environmental human health123

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ENVIRONMENTAL HUMAN HEALTH

Environmental health is the branch ofpublic health that is concerned with all aspects of the

naturalandbuilt environmentthat may affect humanhealth. Other terms that concern or refer to

the discipline of environmental health include environmental public health and environmental

health and protection.

Environmental health is defined by theWorld Health Organizationas:

Those aspects of the human health and disease that are determined by factors in the

environment. It also refers to thetheoryand practice of assessing and controlling factors

in the environment that can potentially affect health.

Environmental health as used by the WHO Regional Office for Europe, includes both the

direct pathological effects of chemicals, radiation and some biological agents, and the

effects (often indirect) on health and well being of the broad physical,psychological,

social and cultural environment, which includes housing, urban development, land use

andtransport.[1]

Environmental health services are defined by the World Health Organization as:

those services which implement environmental health policies through monitoring and

control activities. They also carry out that role by promoting the improvement of

environmental parameters and by encouraging the use of environmentally friendly and

healthy technologies and behaviors. They also have a leading role in developing and

suggesting new policy areas.

Environmental health practitioners may be known as sanitarians,public health inspectors,

environmental health specialists, environmental health officers or environmental health

practitioners. In many European countries physicians and veterinarians are involved in

environmental health. Many states in theUnited Statesrequire that individuals have professional

licenses in order to practice environmental health. California state law defines the scope of

practice of environmental health as follows:
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"Scope of practice in environmental health" means the practice of environmental health

by registered environmental health specialists in the public and private sector within the

meaning of this article and includes, but is not limited to, organization, management,

education, enforcement, consultation, and emergency response for the purpose of

prevention of environmental health hazards and the promotion and protection of the

public health and the environment in the following areas: food protection; housing;

institutional environmental health; land use; community noise control; recreational

swimming areas and waters; electromagnetic radiation control; solid, liquid, and

hazardous materials management; underground storage tank control; on-site septic

systems; vector control; drinking water quality; water sanitation; emergency

preparedness; and milk and dairy sanitation.[2]

The environmental healthprofessionhad its modern-day roots in the sanitary andpublic health

movement of the United Kingdom. This was epitomized by Sir Edwin Chadwick, who was

instrumental in the repeal of thepoor lawsand was the founding president of the Association of

Public Sanitary Inspectors in 1884, which today is the Chartered Institute of Environmental

Health.

Environmental medicine may be seen as the medical branch of the broader field of

environmental health. Terminology is not fully established, and in many European countries they

are used interchangeably.
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Disciplines of Environmental Health

Three basic disciplines generally contribute to the field of environmental health: environmentalepidemiology, toxicology, and exposure science. Each of these disciplines contributes different

information to describe problems in environmental health, but there is some overlap among

them.

Environmental epidemiology studies the relationship between environmentalexposures (including exposure to chemicals, radiation, microbiological agents,

etc.) and human health. Observational studies, which simply observe exposures

that people have already experienced, are common in environmental

epidemiology because humans cannot ethically be exposed to agents that are

known or suspected to cause disease. While the inability to use experimental

study designs is a limitation of environmental epidemiology, this discipline

directly observes effects on human health rather than estimating effects from

animal studies.

Toxicology studies how environmental exposures lead to specific healthoutcomes, generally in animals, as a means to understand possible healthoutcomes in humans. Toxicology has the advantage of being able to conduct

randomized controlled trials and other experimental studies because they can use

animal subjects. However there are many differences in animal and human

biology, and there can be a lot of uncertainty when interpreting the results of

animal studiesfor their implications for human health.

Exposure sciencestudies human exposure to environmental contaminants by bothidentifying and quantifying exposures. Exposure science can be used to support

environmental epidemiology by better describing environmental exposures that

may lead to a particular health outcome, identify common exposures whose health

outcomes may be better understood through a toxicology study, or can be used in

a risk assessment to determine whether current levels of exposure might exceed

recommended levels. Exposure science has the advantage of being able to very
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accurately quantify exposures to specific chemicals, but it does not generate any

information about health outcomes like environmental epidemiology or

toxicology.

