlates. For example,
within the present volume specific decision‐weights have been associated with particular aspects of
emotion, including surprise (Friston, Joffily, Barrett, & Seth, this volume), guilt (Chang & Jolly, this
volume),andarousal (Hartley&Sokol‐Hessner, thisvolume).Amajorchallenge for the fieldwillbe to
understand the influence of emotions on the economic axioms of choice (Tymula & Glimcher, this
volume).Thiswillallowresearcherstopreciselyarticulatehowcurrenteconomicmodelsarewrongand
provide a clear guide forwhat adaptations to thesemodels are necessary to best account for human
behavior(e.g.,decision‐makingunderrisk,fairness)(Fehr&Schmidt,1999;Kahneman&Tversky,1979).
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue28The development of increasingly accurate models of decision‐making will provide insight into why
peoplemakemaladaptiveand/orselfishdecisions. Insight intohowweassignvaluetofoodanddrugs,
for example, haspromise forhelping to clarify theetiologyand treatmentof addiction, amajorpublic
health issue. Likewise, developing amore comprehensive understanding of prosocial valuation,would
guide potentially revolutionary developments of public policy focused on optimally incentivizing the
globalgoodandcollectivewell‐being(seethesectiononPlasticity,below).
TheDevelopmentofEmotionandtheImpactofDevelopmentalInsults
There iswidespreadagreementthatmost, ifnotall,aspectsofemotionchangeandmaturethroughout
development, from gestation through late life (Question 14). Yet, the precise nature ofmany of these
changesremainspoorlyunderstood.Itwillbenecessaryforaffectivescientiststodisentangleoftenco‐
occurring processes (e.g., changes in ‘emotional reactivity’ vs. ‘emotion‐regulatory’ systems; Crone &
Pfeifer,thisvolume),inordertounderstandthemechanismsofdevelopmentallyrelevantbiologicaland
psychologicalinsults,andintegrateemotionaldevelopmentwithmodernstatisticallearningtheories.
Parsing thecausalmechanismsunderlyingdevelopmental changes isdifficultbecausesocial, cognitive,
andbiologicaldevelopmentoftenoccur intandem.Thus,amajorchallengeforaffectivedevelopmental
research is todevelop toolsand techniques todissect thedistinct contributionsof changes inphysical
maturation(e.g.,braindevelopment,sexhormones),cognition(e.g.,selectiveattention,cognitivecontrol,
workingmemory), environmental stressors (e.g., new school), and new social roles (e.g., dating). For
example,doesteenageemotionallabilityresultfromprefrontal‐limbicimbalanceorincreasedexposure
tonewandunknownsituations(e.g.,Crone&Pfeifer,thisvolume)?Presumablyeachhasitsownimpact,
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue29butwewillneverknowwithoutintensivelongitudinalassessmentsofneurobiologyandcognitioninthe
laboratory,coupledwithecologicalassessmentsofreal‐worldemotionandsocio‐contextualinformation,
alongsidemechanisticstudiesofdevelopmentinnon‐humananimals.
There is ample evidence that biological and psychological insults (e.g., fetal exposure to maternal
sickness,physicalmaltreatment,deathofaspouse)canhaveenduringconsequencesforemotionalhealth
and well‐being as we develop. Unfortunately, because we know preciously little about the specific
mechanismsunderlyingtheinteractionbetweenthesedevelopmentalinsultsandthebrain,wegenerally
cannotpredicthowtheywillaffectanindividual,norcanweprescribeoptimaldevelopment‐orinsult‐
specific interventions. Therefore, an important goal of developmental affective research will be to
determine which components of emotion development are most susceptible to different kinds of
biologicalandpsychologicalinsults,anddeterminetheextenttowhichtheyarebetterconceptualizedas
temporarysetbacksoraslowingofdevelopment.
Finally, it will be fruitful to integrate theories of emotion development with generalized statistical
learning theory, which describes the process of using statistical regularities to learn about theworld
(Saffran,2003).Forexample,whenachildcriesashermother leaves, is itbecause theevent ishighly
aversive or because it is negative and surprising? Friston and colleagues’ theory of emotion, which
suggeststhatemotionsrepresentakindofpredictionerror,impliesthatthedevelopmentofemotionis
intricately intertwinedwith a child’s ability to accurately predict theworld (Friston, Joffily, Barrett,&
Seth,thisvolume).Thus,inthecaseofthechild,thesurprisemaybemorerelevantthantheaversiveness.
As childrendevelopbetterpredictions aboutwhen food is coming andwhenparentswill return, they
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue30mayceasetoexpressextremeemotionstothesecommonevents.Thisconceptualapproachprovidesa
uniquesetofhypothesesthatmayprovideinsightintothedevelopmentofemotionearlyinlife.
FeelingsandConsciousness
Moving forward, there is a great need to distinguish feelings—that is, the subjective experience of
emotion—from other components of emotion, such as alterations in peripheral physiology and action
tendencies. Feelings are a fundamental component of the everyday experience of emotion and have
intrinsic worth, as they form the basis of perceived well‐being and largely define various forms of
psychopathology.Subjectiveexperienceof feelingsrequiresaconsciousawarenessofongoingaffective
processing,and,importantly,consciousawarenessofemotion‐elicitingeventshasbeendemonstratedto
influenceneuralandbehavioralaspectsofemotionprocessing(Question12;LeDoux&Brown,2017).
Developing a deeper understanding of the role of conscious awareness in emotion is important and
promises to refine our thinking about the relations between emotions, feelings, and psychopathology
(LeDoux,2015).Inparticular,itwillbecriticaltoidentifytherelevanttypesofconsciousawarenessand
eachof their effectsonemotional responding. For example,while anumberof contributors suggested
that the conscious awareness of emotion‐eliciting events modulates neural responses and behavioral
consequences of emotional processing (Question 12), it remains unclear which aspects of conscious
awareness are essential: awareness of the emotion elicitor, awareness of the subsequent emotional
response (interoception), and/or of the link between the two (contingency or source‐of‐emotion
awareness).
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue31Moreover,althoughitiswidelyassumedthatconsciousawarenessoffeelingstatesiscriticalforemotion
regulation,andthatincreasingawarenessofemotionaltriggersisacriticalfactorfordistincttherapeutic
approaches(e.g.,psychotherapyandmindfulness),thenecessityofconsciousawarenessperse inthese
processes has rarely been rigorously tested. For example, is decision‐making more strategic when
accompanied by conscious awareness of emotional events that influence the decision? Further, does
awareness of peripheral‐physiological aspects of an emotional response promote emotion regulation
(e.g.,byfacilitatingrecoveryorareturntobaselineconditions)?Answeringtheseandrelatedquestions
willbeessentialforthedevelopmentofwell‐informedtheoriesofconsciousnessinemotionthathavethe
potentialtooptimizecognitive‐behavioralinterventions.
PlasticityandIntervention
Classicaltheoriesofaffectivestyle,temperament,andpersonalitywouldseemtosuggestthatthehuman
brain is static, certainly once adulthood is reached. But it has become increasingly clear that, like a
mature but growing tree, our brains are in constantmotion. Throughout our lives, new synapses are
beingcreated,newneuronsarebeingborn,existingconnectionsarebeingstrengthened,and,ultimately,
newthoughtsarebeinggenerated(Goldsmith,thisvolume;McEwen,thisvolume).Inparallel,evidence
thatemotionaltraitscan,anddo,changewithtimeandtrainingisbeginningtoaccumulate(e.g.,Roberts
etal.,2017).Likethemotorandvisualsystems,theemotionalbraincanchangewithexperience.Inthe
extreme,wecandevelopPTSDorlearntoenjoyrollercoasters.Morebroadly,measuresofdispositional
traitsonlyshowmoderatestabilityoverlongperiodsoftime,andalthoughaneuroticchildissomewhat
morelikelytobecomeaneuroticadult,theyarenotdestinedforthisfate(Borghuisetal.,inpress;Fraley
&Roberts,2005;Hakulinenetal.,2015;Milojev&Sibley,2017;Nye,Allemand,Gosling,Potter,&Roberts,
2016;Roberts&DelVecchio, 2000;Roberts&Mroczek,2008;Roberts,Walton,&Viechtbauer, 2006) .
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue32Themechanismsunderlyingthisplasticityremainunderexplored,makingitakeychallengeforthefield.
Although environmental influences, both good and bad, can modulate emotional traits (Shackman,
Tromp,etal., 2016), the limitsof these influences remainmostlyunknown.Moving forward, itwillbe
helpful for researchers to examine individuals exposed to more extreme cultural and environmental
changes(e.g.,adoption,emigration,enlistment).
Perhapsthemosttantalizingprospect isourcapacitytochangeinresponsetoexplicit interventionsor
training. Humans have learned to train our awareness, treat our anxieties, and practice being
compassionate (e.g., R.J. Davidson & Harrington; Hofmann & Smits, 2008; Lutz, Slagter, Dunne, &
Davidson, 2008). Scientists have observed that each of these interventions is associated with
correspondingchangesinneuralfunction(e.g.,Furmarketal.,2002;Tang,Holzel,&Posner,2015;Weng
etal.,2013).Thesedataremindus thatenduringchanges in themindnecessarilyreflectalterations in
protein synthesis and expression in the brain. These neuroplasticity related processes are, in turn,
relatedtoindividualdifferencesinemotionality,andcanbemodulatedbystressandexercise(e.g.,R.J.