Information from these three disciplines can be combined to conduct a risk assessment for

specific chemicals or mixtures of chemicals to determine whether an exposure poses significant

risk to human health. This can in turn be used to develop and implement environmental health

policy that, for example, regulates chemical emissions, or imposes standards for proper

sanitation.[3]

List of Environmental Problems

The earth's environment has become a pervasive and global problem. There is growing

awareness about the need to conserve our environment. Read on to know the different

environmental problems.

Today the Earth's environment is in a sorry state. Wherever one looks, one encounters pollution.

Forests are disappearing. The green patches in the city are being replaced by concrete buildings.

Waste products are being dumped indiscriminately. Water is too toxic to drink. The air is unfit to

breathe. Global warming has become a menacing issue. There is a question mark over the

survival of life on the Earth. The human race is at the brink of a self-created disaster. Truly there

is a surfeit of environmental problems today.

This article aims to acquaint you with as many environmental problems and issues as possible.

For ease of understanding, the different problems have been divided into four main categories.

You may jump to the category of your interest.

L ist of environmental problems

1. Air-related Environmental Problems2. Water-related Environmental Problems
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3. Land-related Environmental Problems4. Other Environmental Problems

Ai r-r elated Environmental Problems

Greenhouse Effect

Any gas in the atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiations in the thermal infrared range is

called a greenhouse gas. The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a

planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all

directions. This process repeats over and over again, trapping the radiations in the atmosphere.

This is one of the major causes of global warming (discussed elsewhere in the article).

Consequence: Global warming is causing the Earth to lose its snow cover; glaciers are melting,

the sea-level is rising, and a lot of arctic floral and faunal species are on the verge of extinction.

Ozone Depletion

The ozone envelope around the Earth is depleting in volume consistently since 1980s. This is

largely due to the effect of halocarbon refrigerants (such as CFC, halons, freons, etc.).Halocarbons (being lighter than other gases in the atmosphere) rise much higher in the

atmosphere. They then photodissociate to give atomic halogens. These atoms catalyze the

destruction of the ozone gas.

Consequence: Depletion of the ozone can practically threaten human life, and life of other

animals as well. The ozone layer protects us from UV rays of the sun; without the ozone layer,
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everyone would be susceptible to a number of skin diseases, including skin cancer.

Air Quality

The quality of air we breathe is worsening day-by-day. This includes the quality of air outside

the house (outdoor air quality) as well as indoor air quality. In fact, indoor air quality has been

designated as one of the worst environmental issues, especially in the urban areas. Government

agencies usually set the values of different gases and components in the air at certain levels

which are fit for life; these values are called Air Quality Indices (AQI). They help monitor air

quality. Primary reason for the worsening of air quality is air pollution (discussed below).

Stagnant air (due to lack of winds, due to temperature inversion, etc.) is another important cause.

Consequence: Poor air quality can hamper children and old people from performing daily

activities, or even stepping out of the house. Poor air quality also leaves you feeling tired and

fatigued all day long, irrespective of the diet you follow or the amount of sleep you have.

Air Pollution

Air pollution is probably one of the most dangerous anthropogenic effect on the environment;

since we cannot control the air we breathe (though we may be able to control the quality of

drinking water, food, etc.). Vehicular traffic, smog created by the smoke emitted by vehicles and

factories, aerosols arising SPM (suspended particulate matter), VOCs (volatile organic

compounds) present primarily in paints and varnishes and refrigerants, all contribute to air

pollution.

Consequence: Air pollution affects everything; it affects plants, animals and humans. According

to WHO, poor indoor air quality can lead to respiratory infections, coronary diseases, and even

lung cancer. If all this is happening indoors, imagine what is happening outside.

Water-r elated Environmental Problems


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presence of trees and sufficient vegetation, only about 10% of the total amount of rain runs off

into water bodies. However, this amount has been increased almost 5 times!

Consequence: Urban run-off causes deposition of oil, gasoline, garbage, heavy metals (nickel,

copper, lead, zinc etc.), fertilizers and pesticides (from gardens and lawns), synthetic organic

compounds, etc.; all of which ultimately enters the food chain and causes number of health

complications. Urban run-off also partially contributes to eutrophication.

Eutrophication

Eutrophication, in layman's terms, means excessive growth of phytoplankton in a water body.

Almost all natural water bodies (unless intentionally protected), are subject to water pollution;

this adds a number of 'substrates' such as phosphates, nitrates, sewage, etc. to the water. All these

substances boost the growth of plants (especially fast-growing plants) to such an extent that it

completely depletes the water body of oxygen and other nutrients.

Consequence: Algal bloom is one of the effects of eutrophication. Depletion of oxygen (or

hypoxia) can lead to death of many fish species and other forms of aquatic life. On the other

hand, it may lead to increase in number of undesirable aquatic species, thus completely throwing

the balance of nature off.

Water Crisis

When the amount of water present in a region is unable to meet the demand of all life present in

that region, the situation is called a water crisis. Scarcity of usable water is the main reason for

water crisis. This scarcity has arisen due to a number of things, including wastage of water,

deforestation, urbanization, etc.

Consequence: Water-borne diseases are the leading cause for deaths worldwide. More than 9

million people all over the world do not have access to potable water. Sudan and Venezuela top

the list of regions with the most number of people facing a water crisis. Water is life. No water,

no life.


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Marine Pollution and Acidification

Marine pollution is a more of a consequence than an issue in itself; the different contributing

factors being inefficient and / or inadequate wastewater treatment, urban run-off, eutrophication,

etc. Apart from this, solid materials, especially plastic, create a huge nuisance. Marine

acidification, on the other hand, refers to the effect of anthropogenic carbon dioxide on the pH of

the oceans.

Consequence: The last thing we want is for the oceans to be polluted. Ponds, lakes, wells, rivers,

can still be controlled; however oceans, once irreversibly polluted, will spell doom for all life on

Earth.

Land-related Envir onmental Problems

The main culprit for many environmental issues is the fact that we do not realize how little things

add up to create one huge problem. We always think - "We have so much water, we have so

much land, we couldn't possibly run out of it, the Earth is HUGE!" But there is a difference

between ocean water and usable water; between any land and usable land. The amount of usable

land we have at our disposal is decreasing day by day. There are a number of purposes for which

we use land, and a number of places we err in.

Problems arising from Inefficient Land Use

Too much of a thing, and you are bound to waste some of it. Inefficient land use is the leading

land-related environmental issue. Three major issues come under inefficient land use: urban

sprawl, habitat fragmentation and habitat destruction.


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1. Urban sprawl is the tendency of cities and suburbs to spread outward and encroach the

outskirts. The biggest cause of this is the fact that we do not use the land we have efficiently. On

the other hand, the most serious consequence of urban sprawl is rise in auto-dependent

development, which makes car-dependency mandatory, leading to more fuel consumption, more

air pollution and a number of other things. Another consequence is on the overall health of the

human population - longer daily commuting distances means more traveling time, less

productivity at work, duller social life, less social interaction (because everybody is just busy

going back and forth!), strained relationships, even psychological effects maybe seen.

2.Habitat fragmentation is when anthropogenic actions cause land to be divided into areas such

that it fragments the habitat of an organism. To put it in simple terms, when urbanization

encroaches upon forests, wild animals experience habitat fragmentation. We have other places to

go to if we fall short of land. However, in our bid to create more space for ourselves, we are

taking away from the habitat of wild animals, and they have nowhere else to go. Habitat

fragmentation has caused many species to pose on the brink of extinction. Native vegetation is

done away with to make space for agriculture and dwelling. In the process, however, many plant

species are facing extinction. Not to mention, clearing of forests (or deforestation) has its own

multitude consequences.

3. Habitat destruction goes more or less hand-in-hand with habitat fragmentation; it could be

called the ultimate effect of excessive habitat fragmentation. The greatest causes of habitat

destruction is clearing land for agriculture. Land conversion is a heinous moral crime that many

of us are not even aware of! Biodiversity once lost can never be replaced. This might sound too

mellow, but one species lost means the food chain becomes a little more unstable. Simple

example: if we lost snakes, rats and mice would create a havoc! Take it further, and rats and mice

may become the next invasive species!

Problems arising from Land Pollution and Degradation

Though mammoth tasks will have to be undertaken, inefficient land use is still something we can

correct. However, spoil a piece of land beyond which it can be restored, and we have lost a

prospective school, hospital, or church, forever.