Davidson&McEwen, 2012; Fox&Kalin, 2014; vanPraag, Christie, Sejnowski,&Gage, 1999). In adult
mice,forexample,neurogenesisisassociatedwithdecreasesinanxiety‐likebehavior, is increasedwith
exercise,andisrequiredforthebehavioraleffectsofantidepressants(Pereiraetal.,2007;Sahay&Hen,
2007;Santarellietal.,2003).Developingadeeperunderstandingoftheneuralmechanismsthatsupport
different forms of emotional plasticity is important and would inform the development of new,
biologically‐motivated pharmacological, cognitive‐behavioral, contemplative, and pharmacological
interventions(R.J.Davidson&Kaszniak,2015).
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue33Finally, although we often think of interventions as treatments aimed at healing the sick, several
contributors highlighted the possibility of emotional enhancements, the possibility of moving beyond
baselinelevelsofemotionalwell‐being(e.g.,Fredrickson,thisvolume;Ryff,thisvolume).Aswestrivefor
amorepeacefulandblissfulworld,amajorchallengeforaffectivescientistswillbetodeveloptraining
programsaimedatcultivatingcompassionandcontentment.
CONCLUSIONS
Emotion isa core featureof thehumancondition,with importantconsequences forhealth, forwealth,
andforwellbeing.Recentyearshavewitnessedgrowingenthusiasmforunderstandingboththenature
andthebiologicalbasesofemotion.Theresearchcontainedinthisvolumeprovidesadetailedsurveyof
the current state of the affective sciences andhighlights the important advances that havebeenmade
sincethepublicationofthefirstedition,nearlyaquartercenturyago.Someofthefundamentalquestions
originally posed by Ekman and Davidson have now been largely answered (e.g., “Can emotions be
regulated?”),while othershaveprovenmoreelusive (“What isanemotion?”). In some cases, there are
nowsufficientdatatoenablepreliminaryanswerstoentirelynewkindsofquestions(“Howareemotions
organizedinthebrain?”).Still,itisclearthatmostofthework,bothempiricalandconceptual,neededto
understandtheemotionsandrelatedaffectivephenomenaremainsundone.AmajorgoalofTheNatureof
Emotionistomotivatethecurrentandnextgenerationofaffectivescientiststodotheresearchandthe
thinkingthatwillberequiredtoaddresstheseoutstandingquestions,todevelopnewquestions,andto
generatemorecompleteandusefultheoreticalmodels.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue34In this Epilogue, we have outlined some of the most important strategies and directions for future
researchintheaffectivesciences.Atthebroadestlevel,itwillbeimportanttodevelopamorecomplete
understanding of the mechanisms linking emotional antecedents to their consequents. When
appropriately grounded in behavior, neurobiological approaches promise to be especially valuable for
addressing thisandotherkeyquestions.Thewiderembraceofbestpractices—openandreproducible
science, clear nomenclature, rigorousmethods and realistic inferences—would increase the efficiency,
reproducibility, and inferential utility of emotion research. An increased focus on coordinated cross‐
species models would accelerate our understanding of mechanism and has the potential to provide
uniqueinsightsintothenatureofemotion.Integratinglaboratoryassaysofthebrainandbehaviorwith
measurescollectedinthefieldusingexperience‐samplingtechniques,ambulatoryphysiology,andother
kinds of smartphone‐enabled and ‘wearable’ technologies would provide important clues about the
neuralsystemssupportingemotionandmotivatedbehaviorindailylife—adepthofunderstandingthat
cannotbeachievedusinganimalmodelsorisolatedmeasuresofbrainfunction.Inthefinalsectionofthe
Epilogue,wehighlightedwhatweviewaseightofthemostexcitingandpotentiallyimpactfulavenuesfor
the next generation of emotion research. In particular, we believe that there is a deep need for
programmaticresearchfocusedonunderstandingthe:
Interplayandintegrationofemotionandcognition
Self‐regulationofourownemotions
Socialregulationofothers’emotions
Roleoftheimmunesystemandmicrobiomeinemotionregulationanddysregulation
Developmentofemotionandthenatureofdevelopmentalinsults
Natureofconsciousnessanditscontributiontosubjectivefeelings
Originsofemotionalplasticityandtheprocessesunderlyingeffectiveemotioninterventions
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue35Worktoaddresstheseissuesisamatterofpracticalaswellastheoreticalimportance.Someofthemost
common, costly, and intractablemental illnesses—anxiety,depression, schizophrenia, substanceabuse,
autism,andsoon—involveprominentemotionaldisturbances.Collectively, thesepsychiatricdisorders
imposea largerburdenonglobalpublichealthandtheeconomythancancerorcardiovasculardisease
(Collinsetal.,2011;DiLuca&Olesen,2014;Whitefordetal.,2013),underscoringtheneedtodevelopa
deeper understanding of the nature and origins of emotion and themyriadways inwhich emotional
statesandtraitsinfluencethewaywethink,feel,andbehave.
Tothisend,elucidatingthenatureofemotionwillrequirecollaborationamongresearchersdrawnfroma
range of disciplines, which extend far beyond affective psychology and affective neuroscience—from
anthropologists and ethologists to social and cognitive psychologists, from economists to electrical
engineers. Affective science is, by its very nature, interdisciplinary, and to address these fundamental
questions,wewillhavetoworktogether.
We hope that readers of this volume make a lasting impression on our scientific understanding of
emotion,thattheyworktoaddressthe14fundamentalquestionsthatwehaveconsidered,andthatthey
play a role in developing new ones. Ultimately,we hope that a deeper understanding of emotionwill
informandacceleratethedevelopmentofstrategiesforbringingcontentment,compassion,andjoytothe
world.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue36ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health (AG051426, AT004952, DA040717,
HD090256,MH018931,MH043454,MH100031,MH107444,MH113347);UniversityofCalifornia,Davis;
California National Primate Research Center; University of Maryland, College Park; Silicon Valley
CommunityFoundation;andseveralgiftstotheCenterforHealthyMinds.Authorsdeclarenoconflictsof
interest.WeappreciatetheassistanceofAndyDeClercq,L.Friedman,andD.Trompandcriticalfeedback
fromL.Pessoa.
AUTHORCONTRIBUTIONS
Theauthorscollectivelydevelopedtheoverallstructureofthereview.A.S.F.andA.J.S.outlinedandwrote
thereview.Alltheauthorsrevisedthereviewandapprovedthefinalversion.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue37REFERENCES
Adams,D.B.(2006).Brainmechanismsofaggressivebehavior:Anupdatedreview.Neuroscience&
BiobehavioralReviews,30,304‐318.
Admon,R.,Lubin,G.,Stern,O.,Rosenberg,K.,Sela,L.,Ben‐Ami,H.,&Hendler,T.(2009).Human
vulnerabilitytostressdependsonamygdala'spredispositionandhippocampalplasticity.
ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,106,14120‐14125.
Adolphs,R.(2016).Humanlesionstudiesinthe21stcentury.Neuron,90,1151‐1153.
Adolphs,R.(2017).Howshouldneurosciencestudyemotions?bydistinguishingemotionstates,
concepts,andexperiences.SocialCognitiveandAffectiveNeuroscience,12,24‐31.
AmericanPsychiatricAssociation.(2013).Diagnosticandstatisticalmanualofmentaldisorders(5thed.).
Anderson,D.J.,&Adolphs,R.(2014).Aframeworkforstudyingemotionsacrossspecies.Cell,157,187‐
200.
Anderson,M.S.,Martinson,B.C.,&DeVries,R.E.(2007).Normativedissoanceinscience:Resultsfroma
nationalsurveyofU.S.scientists.JournalofEmpiricalResearchonHumanResearchEthics,2,3‐14.
Atlas,L.Y.,Bolger,N.,Lindquist,M.A.,&Wager,T.D.(2010).Brainmediatorsofpredictivecueeffectson
perceivedpain.JournalofNeuroscience,30,12964‐12977.
Averill,J.R.(1983).Studiesonangerandaggression.Implicationsfortheoriesofemotion.American
Psychologist,38,1145‐1160.
Baker,M.(2016).Isthereareproducibilitycrisis?Nature,533,452‐454.
Barber,A.(2017).FrancisBacon.InM.Cameron,B.Hill&R.J.Stainton(Eds.),Sourcebookinthehistoryof
philosphyoflanguage.Primarysourcetextsfromthepre‐SocraticstoMill(pp.497‐502).NewYork:
Springer.
Barlow,D.H.(2000).Unravelingthemysteriesofanxietyanditsdisordersfromtheperspectiveof
emotiontheory.AmericanPsychologist,55,1247‐1263.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue38Barlow,D.H.,Sauer‐Zavala,S.,Carl,J.R.,Bullis,J.R.,&Ellard,K.K.(2013).Thenature,diagnosis,and
treatmentofneuroticism:Backtothefuture.ClinicalPsychologicalScience,2.