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1.Desertification is when an ordinary piece of land is converted into a desert. To me, it is one of

the most scariest prospects of human development; to convert a beautiful garden, a park, a forest

into a desert! Did you know that more than 2 billion people actually live in dryland regions? To

add to this is the fact that dryland occupy more than 40% of the Earth;AND that we are adding to

it through our actions. One of the most intense examples of desertification is that of Lake Chad,

Nigeria - the lake has shrunk so much that more than 95% of it is lost!

2. Land pollution is primarily caused due to inefficient and / or inadequate waste disposal,

increased mechanization and excessive use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides etc. in gardens and

farms. All of these causes have their own set of unique effects; put them all together, and we are

practically scourging our own land with our own hands! Land fill and litter is like shoving bad

food down your gullet because you cannot find a dustbin to get rid of it. Did that make you

squirm? Well, that is what we are doing to our Earth.

3. Soil pollution is a part of land pollution, but with even more serious consequences, in the form

of poor quality land for agriculture. Rainwater collects and deposits all land pollutants to water

bodies, so there is a two-fold entry of pollutants into our food. To add to this, not only do these

chemicals harm us, they show adverse effects on all living forms, in fact more so on wild

animals and plants. We can still find a way to make spoiled water potable; what about animals?

Other Envir onmental Problems

Almost all the problems mentioned in this section are a consequence of more than one of the

problems mentioned in the previous sections of the article. I will hence only elaborate the causes

of each of the problems in this section, and throw light on any important or peculiar aspect of the

particular problem.

Inefficient Use of Resources and Energy Crisis

Resource depletion is when inefficient use of resources leads to a shortage of the resources in

question. Few of the principal causes of resource depletion are over population, land conversion,

pollution (air, water, land, soil, etc.), wastage and over consumption. Factors like human

development and activities (mining, logging, factories and industries, intensive farming,


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deforestation, etc.) as well as consumerism, are in turn cause and effect of inefficient resource

management.

Conservation

Due to the anthropogenic effect of almost all our actions, conservation is conspicuously absent.

This in turn is pushing more and more species of animals, birds, plants etc. into the 'endangered'

section, soon going on to be extinct. One aspect of species extinction that remains at times

neglected is the creation ofinvasive species. Without its predator, a prey may increase in number

to such an extent that it throws off the balance of nature and disrupts the normal ecology of the

niche it exists in. Both the scenarios are not something that can be positively dealt with.

Non-Recyclable Waste

Two words -plastic, and electronic waste. These are two kinds of environmental problems that

we can tackle completely. The two best ways to avoid plastic from accumulating is to NOT buy

packaged water, and to NOT use plastic bags. I for one, follow this strictly. As for electronic

waste, think twice before you burn a DVD, discard your old phone and buy a new one, buy a

new camera or iPod, a new PlayStation; in fact, think more than just twice.

Genetic Engineering

Anyone who has been reading the newspaper (or at least listening to people who read the

newspaper) must be aware ofgenetically modified foods and the controversies they have given

rise to. Everybody applauded the success of the Dolly (the first animal, a sheep, to be

successfully cloned). However, you would have been petrified if you had been able to see all the

clones of Dolly that went wrong. There is no way to 'discard' or 'throw' wrong or undesired

genetic manipulations. The most scary prospect is that of disease-causing microorganisms


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developing drug resistance as a consequence of overuse of drugs. Changes at the genetic level

are permanent; and though we try our best to eliminate the bad ones, the good ones are also

bound to have some adverse effects as well.

Nuclear Development and Nanotechnology

Nuclear Development- another topic that has been in debate and discussion for quite some time

now. Personally, I think the most alarming aspect of nuclear development are the prospective

nuclear accidents that can take place. We do not need another Chernobyl disaster; we do not

want another city facing the same fate as Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Nuclear radiations areprobably the deadliest of all. They do not just affect you, they can affect your children and their

children as well. As fornanotechnology, the most serious challenge, or the crying need of the

hour is to be able to monitor and assess the impact of nanoparticles precisely. This is especially

difficult since at 'nano' dimensions, materials change their properties, behavior etc. and hence

should be looked at from a totally different, fresh point of view; more so in medical applications.

The toxicity of nanoparticles needs to be assessed and worked down to a science.

Nanotoxicology and nanopollution should be looked into with more vigilance and scrutiny.

Population Explosion

The root cause of all evil. I saved the best (or should I say the 'worst'?) part for the end. The

problem with dealing with and talking about population explosion is that we fail to look at it

objectively. At some point of time in the discussion, emotions and sentiments get mixed up with

practicalities; and that's where we lose all sense of perception. However, one should look at

population explosion like any other problem, and should deal with it as strictly and with as

severe measures as those used to deal with any other problem.

Simple Ways to Save the Environment

Thinking of ways to save Mother Earth? It's high time we do, as the planet we live on is

suffering. We are extracting all it has - oil, ores, water and more. We are cutting down trees, we


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are killing animals, we are exploiting nature. Earth's resources are depleting, posing a threat to

human existence on the planet. It's time we do something to save the planet. Let's resort to simple

ways to save the environment. Here they are.

We talk about saving our environment and how important it is to conserve natural resources. We

read about the importance of a healthy environment to survive. Environmental education has

made us realize the need to preserve natural wealth. But just knowing and talking doesn't help.

When was the last time you did something towards saving the environment? Forget doing, when

was the last time you even felt like doing something to save nature? Now don't say you always

knew there's a need to save the environment. Everyone knows and says. Sadly no one does. Do

something that can help save the environment - even a small step counts.

When we think about doing something to save the environment, we think of depleting natural

resources, we think of environmental pollution, we think of deforestation, endangered plant and

animal species and we wonder how to contribute to saving nature. We think of these as very big

problems and solving them, we think, is beyond human capacity. Big problems - yes, they are.

They are grave problems in fact. But thinking it's impossible to solve them is where we go

wrong. We hardly bother to do anything in that regard. There are so many simple ways to save

the environment. We just don't pay attention to them. We just don't think we can do anything or

that we should.


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Easy Ways to Save the Environment

Plant more trees. This is easy, you know? Choose an open area/ground near your residence or

workplace. Unless there's any law restricting you from growing trees in that area, go ahead, grow

trees. Plant a tree every month, encourage your friends and colleagues to join you. Have more

and more trees planted and there will come a day when you have a green stretch of land thanks to

your effort.

Walk more, drive less. Now that's not very difficult, is it? Choose to walk short distances

instead of taking your car every time. Go walking to the gym, to work (if it's not very far), go

walking to run errands. Or use a bicycle. Both cycling and walking are good exercises. And each

time you avoid using your car, you are contributing to reducing air pollution. You are saving


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fuel, saving money and getting a good workout too. Now isn't that beneficial for both you and

the environment?

Maintain your vehicles in good condition. It may not be possible to go cycling or walking

everywhere. To some distances, there's no other option but your car. But how about at least

maintaining it in good condition? Give your car a regular servicing. Clean the exhaust pipes.

Check for pollutants emitted. Check air pressure in tires as under-inflated tires lead to greater

fuel consumption. Maintain the air filter and fuel injection pump in good condition. Check

engine oil levels regularly. Consider getting a catalytic converter fitted in your vehicle. This way

you are curbing air pollution.

Change the way you drive. Do not drive in low gear. It consumes more fuel that way. Do not

accelerate and brake very often. More fuel is exhausted this way. When you stop at a signal, turn

the ignition off. Take the shortest route to the venue, you are saving fuel and thereby reducing air

pollution this way. Share a car whenever possible. Four people going to the same place at the

same time, in four different cars - doesn't make sense. Pool a car whenever you can. Don't honk

when it's not necessary to. You are adding to noise pollution that way.

Use CFC-free products. CFCs are released from aerosol sprays, air conditioning systems and

refrigerators. Some cosmetic products too, contain CFCs. Some countries have already banned

the use of CFC products. CFCs contribute to ozone depletion and greenhouse effect. Using CFC-

free products is the simplest way to prevent the harm they cause to the environment.

Save energy. There are so many electrical gadgets you must be using daily - the air conditioner,

heater, refrigerator and oven among many more. Then, there are lights and fans. Do you maintain

the appliances in good condition? Do you keep a check on their power consumption? Replace theair filters for your air conditioning unit once a month. Turn off the AC when not in use.