Barrett,L.F.(2017).Howemotionsaremade:Thesecretlifeofthebrain.NewYork:Houghton‐Mifflin‐
Harcourt.
Bastiaansen,J.A.,Servaas,M.N.,Marsman,J.B.,Ormel,J.,Nolte,I.M.,Riese,H.,&Aleman,A.(2014).
Fillingthegap:Relationshipbetweentheserotonin‐transporter‐linkedpolymorphicregionand
amygdalaactivation.PsycholSci,25,2058‐2066.
Baucom,D.H.,Belus,J.M.,Adelman,C.B.,Fischer,M.S.,&Paprocki,C.(2014).Couple‐basedinterventions
forpsychopathology:areneweddirectionforthefield.FamilyProcess,53,445‐461.
Berkman,E.T.,&Falk,E.B.(2013).Beyondbrainmapping:Usingneuralmeasurestopredictreal‐world
outcomes.CurrDirPsycholSci,22,45‐50.
Berkowitz,L.(1993).Aggression:Itscauses,consequences,andcontrol.Philadelphia,PA:Temple
UniversityPress.
Berridge,K.C.,&Kringelbach,M.L.(2015).Pleasuresystemsinthebrain.Neuron,86,646‐664.
Berridge,K.C.,&Robinson,T.E.(2016).Liking,wanting,andtheincentive‐sensitizationtheoryof
addiction.AmericanPsychologist,71,670‐679.
Birn,R.M.,Shackman,A.J.,Oler,J.A.,Williams,L.E.,McFarlin,D.R.,Rogers,G.M.,...Kalin,N.H.(2014).
Evolutionarilyconserveddysfunctionofprefrontal‐amygdalarconnectivityinearly‐lifeanxiety.
MolecularPsychiatry,19,915‐922.
Blanchard,D.C.,Griebel,G.,&Blanchard,R.J.(2001).Mousedefensivebehaviors:pharmacologicaland
behavioralassaysforanxietyandpanic.NeuroscienceandBiobehavioralReviews,25,205‐218.
Block,J.(1995).Acontrarianviewofthefive‐factorapproachtopersonalitydescription.Psychological
Bulletin,117,187‐215.
Bolger,N.,&Eckenrode,J.(1991).Socialrelationships,personality,andanxietyduringamajorstressful
event.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,61,440‐449.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue39Borghuis,J.,Denissen,J.J.,Oberski,D.,Sijtsma,K.,Meeus,W.H.,Branje,S.,...Bleidorn,W.(inpress).Big
Fivepersonalitystability,change,andcodevelopmentacrossadolescenceandearlyadulthood.
JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.
Borsook,D.,Becerra,L.,&Hargreaves,R.(2006).AroleforfMRIinoptimizingCNSdrugdevelopment.
NatureReviews.DrugDiscovery,5,411‐424.
Bradley,M.M.(2000).Emotionandmotivation.InJ.T.Cacioppo,L.G.Tassinary&G.G.Berntson(Eds.),
Handbookofpsychophysiology(2nded.,pp.602‐642).NY:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Bradley,M.M.,&Lang,P.J.(2000).Measuringemotion:Behavior,feeling,andphysiology.InR.D.Lane&
L.Nadel(Eds.),Cognitiveneuroscienceofemotion(pp.242‐276).NY:OxfordUniversityPress.
Bradley,M.M.,&Lang,P.J.(2007).Emotionandmotivation.InJ.T.Cacioppo,L.G.Tassinary&G.G.
Berntson(Eds.),Handbookofpsychophysiology(pp.581‐607).NY:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Button,K.S.,Ioannidis,J.P.,Mokrysz,C.,Nosek,B.A.,Flint,J.,Robinson,E.S.,&Munafo,M.R.(2013a).
Confidenceandprecisionincreasewithhighstatisticalpower.NatureReviews.Neuroscience,14,
585‐586.
Button,K.S.,Ioannidis,J.P.,Mokrysz,C.,Nosek,B.A.,Flint,J.,Robinson,E.S.,&Munafo,M.R.(2013b).
Powerfailure:whysmallsamplesizeunderminesthereliabilityofneuroscience.NatureReviews.
Neuroscience,14,365‐376.
Cacioppo,S.,Grippo,A.J.,London,S.,Goossens,L.,&Cacioppo,J.T.(2015).Loneliness:clinicalimportand
interventions.PerspectPsycholSci,10,238‐249.
Calhoon,G.G.,&Tye,K.M.(2015).Resolvingtheneuralcircuitsofanxiety.NatureNeuroscience,18,1394‐
1404.
Casey,B.J.,Craddock,N.,Cuthbert,B.N.,Hyman,S.E.,Lee,F.S.,&Ressler,K.J.(2013).DSM‐5andRDoC:
progressinpsychiatryresearch?NatureReviews.Neuroscience,14,810‐814.
Cavanagh,J.F.,&Shackman,A.J.(2015).Frontalmidlinethetareflectsanxietyandcognitivecontrol:
Meta‐analyticevidence.JournalofPhysiology,Paris,109,3‐15.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue40Chambers,C.(2017).Thesevendeadlysinsofpsychology:Amanifestoforreformingthecultureofscientific
practice.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.
Chronis‐Tuscano,A.,Rubin,K.H.,O'Brien,K.A.,Coplan,R.J.,Thomas,S.R.,Dougherty,L.R.,...Wimsatt,
M.(2015).Preliminaryevaluationofamultimodalearlyinterventionprogramforbehaviorally
inhibitedpreschoolers.JournalofConsultingandClinicalPsychology,83,534‐540.
Clark,L.A.,&Watson,D.(1988a).Moodandthemundane:Relationsbetweendailylifeeventsandself‐
reportedmood.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,54,296‐308.
Clark,L.A.,&Watson,D.(1988b).Moodandthemundane:relationsbetweendailylifeeventsandself‐
reportedmood.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,54,296‐308.
Clore,G.L.(1994).Whyemotionsrequirecognition.InP.Ekman&R.J.Davidson(Eds.),Thenatureof
emotion.Fundamentalquestions(pp.181‐191).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Coan,J.A.,&Allen,J.J.B.(2007).Handbookofemotionelicitationandassessment.NY:OxfordUniversity
Press.
Coan,J.A.,&Sbarra,D.A.(2015).Socialbaselinetheory:Thesocialregulationofriskandeffort.CurrOpin
Psychol,1,87‐91.
Cohen,J.(1962).Thestatisticalpowerofabnormal‐socialpsychologicalresearch:Areview.J.Abnorm.
Soc.Psychol.,65,145–153.
Cohen,J.(1992).Apowerprimer.PsychologicalBulletin,112,155‐159.
Collins,P.Y.,Patel,V.,Joestl,S.S.,March,D.,Insel,T.R.,Daar,A.S.,...Stein,D.J.(2011).Grandchallenges
inglobalmentalhealth.Nature,475,27‐30.
Coltheart,M.(2013).Howcanfunctionalneuroimaginginformcognitivetheories?Perspectiveson
PsychologicalScience,8,98–103.
Cox,R.W.,Chen,G.,Glen,D.R.,Reynolds,R.C.,&Taylor,P.A.(2017).fMRIclusteringandfalse‐positive
rates.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcadademyofSciencesUSA,114,E3370‐3371.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue41Cramer,A.O.J.,vanderSluis,S.,Noordhof,A.,Wichers,M.,Geschwind,N.,Aggen,S.H.,...Borsboom,D.
(2012a).Dimensionsofnormalpersonalityasnetworksinsearchofequilibrium:Youcan'tlike
partiesifyoudon'tlikepeople.EuropeanJournalofPersonality,26,414‐431.
Cramer,A.O.J.,vanderSluis,S.,Noordhof,A.,Wichers,M.,Geschwind,N.,Aggen,S.H.,...Borsboom,D.
(2012b).Measurableliketemperatureormereologicallikeflocking?Onthenatureofpersonality
traits.EuropeanJournalofPersonality,26,451‐459.
Creed,A.T.,&Funder,D.C.(1998).Socialanxiety:fromtheinsideandoutside.PersonalityandIndividual
Differences,25,19‐33.
Culverhouse,R.C.,Saccone,N.L.,Horton,A.C.,Ma,Y.,Anstey,K.J.,Banaschewski,T.,...Bierut,L.J.(in
press).Collaborativemeta‐analysisfindsnoevidenceofastronginteractionbetweenstressand5‐
HTTLPRgenotypecontributingtothedevelopmentofdepression.MolecularPsychiatry.
Dan‐Glauser,E.S.,&Scherer,K.R.(2011).TheGenevaaffectivepicturedatabase(GAPED):anew730‐
picturedatabasefocusingonvalenceandnormativesignificance.BehaviorResearchMethods,43,
468‐477.
Davidson,R.J.(1993).Cerebralasymmetryandemotion:Conceptualandmethodologicalconundrums.
Cognition&Emotion,7(1),115‐138.
Davidson,R.J.(1994).Complexitiesinthesearchforemotion‐specificphysiology.InP.Ekman&R.J.
Davidson(Eds.),Thenatureofemotion.Fundamentalquestions(pp.237‐242).NewYork:Oxford
UniversityPress.