Refrigerators and water heaters consume a lot of power. So use them scrupulously. Switch off

the lights and fans in your room before leaving it. Make sure the electrical appliances are not left

on (unless necessary), when leaving the house. Make it a point to switch off the television set or

music system after use. Don't keep them on when there's no one using them. Your computer is


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one of the most used gadgets in the house. Do not keep it switched on when no one's using it.

Now weren't these very simple ways of saving the environment?

Save water. Water is a very important natural resource. It's we who waste it, pollute it. The

simplest ways to save water - turn off water taps after use. Use of flushes and showers can lead

to wastage of water. Use only as much water as necessary. Do not dump garbage down a storm

drain. When you visit a beach, see that you don't spill food or dump waste around. Do not pollute

rivers by dumping garbage, sewage or other waste material in them. This pollutes water bodies.

There are laws prohibiting you from doing this. But then it has to come from within - the

awareness and the awakening. Water is so precious, we can't waste or pollute it.

Recycle and reuse - whatever and whenever you can. This is the best measure to save the

environment. A simple way to do this is to reduce the use of rubber and plastic. Instead, use

paper bags and cardboard containers. Even the practice of buying in bulk can help save a lot of

packaging material, thus contributing to saving the environment. Buy products that you can

reuse. You can reuse daily-use items like old wood, scrap paper to make wood and paper articles

and old clothes (you can donate them to the needy or make other cloth items from them).

Use renewable sources of energy as much as possible. Resort to the use of renewable sources

like solar, wind and hydro power. Start from your own house. Get a solar panel installed and start

using solar power for water and room heaters. Small wind turbines are available for home use.

Resort to their use for power generation. Even geothermal and ground source heat pumps are

available for household use. The added benefit of harnessing alternative energy sources is that

the Government offers you incentives for that.

Change habits. Some simple habits at the workplace can let you contribute towards saving the

environment. When in office, print only when it is absolutely necessary to. Printing every soft

copy leads to heavy wastage of paper. Use emails instead of paper for correspondence.

Remember to switch your computer off when leaving for the day. Don't keep the computer

monitor on when you are away from the desk. Do not keep the lights of your cabin/office on


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when you are away. Avoid overuse of air conditioners. Do not use disposable plastic cups and

plates when you have the option of using ceramic.

Save animals. Minimize the use of animal products. Animal fur and ivory are excessively used

animal products. Animals are poached for their skin. They are used in scientific research.

Animals are being killed in large numbers and are under the threat of extinction. Resolve not to

hunt animals. Discourage those who do so for amusement. Discourage animal poaching. Make

yourself and those around you, aware of the effects of animal extinction. Do your bit towards

saving them. Donate to animal welfare schemes, work for animal shelters, adopt pets only if you

are going to be able to takegoodcare of them.

Go green when gardening or farming. Activities like composting can be of great help in

recycling garbage into useful manures. Avoid excessive use of chemical fertilizers and synthetic

nutrients. Natural manures are a better option for farms and gardens. Go for vermicomposting.

Vermicompost makes a very good organic fertilizer. Instead of dumping rotten vegetables,

leftover food, eggshells, teabags, vegetable stalks and fruit rinds in the garbage bin, use them to

make organic manure for your garden. Replace lawns with bushes and trees. If you live in an

area where there's scarcity of water, use drought-tolerant plants in the garden. This will help you

save water. Using non-native plants disrupts the ecological balance. Don't use them just because

they are exotic. Avoid using chemical pesticides for plants. Instead, turn to home remedies or

other eco-friendsly ways of maintaining your garden. You can consider rainwater harvesting in

your locality if you live in an area which receives decent rainfall.

Creat Awareness. This is one way in which anyone of us can help save the environment. Read

up and encourage those around you to read about the importance of saving nature. Put up postersor banners in the neighborhood, in your school, college or place of work. Organize an

environmental awareness campaign. Get t-shirts or caps made with environmental awareness

slogans written. Have everyone in your locality, class, school or workplace wear them and

spread the word. These things help create an awakening in the masses about how grave

environmental problems are and what we can do to solve them. Organize small activities like


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planting trees, cleaning an area in the locality, visiting an animal shelter or volunteer for an

organization which works towards creating environmental awareness. Seek prior permission

from concerned authorities for doing any of these things.