Davidson,R.J.(1998).Affectivestyleandaffectivedisorders:Perspectivesfromaffectiveneuroscience.
Cognition&Emotion,12,307‐330.
Davidson,R.J.,&Harrington,A.(Eds.).Visionsofcompassion:WesternscientistsandTibetanBuddhists
examinehumannature.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Davidson,R.J.,&Kaszniak,A.W.(2015).Conceptualandmethodologicalissuesinresearchon
mindfulnessandmeditation.AmericanPsychologist,70,581‐592.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue42Davidson,R.J.,&McEwen,B.S.(2012).Socialinfluencesonneuroplasticity:stressandinterventionsto
promotewell‐being.NatureNeuroscience,15,689‐695.
Davidson,R.J.,&Sutton,S.K.(1995).Affectiveneuroscience:theemergenceofadiscipline.Current
OpinioninNeurobiology,5,217‐224.
Davis,M.,Walker,D.L.,Miles,L.,&Grillon,C.(2010).Phasicvssustainedfearinratsandhumans:Roleof
theextendedamygdalainfearvsanxiety.Neuropsychopharmacology,35,105‐135.
Davis,M.,&Whalen,P.J.(2001).Theamygdala:vigilanceandemotion.MolecularPsychiatry,6,13‐34.
delaVega,A.,Chang,L.J.,Banich,M.T.,Wager,T.D.,&Yarkoni,T.(2016).Large‐scalemeta‐analysisof
humanmedialfrontalcortexrevealstripartitefunctionalorganization.JournalofNeuroscience,36,
6553‐6562.
deSousa,R.(2014).Emotion.InE.N.Zalta(Ed.),Stanfordencyclopediaofphilosophy.
Desai,M.,Kahn,I.,Knoblich,U.,Bernstein,J.,Atallah,H.,Yang,A.,...Boyden,E.S.(2011).Mappingbrain
networksinawakemiceusingcombinedopticalneuralcontrolandfMRI.Journalof
Neurophysiology,105,1393‐1405.
DiLuca,M.,&Olesen,J.(2014).Thecostofbraindiseases:aburdenorachallenge?Neuron,82,1205‐
1208.
Duff,E.P.,Vennart,W.,Wise,R.G.,Howard,M.A.,Harris,R.E.,Lee,M.,...Smith,S.M.(2015).Learningto
identifyCNSdrugactionandefficacyusingmultistudyfMRIdata.SciTranslMed,7,274ra216.
Editors,T.P.M.(2010).Socialrelationshipsarekeytohealth,andtohealthpolicy.PLoSMed,7,2.
Eglen,S.J.,Marwick,B.,Halchenko,Y.O.,Hanke,M.,Sufi,S.,Gleeson,P.,...Poline,J.B.(2017).Toward
standardpracticesforsharingcomputercodeandprogramsinneuroscience.NatureNeuroscience,
20,770‐773.
Eklund,A.,Nichols,T.E.,&Knutsson,H.(2016).Clusterfailure:WhyfMRIinferencesforspatialextent
haveinflatedfalse‐positiverates.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnited
StatesofAmerica,113,7900‐7905.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue43Eklund,A.,nichols,T.E.,&Knutsson,H.(2017).ReplytoBrownandBehrmann,Cox,etal.,andKessleret
al.:DataandcodesharingisthewayforwardforfMRI.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcadademyof
SciencesUSA,114,E3374‐3375.
Ekman,P.(1977).Biologicalandculturalcontributionstobodyandfacialmovement.InJ.Blacking(Ed.),
Theanthropologyofthebody(pp.39‐84).London:AcademicPress.
Ekman,P.(1994a).Allemotionsarebasic.InP.Ekman&R.J.Davidson(Eds.),Thenatureofemotion.
Fundamentalquestions(pp.15‐19).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Ekman,P.(1994b).Antecedanteventsandemotionmetaphors.InR.Ekman&R.J.Davidson(Eds.),The
natureofemotion.Fundamentalquestions(pp.146‐149).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Ekman,P.,&Cordaro,D.(2011).Whatismeantbycallingemotionsbasic.EmotionReview,3,364‐370.
Ekman,P.,&Davidson,R.J.(1994).Affectivescience:Aresearchagenda.InP.Ekman&R.J.Davidson
(Eds.),Thenatureofemotion.Fundamentalquestions(pp.411‐430).NewYork:OxfordUniversity
Press.
Ekman,P.,&Friesen,W.V.(1975).Unmaskingtheface.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:Prentice‐Hall.
Engber,D.(2017).DarylBemprovedESPisreal.Whichmeansscienceisbroken.Slate.
http://redux.slate.com/cover‐stories/2017/05/daryl‐bem‐proved‐esp‐is‐real‐showed‐science‐is‐
broken.html
Fadok,J.P.,Krabbe,S.,Markovic,M.,Courtin,J.,Xu,C.,Massi,L.,...Luthi,A.(2017).Acompetitive
inhibitorycircuitforselectionofactiveandpassivefearresponses.Nature,542,96‐100.
Fanselow,M.S.,&Lester,L.S.(1988).Afunctionalbehavioristicapproachtoaversivelymotivated
behavior:Predatoryimminenceasadeterminantofthetopographyofdefensivebehavior.InR.C.
Bolles&M.D.Beecher(Eds.),Evolutionandlearning(pp.185‐211).Hillsdale,NJ:Erlbaum.
Faull,O.K.,&Pattinson,K.T.(2017).Thecorticalconnectivityoftheperiaqueductalgrayandthe
conditionedresponsetothethreatofbreathlessness.Elife,6.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue44Fehr,E.,&Schmidt,K.M.(1999).Atheoryoffairness,competition,andcooperation.QJEcon,114,817‐
868.
Feynman,R.P.(1974).Cargocultscience[1974CalTechCommencementAddress].Engineeringand
Science,37,10‐13.
Forbes,E.E.,Hariri,A.R.,Martin,S.L.,Silk,J.S.,Moyles,D.L.,Fisher,P.M.,...Dahl,R.E.(2009).Altered
striatalactivationpredictingreal‐worldpositiveaffectinadolescentmajordepressivedisorder.
AmericanJournalofPsychiatry,166,64‐73.
Fox,A.S.,&Kalin,N.H.(2014).Atranslationalneuroscienceapproachtounderstandingthedevelopment
ofsocialanxietydisorderanditspathophysiology.AmericanJournalofPsychiatry,171,1162‐1173.
Fox,A.S.,&Shackman,A.J.(inpress).Thecentralextendedamygdalainfearandanxiety:Closingthegap
betweenmechanisticandneuroimagingresearch.NeuroscienceLetters.
Fox,A.S.,Shelton,S.E.,Oakes,T.R.,Converse,A.K.,Davidson,R.J.,&Kalin,N.H.(2010).Orbitofrontal
cortexlesionsalteranxiety‐relatedactivityintheprimatebednucleusofstriaterminalis.Journal
ofNeuroscience,30,7023‐7027.
Fraley,R.C.,&Roberts,B.W.(2005).Patternsofcontinuity:adynamicmodelforconceptualizingthe
stabilityofindividualdifferencesinpsychologicalconstructsacrossthelifecourse.Psychological
Review,112,60‐74.
Frijda,N.(1994a).Emotionsarefunctional,mostofthetime.InP.Ekman&R.J.Davidson(Eds.),The
natureofemotion.Fundamentalquestions(pp.112‐122).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Frijda,N.(1994b).Emotionsrequirecognitions,evenifsimpleones.InP.Ekman&R.J.Davidson(Eds.),
Thenatureofemotion.Fundamentalquestions(pp.197‐202).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Frijda,N.(1994c).Universalantecedantsexist,andareinteresting.InP.Ekman&R.J.Davidson(Eds.),
Thenatureofemotion.Fundamentalquestions(pp.155‐162).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue45Furmark,T.,Tillfors,M.,Marteinsdottir,I.,Fischer,H.,Pissiota,A.,Langstrom,B.,&Fredrikson,M.(2002).
Commonchangesincerebralbloodflowinpatientswithsocialphobiatreatedwithcitalopramor
cognitive‐behavioraltherapy.ArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry,59,425‐433.
Gilbert,D.T.,King,G.,Pettigrew,S.,&Wilson,T.D.(2016).Commenton"Estimatingthereproducibilityof
psychologicalscience".Science,351,1037.
Gilmore,R.O.(2016).Frombigdatatodeepinsightindevelopmentalscience.WileyInterdiscipRevCogn
Sci,7,112‐126.
Glasser,M.F.,Smith,S.M.,Marcus,D.S.,Andersson,J.L.,Auerbach,E.J.,Behrens,T.E.,...VanEssen,D.C.
(2016).TheHumanConnectomeProject'sneuroimagingapproach.NatureNeuroscience,19,1175‐
1187.
Gosling,S.D.,&Mason,W.(2015).Internetresearchinpsychology.AnnualReviewofPsychology,66,877‐
902.
Grayson,D.S.,Bliss‐Moreau,E.,Machado,C.J.,Bennett,J.,Shen,K.,Grant,K.A.,...Amaral,D.G.(2016).
Therhesusmonkeyconnectomepredictsdisruptedfunctionalnetworksresultingfrom
pharmacogeneticinactivationoftheamygdala.Neuron,91,453‐466.
Gross,J.J.(Ed.).(2014).Handbookofemotionregulation(2nded.).NewYork:Guilford.
Gross,J.J.,Richards,J.M.,&John,O.P.(2006).Emotionregulationineverydaylife.InD.K.Snyder,J.A.
Simpson&J.N.Hughes(Eds.),Emotionregulationinfamilies:Pathwaystodysfunctionandhealth.
Washington,DC:AmericanPsychologicalAssociation.
Grupe,D.W.,&Nitschke,J.B.(2013).Uncertaintyandanticipationinanxiety:anintegrated
neurobiologicalandpsychologicalperspective.NatureReviews.Neuroscience,14,488‐501.
Gungor,N.Z.,&Paré,D.(2016).Functionalheterogeneityinthebednucleusofthestriaterminalis.
JournalofNeuroscience,36,8038‐8049.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue46Hakulinen,C.,Elovainio,M.,Pulkki‐Raback,L.,Virtanen,M.,Kivimaki,M.,&Jokela,M.(2015).Personality
anddepressivesymptoms:Individualparticipantmeta‐analysisof10cohortstudies.Depression
andAnxiety,32,461‐470.
Havermans,R.C.(2011)."YouSayit'sLiking,ISayit'sWanting...".Onthedifficultyofdisentanglingfood
rewardinman.Appetite,57,286‐294.
Heller,A.S.,Fox,A.S.,Wing,E.,Mayer,K.,Vack,N.J.,&Davidson,R.J.(2015).Theneurodynamicsofaffect
inthelaboratorypredictspersistenceofreal‐worldemotionalresponses.JournalofNeuroscience,
35,10503‐10509.
Henrich,J.,Heine,S.J.,&Norenzayan,A.(2010).Theweirdestpeopleintheworld?BehavioralandBrain
Sciences,33,61‐83;discussion83‐135.
Hofmann,S.G.,&Smits,J.A.(2008).Cognitive‐behavioraltherapyforadultanxietydisorders:ameta‐
analysisofrandomizedplacebo‐controlledtrials.JournalofClinicalPsychiatry,69,621‐632.
House,P.K.,Vyas,A.,&Sapolsky,R.(2011).Predatorcatodorsactivatesexualarousalpathwaysinbrains
ofToxoplasmagondiiinfectedrats.PLoSONE,6,e23277.
Hyde,J.S.,Mezulis,A.H.,&Abramson,L.Y.(2008).TheABCsofdepression:Integratingaffective,
biological,andcognitivemodelstoexplaintheemergenceofthegenderdifferenceindepression.
PsychologicalReview,115,291‐313.
Hyman,S.E.(2016).Backtobasics:luringindustrybackintoneuroscience.NatureNeuroscience,19,
1383‐1384.
Iacono,W.G.,Vaidyanathan,U.,Vrieze,S.I.,&Malone,S.M.(2014).Knownsandunknownsfor
psychophysiologicalendophenotypes:integrationandresponsetocommentaries.
Psychophysiology,51,1339‐1347.
InstituteofMedicine.(2001).Exploringthebiologicalcontributionstohumanhealth:Doessexmatter?
Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress.
Janak,P.H.,&Tye,K.M.(2015).Fromcircuitstobehaviourintheamygdala.Nature,517,284‐292.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue47Kagan,J.(1988).Themeaningsofpersonalitypredicates.AmericanPsychologist,43,614‐620.
Kagan,J.(2010).Someplainwordsonemotion.EmotionReview,3,221‐224.
Kagan,J.(2016a).Anoverlypermissiveextension.PerspectPsycholSci,11,442‐450.
Kagan,J.(2016b).Whystressremainsanambiguousconcept.PerspectivesonPsychologicalScience,11,
464‐465.
Kagan,J.(inpress).Brainandemotion.EmotionReview.
Kahneman,D.,&Tversky,A.(1979).Prospecttheory:Ananalysisofdecisionunderrisk.Econometrica,
47,263‐292.
Kalin,N.H.,Fox,A.S.,Kovner,R.,Riedel,M.K.,Fekete,E.M.,Roseboom,P.H.,...Oler,J.A.(2016).
Overexpressingcorticotropin‐releasinghormoneintheprimateamygdalaincreasesanxious
temperamentandaltersitsneuralcircuit.BiologicalPsychiatry,80,345‐355.
Kalin,N.H.,&Shelton,S.E.(1989).Defensivebehaviorsininfantrhesusmonkeys:environmentalcues
andneurochemicalregulation.Science,243,1718‐1721.
Kelly,E.L.(1927).Interpretationofeducationalmeasurements.Yonkers,NY:WorldBook.
Kendler,K.S.(2012a).Thedapplednatureofcausesofpsychiatricillness:replacingtheorganic‐
functional/hardware‐softwaredichotomywithempiricallybasedpluralism.MolecularPsychiatry,
17,377‐388.
Kendler,K.S.(2012b).Levelsofexplanationinpsychiatricandsubstanceusedisorders:implicationsfor
thedevelopmentofanetiologicallybasednosology.MolecularPsychiatry,17(1),11‐21.
Kendler,K.S.(2016).Thephenomenologyofmajordepressionandtherepresentativenessandnatureof
DSMcriteria.AmericanJournalofPsychiatry,173,771‐780.
Kendler,K.S.,&Halberstadt,L.J.(2013).Theroadnottaken:lifeexperiencesinmonozygotictwinpairs
discordantformajordepression.MolecularPsychiatry,18,975‐984.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue48Khalsa,S.S.,Feinstein,J.S.,Li,W.,Feusner,J.D.,Adolphs,R.,&Hurlemann,R.(2016).Panicanxietyin
humanswithbilateralamygdalalesions:Pharmacologicalinductionviacardiorespiratory
interoceptivepathways.JournalofNeuroscience,36,3559‐3566.
Kim,C.K.,Adhikari,A.,&Deisseroth,K.(2017).Integrationofoptogeneticswithcomplementary
methodologiesinsystemsneuroscience.NatureReviewsNeuroscience,18,222‐235.
Kok,B.E.,&Singer,T.(2017).Effectsofcontemplativedyadsonengagementandperceivedsocial
connectednessover9monthsofmentaltraining:Arandomizedclinicaltrial.JAMAPsychiatry,74,
126‐134.
Koolhaas,J.M.,Bartolomucci,A.,Buwalda,B.,deBoer,S.F.,Flugge,G.,Korte,S.M.,...Fuchs,E.(2011).
Stressrevisited:acriticalevaluationofthestressconcept.NeuroscienceandBiobehavioral
Reviews,35,1291‐1301.
Kotov,R.,Krueger,R.F.,Watson,D.,Achenbach,T.M.,Althoff,R.R.,Bagby,R.M.,...Zimmerman,M.
(2017).Thehierarchicaltaxonomyofpsychopathology(HiTOP):Adimensionalalternativeto
traditionalnosologies.JournalofAbnormalPsychology,126,454‐477.
Kozak,M.J.,&Cuthbert,B.N.(2016).TheNIMHresearchdomaincriteriainitiative:Background,issues,
andpragmatics.Psychophysiology,53,286‐297.
Krakauer,J.W.,Ghazanfar,A.A.,Gomez‐Marin,A.,MacIver,M.A.,&Poeppel,D.(2017).Neuroscience
needsbehavior:Correctingareductionistbias.Neuron,93,480‐490.
Kramer,A.D.,Guillory,J.E.,&Hancock,J.T.(2014).Experimentalevidenceofmassive‐scaleemotional
contagionthroughsocialnetworks.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnited
StatesofAmerica,111,8788‐8790.
Kringelbach,M.L.,&Berridge,K.C.(2012).Thejoyfulmind.ScientificAmerican,307,40‐45.
Laidlaw,K.E.,Foulsham,T.,Kuhn,G.,&Kingstone,A.(2011).Potentialsocialinteractionsareimportant
tosocialattention.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,
108,5548‐5553.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue49Lakens,D.(2017).Impossiblyhungryjudges.The20%statistician.
Lapate,R.C.,Samaha,J.,Rokers,B.,Hamzah,H.,Postle,B.R.,&Davidson,R.J.(inpress).Inhibitionof
lateralprefrontalcortexproducesemotionallybiasedfirstimpressions:Atranscranialmagnetic
stimulationandelectroencephalographystudy.PsycholSci,956797617699837.
Lazarus,R.S.(1991).Cognitionandmotivationinemotion.AmericanPsychologist,46,352‐367.
Lazarus,R.S.(1994a).Appraisal:Thelongandtheshortofit.InP.Ekman&R.J.Davidson(Eds.),The
natureofemotion.Fundamentalquestions(pp.208‐215).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Lazarus,R.S.(1994b).Universalantecedantsofemotion.InP.Ekman&R.J.Davidson(Eds.),Thenature
ofemotion.Fundamentalquestions(pp.163‐171).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
LeDoux,J.E.(1994).Emotionalprocessing,butnotemotions,canoccurunconsciously.InP.Ekman&R.J.
Davidson(Eds.),Thenatureofemotion.Fundamentalquestions(pp.291‐292).NewYork:Oxford
UniversityPress.
LeDoux,J.E.(2012).Rethinkingtheemotionalbrain.Neuron,73,653‐676.
LeDoux,J.E.(2014).Comingtotermswithfear.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcadademyofSciencesUSA,
111,2871‐2878.
LeDoux,J.E.(2015).Anxious.Usingthebraintounderstandandtreatfearandanxiety.NY:Viking.
Ledoux,J.E.(inpress).Semantics,surplusmeaning,andthescienceoffear.TrendsinCognitiveSciences.
LeDoux,J.E.,&Brown,R.(2017).Ahigher‐ordertheoryofemotionalconsciousness.Proceedingsofthe
NationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,114,E2016‐E2025.
Levenson,R.W.(2011).Basicemotionquestions.EmotionReview,3,379‐386.
Lim,S.L.,Padmala,S.,&Pessoa,L.(2009).Segregatingthesignificantfromthemundaneonamoment‐to‐
momentbasisviadirectandindirectamygdalacontributions.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademy
ofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,106,16841‐16846.
Lopez,R.B.,Hofmann,W.,Wagner,D.D.,Kelley,W.M.,&Heatherton,T.F.(2014).Neuralpredictorsof
givingintotemptationindailylife.PsycholSci,25(7),1337‐1344.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue50Luck,S.J.(2005).TensimplerulesfordesigningERPexperiments.InT.C.Handy(Ed.),Event‐related
potentials:Amethodshandbook(pp.17‐32).Cambridge,MA:MITPress.
Lutz,A.,Slagter,H.A.,Dunne,J.D.,&Davidson,R.J.(2008).Attentionregulationandmonitoringin
meditation.TrendsCognSci,12,163‐169.
Marroquin,B.(2011).Interpersonalemotionregulationasamechanismofsocialsupportindepression.
ClinicalPsychologyReview,31,1276‐1290.
Marx,M.H.(1951).Interveningvariableorhypotheticalconstruct.PsychologicalReview,58,235‐247.
Mauss,I.B.,Levenson,R.W.,McCarter,L.,Wilhelm,F.H.,&Gross,J.J.(2005).Thetiethatbinds?
Coherenceamongemotionexperience,behavior,andphysiology.Emotion,5,175‐190.
McLaughlin,K.A.,Busso,D.S.,Duys,A.,Green,J.G.,Alves,S.,Way,M.,&Sheridan,M.A.(2014).Amygdala
responsetonegativestimulipredictsPTSDsymptomonsetfollowingaterroristattack.Depression
andAnxiety,31,834‐842.
Merton,R.K.(1942/1973).Thenormativestructureofscience.InR.K.Merton(Ed.),Thesociologyof
science:Theoreticalandempiricalinvestigations(pp.267‐278).Chicago:UniversityofChicago
Press.
Milojev,P.,&Sibley,C.G.(2017).Normativepersonalitytraitdevelopmentinadulthood:A6‐yearcohort‐
sequentialgrowthmodel.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,112,510‐526.
Mobbs,D.,Petrovic,P.,Marchant,J.L.,Hassabis,D.,Weiskopf,N.,Seymour,B.,...Frith,C.D.(2007).When
fearisnear:Threatimminenceelicitsprefrontal‐periaqueductalgrayshiftsinhumans.Science,
317,1079‐1083.
Morrison,F.J.,&Grammer,J.K.(2016).Conceptualclutterandmeasurementmayhem:Proposalsfor
cross‐disciplinaryintegrationinconceptualizingandmeasuringexecutivefunction.InJ.A.Griffin,
P.McCardle&L.S.Freund(Eds.),Executivefunctioninpreschool‐agechildren:Integrating
measurement,neurodevelopment,andtranslationalresearch(pp.327–348).Washington,DC:
AmericanPsychologicalAssociation.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue51Motyl,M.,Demos,A.P.,Carsel,T.S.,Hanson,B.E.,Melton,Z.J.,Mueller,A.B.,...Skitka,L.J.(2017).The
stateofsocialandpersonalityscience:Rottentothecore,notsobad,gettingbetter,orgetting
worse?JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,113,34‐58.
Motzkin,J.C.,Philippi,C.L.,Oler,J.A.,Kalin,N.H.,Baskaya,M.K.,&Koenigs,M.(2015).Ventromedial
prefrontalcortexdamagealtersrestingbloodflowtothebednucleusofstriaterminalis.Cortex,
64,281‐288.
Motzkin,J.C.,Philippi,C.L.,Wolf,R.C.,Baskaya,M.K.,&Koenigs,M.(2014).Ventromedialprefrontal
cortexlesionsalterneuralandphysiologicalcorrelatesofanticipation.JournalofNeuroscience,
34(31),10430‐10437.
Motzkin,J.C.,Philippi,C.L.,Wolf,R.C.,Baskaya,M.K.,&Koenigs,M.(2015).Ventromedialprefrontal
cortexiscriticalfortheregulationofamygdalaactivityinhumans.BiologicalPsychiatry,77(3),
276‐284.
Munafò,M.R.,Nosek,B.A.,Bishop,D.V.M.,Button,K.S.,Chambers,C.D.,duSert,N.P.,...Ioannidis,J.P.
A.(2017).Amanifestoforreproduciblescience.NatureHumanBehaviour,1,21.
Myers,D.G.(1999).Closerelationshipsandqualityoflife.InD.Kahneman,E.Diener&N.Schwartz
(Eds.),Well‐being(pp.374‐391).NY:Sage.
Namburi,P.,Al‐Hasani,R.,Calhoon,G.G.,Bruchas,M.R.,&Tye,K.M.(2016).Architecturalrepresentation
ofvalenceinthelimbicsystem.Neuropsychopharmacology,41,1697‐1715.
Nelson,L.D.,Simmons,J.,&Simonsohn,U.(inpress).Psychology'srenaissance.AnnualReviewof
Psychology.
Nelson,R.J.,&Trainor,B.C.(2007).Neuralmechanismsofaggression.NatureReviews.Neuroscience,8,
536‐546.
Nichols,T.E.,Das,S.,Eickhoff,S.B.,Evans,A.C.,Glatard,T.,Hanke,M.,...Yeo,B.T.(2017).Bestpractices
indataanalysisandsharinginneuroimagingusingMRI.NatureNeuroscience,20,299‐303.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue52Nigg,J.T.(2017).Ontherelationsamongself‐regulation,self‐control,executivefunctioning,effortful
control,cognitivecontrol,impulsivity,risk‐taking,andinhibitionfordevelopmental
psychopathology.JournalofChildPsychologyandPsychiatry,58,361‐383.
Nolen‐Hoeksema,S.,Wisco,B.E.,&Lyubomirsky,S.(2008).Rethinkingrumination.Perspectiveson
PsychologicalScience,3,400‐424.
Nuzzo,R.(2015).Howscientistsfoolthemselves‐andhowtheycanstop.Nature,526,182‐185.
Nye,C.D.,Allemand,M.,Gosling,S.D.,Potter,J.,&Roberts,B.W.(2016).Personalitytraitdifferences
betweenyoungandmiddle‐agedadults:Measurementartifactsoractualtrends?Journalof
Personality,84,473‐492.
Okbay,A.,&Rietveld,C.A.(2015).Onimprovingthecredibilityofcandidategenestudies:Areviewof
candidategenestudiespublishedinEmotion.Emotion,15,531‐537.
Okon‐Singer,H.,Hendler,T.,Pessoa,L.,&Shackman,A.J.(2015).Theneurobiologyofemotion‐cognition
interactions:Fundamentalquestionsandstrategiesforfutureresearch.FrontiersinHuman
Neuroscience,9.
Olderbak,S.,Hildebrandt,A.,Pinkpank,T.,Sommer,W.,&Wilhelm,O.(2014).Psychometricchallenges
andproposedsolutionswhenscoringfacialemotionexpressioncodes.BehavResMethods,46,
992‐1006.
Onnela,J.P.,&Rauch,S.L.(2016).Harnessingsmartphone‐baseddigitalphenotypingtoenhance
behavioralandmentalhealth.Neuropsychopharmacology,41,1691‐1696.
Palmers,K.M.(2016).Psychologyisincrisisoverwhetherit'sincrisis.Wired.
https://www.wired.com/2016/03/psychology‐crisis‐whether‐crisis/
Panksepp,J.(1992).Acriticalrolefor"affectiveneuroscience"inresolvingwhatisbasicaboutbasic
emotions.PsychologicalReview,99,554‐560.
Panksepp,J.(1998).Affectiveneuroscience.Thefoundationsofhumanandanimalemotions.NewYork:
OxfordUniversityPress.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue53Passingham,R.E.,Stephan,K.E.,&Kotter,R.(2002).Theanatomicalbasisoffunctionallocalizationinthe
cortex.NatureReviews.Neuroscience,3,606‐616.
Paulus,M.P.(2015).Pragmatisminsteadofmechanism:Acallforimpactfulbiologicalpsychiatry.JAMA
Psychiatry,72,631‐632.
Paulus,M.P.,Feinstein,J.S.,Castillo,G.,Simmons,A.N.,&Stein,M.B.(2005).Dose‐dependentdecreaseof
activationinbilateralamygdalaandinsulabylorazepamduringemotionprocessing.Archivesof
GeneralPsychiatry,62,282‐288.
Pearson,J.M.,Watson,K.K.,&Platt,M.L.(2014).Decisionmaking:theneuroethologicalturn.Neuron,82,
950‐965.
Pereira,A.C.,Huddleston,D.E.,Brickman,A.M.,Sosunov,A.A.,Hen,R.,McKhann,G.M.,...Small,S.A.
(2007).Aninvivocorrelateofexercise‐inducedneurogenesisintheadultdentategyrus.
ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,104,5638‐5643.
Perez‐Edgar,K.,McDermott,J.N.,Korelitz,K.,Degnan,K.A.,Curby,T.W.,Pine,D.S.,&Fox,N.A.(2010).
Patternsofsustainedattentionininfancyshapethedevelopmentaltrajectoryofsocialbehavior
fromtoddlerhoodthroughadolescence.DevelopmentalPsychology,46,1723‐1730.
Pessoa,L.(2017).Anetworkmodeloftheemotionalbrain.TrendsinCognitiveSciences,21,357‐371.
Pfeiffer,U.J.,Vogeley,K.,&Schilbach,L.(2013).Fromgazecueingtodualeye‐tracking:novelapproaches
toinvestigatetheneuralcorrelatesofgazeinsocialinteraction.NeuroscienceandBiobehavioral
Reviews,37,2516‐2528.
Poldrack,R.A.(2016).Whypreregistrationnolongermakesmenervous.
http://www.russpoldrack.org/2016/09/why‐preregistration‐no‐longer‐makes‐me.html
Poldrack,R.A.,Baker,C.I.,Durnez,J.,Gorgolewski,K.J.,Matthews,P.M.,Munafo,M.R.,...Yarkoni,T.
(2017).Scanningthehorizon:towardstransparentandreproducibleneuroimagingresearch.
NatureReviews.Neuroscience,18,115‐126.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue54Poldrack,R.A.,&Yarkoni,T.(2016).Frombrainmapstocognitiveontologies:Informaticsandthesearch
formentalstructure.AnnualReviewofPsychology,67,587‐612.
Reeck,C.,Ames,D.R.,&Ochsner,K.N.(2016).Thesocialregulationofemotion:Anintegrative,cross‐
disciplinarymodel.TrendsCognSci,20,47‐63.
Reynolds,S.M.,&Berridge,K.C.(2008).Emotionalenvironmentsretunethevalenceofappetitiveversus
fearfulfunctionsinnucleusaccumbens.NatureNeuroscience,11,423‐425.
Rime,B.(2009).Emotionelicitsthesocialsharingofemotion:Theoryandempiricalreview.Emotion
Review,1,60‐85.
Roberts,B.W.,&DelVecchio,W.F.(2000).Therank‐orderconsistencyofpersonalitytraitsfrom
childhoodtooldage:aquantitativereviewoflongitudinalstudies.PsychologicalBulletin,126,3‐
25.
Roberts,B.W.,Luo,J.,Briley,D.A.,Chow,P.I.,Su,R.,&Hill,P.L.(2017).Asystematicreviewof
personalitytraitchangethroughintervention.PsychologicalBulletin,143,117‐141.
Roberts,B.W.,&Mroczek,D.(2008).Personalitytraitchangeinadulthood.CurrDirPsycholSci,17,31‐35.
Roberts,B.W.,Walton,K.E.,&Viechtbauer,W.(2006).Patternsofmean‐levelchangeinpersonalitytraits
acrossthelifecourse:ameta‐analysisoflongitudinalstudies.PsychologicalBulletin,132,1‐25.
Romero,L.M.,Platts,S.H.,Schoech,S.J.,Wada,H.,Crespi,E.,Martin,L.B.,&Buck,C.L.(2015).
Understandingstressinthehealthyanimal‐potentialpathsforprogress.Stress,18,491‐497.
Rozin,P.,Haidt,J.,&McCauley,C.R.(2008).Disgust.InM.Lewis,J.M.Haviland‐Jones&L.F.Barrett
(Eds.),Handbookofemotions(pp.757‐776).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Saffran,J.R.(2003).Statisticallanguagelearning:Mechanismsandconstraints.CurrentDirectionsin
PsychologicalScience,12,110‐114.
Sahay,A.,&Hen,R.(2007).Adulthippocampalneurogenesisindepression.NatureNeuroscience,10,
1110‐1115.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue55Samson,A.C.,Kreibig,S.D.,Soderstrom,B.,Wade,A.A.,&Gross,J.J.(2015).Elicitingpositive,negative
andmixedemotionalstates:Afilmlibraryforaffectivescientists.CognitionandEmotion,30,827‐
856.
Sano,A.,Phillips,A.J.,Yu,A.Z.,McHill,A.W.,Taylor,S.,Jaques,N.,...Picard,R.W.(2015).Recognizing
academicperformance,sleepquality,stresslevel,andmentalhealthusingpersonalitytraits,
wearablesensorsandmobilephones.Paperpresentedatthe12thInternationalIEEEConferenceon
WearableandImplantableBodySensorNetworks.
Santarelli,L.,Saxe,M.,Gross,C.,Surget,A.,Battaglia,F.,Dulawa,S.,...Hen,R.(2003).Requirementof
hippocampalneurogenesisforthebehavioraleffectsofantidepressants.Science,301,805‐809.
Schaafsma,S.M.,Pfaff,D.W.,Spunt,R.P.,&Adolphs,R.(2015).Deconstructingandreconstructingtheory
ofmind.TrendsCognSci,19,65‐72.
Scherer,K.R.(2009).Thedynamicarchitectureofemotion:Evidenceforthecomponentprocessmodel.
CognitionandEmotion,23,1307‐1351.
Scherer,K.R.,Schorr,A.,&Johnstone,T.(Eds.).(2001).Appraisalprocessesinemotion:Theory,methods,
research.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Schmitter,A.M.(2014).17thand18thcenturytheoriesofemotions.InE.N.Zalta(Ed.),Stanford
encyclopediaofphilosophy.
Schnyer,D.M.,Beevers,C.G.,deBettencourt,M.T.,Sherman,S.M.,Cohen,J.D.,Norman,K.A.,&Turk‐
Browne,N.B.(2015).Neurocognitivetherapeutics:fromconcepttoapplicationinthetreatmentof
negativeattentionbias.BiolMoodAnxietyDisord,5,1.
Schwartz,S.J.,Lilienfeld,S.O.,Meca,A.,&Sauvigné,K.C.(2016).Theroleofneurosciencewithin
psychology:Acallforinclusivenessoverexclusiveness.AmericanPsychologist,71,52‐70.
Senn,V.,Wolff,S.B.,Herry,C.,Grenier,F.,Ehrlich,I.,Grundemann,J.,...Luthi,A.(2014).Long‐range
connectivitydefinesbehavioralspecificityofamygdalaneurons.Neuron,81,428‐437.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue56Shackman,A.J.,&Fox,A.S.(2016a).Contributionsofthecentralextendedamygdalatofearandanxiety.
JournalofNeuroscience,36,8050‐8063.
Shackman,A.J.,&Fox,A.S.(2016b).Contributionsofthecentralextendedamygdalatofearandanxiety.
JournalofNeuroscience,36,8050‐8063.
Shackman,A.J.,Fox,A.S.,Oler,J.A.,Shelton,S.E.,Davidson,R.J.,&Kalin,N.H.(2013).Neural
mechanismsunderlyingheterogeneityinthepresentationofanxioustemperament.Proceedingsof
theNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,110,6145‐6150.
Shackman,A.J.,Kaplan,C.M.,Stockbridge,M.D.,Tillman,R.M.,Tromp,D.P.M.,Fox,A.S.,&Gamer,M.
(2016).Theneurobiologyofanxietyandattentionalbiasestothreat:Implicationsfor
understandinganxietydisordersinadultsandyouth.JournalofExperimentalPsychopathology,7,
311‐342.
Shackman,A.J.,Maxwell,J.S.,McMenamin,B.W.,Greischar,L.L.,&Davidson,R.J.(2011).Stress
potentiatesearlyandattenuateslatestagesofvisualprocessing.JournalofNeuroscience,31,1156‐
1161.
Shackman,A.J.,Salomons,T.V.,Slagter,H.A.,Fox,A.S.,Winter,J.J.,&Davidson,R.J.(2011).The
integrationofnegativeaffect,painandcognitivecontrolinthecingulatecortex.NatureReviews.
Neuroscience,12,154‐167.
Shackman,A.J.,Sarinopoulos,I.,Maxwell,J.S.,Pizzagalli,D.A.,Lavric,A.,&Davidson,R.J.(2006).Anxiety
selectivelydisruptsvisuospatialworkingmemory.Emotion,6,40‐61.
Shackman,A.J.,Tromp,D.P.M.,Stockbridge,M.D.,Kaplan,C.M.,Tillman,R.M.,&Fox,A.S.(2016).
Dispositionalnegativity:Anintegrativepsychologicalandneurobiologicalperspective.
PsychologicalBulletin,142,1275‐1314.
Shackman,A.J.,Weinstein,J.S.,Hudja,S.N.,Bloomer,C.D.,Barstead,M.G.,Fox,A.S.,&Lemay,E.P.(in
press).Dispositionalnegativityinthewild:Socialenvironmentgovernsmomentaryemotional
experience.Emotion.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue57Sharma,L.,Markon,K.E.,&Clark,L.A.(2014).Towardatheoryofdistincttypesof"impulsive"behaviors:
Ameta‐analysisofself‐reportandbehavioralmeasures.PsychologicalBulletin,140,374‐408.
Shrout,P.E.,&Rodgers,J.L.(inpress).Psychology,science,andknowledgeconstruction:Broadening
perspectivesfromthereplicationcrisis.AnnualReviewofPsychology.
Sitaram,R.,Ros,T.,Stoeckel,L.,Haller,S.,Scharnowski,F.,Lewis‐Peacock,J.,...Sulzer,J.(2017).Closed‐
loopbraintraining:thescienceofneurofeedback.NatureReviews.Neuroscience,18,86‐100.
Somerville,L.H.,Whalen,P.J.,&Kelley,W.M.(2010).Humanbednucleusofthestriaterminalisindexes
hypervigilantthreatmonitoring.BiologicalPsychiatry,68,416‐424.
Soto,C.J.,&John,O.P.(inpress).ThenextBigFiveInventory(BFI‐2):Developingandassessinga
hierarchicalmodelwith15Facetstoenhancebandwidth,fidelity,andpredictivepower.Journalof
PersonalityandSocialPsychology.
Spellman,B.A.(2015).Ashort(personal)futurehistoryofrevolution2.0PerspectivesonPsychological
Science,10,886‐899.
Spunt,R.P.,Elison,J.T.,Dufour,N.,Hurlemann,R.,Saxe,R.,&Adolphs,R.(2015).Amygdalalesionsdonot
compromisethecorticalnetworkforfalse‐beliefreasoning.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyof
SciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,112,4827‐4832.
Stellar,J.E.,&Keltner,D.(2014).Compassion.InM.M.Tugade,M.N.Shiota&L.D.Kirby(Eds.),Handbook
ofpositiveemotion.NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Swartz,J.R.,Knodt,A.R.,Radtke,S.R.,&Hariri,A.R.(2015).Aneuralbiomarkerofpsychological
vulnerabilitytofuturelifestress.Neuron,85(3),505‐511.
Tackett,J.L.,Lilienfeld,S.O.,Patrick,C.J.,Johnson,S.L.,Krueger,R.F.,Miller,J.D.,...Shrout,P.E.(in
press).It’stimetobroadenthereplicabilityconversation:Thoughtsforandfromclinical
psychologicalscience.PerspectPsycholSci.
Tambini,A.,Rimmele,U.,Phelps,E.A.,&Davachi,L.(2017).Emotionalbrainstatescarryoverand
enhancefuturememoryformation.NatureNeuroscience,20,271‐278.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue58Tang,Y.Y.,Holzel,B.K.,&Posner,M.I.(2015).Theneuroscienceofmindfulnessmeditation.Nature
Reviews.Neuroscience,16,213‐225.
Thorndike,E.L.(1904).Anintroductiontothetheoryofmentalandsocialmeasurements.NewYork:
TeachersCollege,ColumbiaUniversity.
Tomarken,A.J.(1995).Apsychometricperspectiveonpsychophysiologicalmeasures.Psychological
Assessment,7,387‐395.
Tovote,P.,Esposito,M.S.,Botta,P.,Chaudun,F.,Fadok,J.P.,Markovic,M.,...Luthi,A.(2016).Midbrain
circuitsfordefensivebehaviour.Nature,534,206‐212.
Tovote,P.,Fadok,J.P.,&Luthi,A.(2015).Neuronalcircuitsforfearandanxiety.NatureReviews.
Neuroscience,16,317‐331.
Tracy,J.,Klonsky,E.D.,&Proudfit,G.H.(2014).Howaffectivesciencecaninformclinicalscience:An
introductiontothespecialseriesonemotionsandpsychopathology.ClinicalPsychologicalScience,
2,371‐386.
Urban,D.J.,&Roth,B.L.(2015).DREADDs(designerreceptorsexclusivelyactivatedbydesignerdrugs):
chemogenetictoolswiththerapeuticutility.AnnualReviewofPharmacologyandToxicology,55,
399‐417.
vanPraag,H.,Christie,B.R.,Sejnowski,T.J.,&Gage,F.H.(1999).Runningenhancesneurogenesis,
learning,andlong‐termpotentiationinmice.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesof
theUnitedStatesofAmerica,96,13427‐13431.
Vyas,A.,Kim,S.K.,Giacomini,N.,Boothroyd,J.C.,&Sapolsky,R.M.(2007).Behavioralchangesinduced
byToxoplasmainfectionofrodentsarehighlyspecifictoaversionofcatodors.Proceedingsofthe
NationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,104,6442‐6447.
Wager,T.D.,&Atlas,L.Y.(2015).Theneuroscienceofplaceboeffects:connectingcontext,learningand
health.NatureReviews.Neuroscience,16,403‐418.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue59Watkins,E.R.(2008).Constructiveandunconstructiverepetitivethought.PsychologicalBulletin,134,
163‐206.
Watson,D.(1988).Intraindividualandinterindividualanalysesofpositiveandnegativeaffect:their
relationtohealthcomplaints,perceivedstress,anddailyactivities.JournalofPersonalityand
SocialPsychology,54,1020‐1030.
Watson,D.,Clark,L.A.,McIntyre,C.W.,&Hamaker,S.(1992).Affect,personality,andsocialactivity.
JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,63,1011‐1025.
Watson,D.,Stanton,K.,&Clark,L.A.(inpress).Self‐reportindicatorsofnegativevalenceconstructs
withintheresearchdomaincriteria(RDoC):Acriticalreview.JournalofAffectiveDisorders.
Weisz,E.,&Zaki,J.(inpress).Empathybuildinginterventions:Areviewofexisitingworkandsuggestions
forfuturedirections.InJ.Doty,E.Seppala,E.Simon‐Thomas,D.Cameron,S.Brown&M.Worline
(Eds.),Oxfordhandbookofcompassionscience.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Weng,H.Y.,Fox,A.S.,Shackman,A.J.,Stodola,D.E.,Caldwell,J.Z.,Olson,M.C.,...Davidson,R.J.(2013).
Compassiontrainingaltersaltruismandneuralresponsestosuffering.PsycholSci,24,1171‐1180.
Whiteford,H.A.,Degenhardt,L.,Rehm,J.,Baxter,A.J.,Ferrari,A.J.,Erskine,H.E.,...Vos,T.(2013).Global
burdenofdiseaseattributabletomentalandsubstanceusedisorders:findingsfromtheGlobal
BurdenofDiseaseStudy2010.Lancet,382,1575‐1586.
Wilson,S.J.,Smyth,J.M.,&MacLean,R.R.(2014).Integratingecologicalmomentaryassessmentand
functionalbrainimagingmethods:newavenuesforstudyingandtreatingtobaccodependence.
NicotineTobRes,16Suppl2,S102‐110.
Woo,C.W.,Chang,L.J.,Lindquist,M.A.,&Wager,T.D.(2017).Buildingbetterbiomarkers:brainmodels
intranslationalneuroimaging.NatureNeuroscience,20,365‐377.
Wrzus,C.,&Mehl,M.R.(2015).Laband/orfield?Measuringpersonalityprocessesandtheirsocial
consequences.EuropeanJournalofPersonality,29,250‐271.
Fox/Shackman,Epilogue60Xiu,J.,Zhang,Q.,Zhou,T.,Zhou,T.T.,Chen,Y.,&Hu,H.(2014).Visualizinganemotionalvalencemapin
thelimbicforebrainbyTAI‐FISH.NatureNeuroscience,17,1552‐1559.
Yarkoni,T.(2009).Bigcorrelationsinlittlestudies:InflatedfMRIcorrelationsreflectlowstatistical
power.CommentaryonVuletal.(2009).PerspectivesonPsychologicalScience,4,294‐298.
Yarkoni,T.,&Westfall,J.A.(inpress).Choosingpredictionoverexplanationinpsychology:Lessonsfrom
machinelearning.PerspectivesonPsychologicalScience.
Yong,E.(2016).Psychology'sreplicationcrisiscan'tbewishedaway.TheAtlantic.
https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/03/psychologys‐replication‐crisis‐cant‐be‐
wished‐away/472272/
Zaki,J.,Wager,T.D.,Singer,T.,Keysers,C.,&Gazzola,V.(2016).Theanatomyofsuffering:Understanding
therelationshipbetweennociceptiveandempathicpain.TrendsCognSci,20,249‐259.
Zaki,J.,&Williams,W.C.(2013).Interpersonalemotionregulation.Emotion,13,803‐810.
Zald,D.H.,&Treadway,M.T.(2017).Rewardprocessing,neuroeconomics,andpsychopathology.Annu
RevClinPsychol,13,471‐495.
Zhang,T.‐Y.,&Meaney,M.J.(2010).Epigeneticsandtheenvironmentalregulationofthegenomeandits
function.AnnualReviewofPsychology,61(439‐66).