How do Humans Affect the Environment?

Climate change, extinction of species and pollution of life-supporting air and water has become a

growing concern for nations all over the world. Knowing how do humans affect the environment

will help us understand and address the problems better.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was formed in 1988 to study the risk of

climate change due to human activity. In the Kyoto Protocol of 1997, industrialized nationsagreed to cut down their emissions of greenhouse gases considerably by 2012. Even the G8

committee that began as a response to the 1937 oil crisis and was primarily concerned with the

economic issues of the member nations, now unfailingly has something related to the

environment in their summits.


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Years of thoughtless exploitation of nature by man has resulted in the effects staring right in our

face now. The truth, that in the bid to improve our lives, we have put our own survival to stake,

has finally hit us hard. Now as more and more studies and researches are being carried out to

understand how do humans affect the environment, an increasing number of people are

awakening to the fact that the well-being of the environment and survival are intricately woven

into each other.

Effects of Human Activities on Environment

Climate Change

Just about a year back, I came across an article in which environmentalists expressed their

concerns that if the Gangotri glacier (that feeds river Ganges) kept melting at its current rate, the

river Ganges would soon dry up. River Ganges is the holy river of India, which has served as a

lifeline for centuries for millions of people on its banks. Rivers have played an important role in

the survival of mankind, and many of them are fed by glaciers. Global warming refers to the

increase in the temperatures of the earth due to release of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide

and methane from industries and vehicles. This phenomenon is causing the glaciers to melt at an

alarming rate. Not just the Gangotri, but even the polar ice caps are melting at a faster rate than

they can form. The result is increase in the sea level, and it poses a danger of drowning the low-

lying areas. Some of the areas that may go under the sea if the sea levels kept increasing include

Bangladesh, parts of Africa and even major cities like London and New York!

Depletion of Ozone Layer

The stratosphere has a layer of ozone that protects us from the harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays of

the sun. Exposure to these rays cause skin cancer and cataracts. However, the ozone layer filters

out the dangerous UV rays from sunlight as it enters the earth's atmosphere. The

cholofluorocarbons (CFCs) that are man-made chemicals are released in the atmosphere through

CFC containing aerosols, refrigeration equipment, foam and as by products of certain industrial

processes. As these chemicals are released, they rise into the atmosphere and break down the

ozone molecules that form the ozone layer. There is an ozone hole in the Antarctic stratosphere

that is causing great concern to environmentalists all over the world. Because of the ozone holes

in the upper atmosphere, the Earth receives excessive ultraviolet radiation from the sun. This is


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harmful for trees and plants (and for animals and human beings who depend on plants). The UV

rays can destroy a certain type of bacteria known as Cyanobacteria that are important for a

number of economically important crops. Researchers are even predicting that excess level of

UV rays could lead to the death of the phytoplanktons, that are an important component of the

food web of the oceans.

Pollution

Industrialization has been the hallmark of human progress. However, with industries have come

a host of toxic gases that are being released into the atmosphere even as I write this article and

you read it. Industries release gallons of liquid waste into the seas and rivers. Some of the

effluents percolate down and reach the ground water and pollute it to the extent that it can't be

used by human beings for drinking or cooking. Intensive agriculture and excessive use of

fertilizers and pesticides are destroying the natural land and driving animals away. Besides

adding to air pollution, the innumerable vehicles running on the roads add to noise pollution that

has led to an increase in stress, anxiety and problems related to hearing. Water pollution has led

to a decrease in the number of various aquatic animals. Several aquatic life forms are on the

verge of extinction. Migratory birds are known to change their course due to pollution or change

in weather. Respiratory diseases in human beings is another price that we are paying for

polluting the environment. Acid rains can kill trees, destroy crops and fish life in lakes and

streams. Ingestion or inhalation of toxic substances increases the chances of having life-

threatening diseases like cancer.

Deforestation

Increasing population, industrialization and need of land for development of expanding cities has

led man to cut down forests selfishly. Not only are the forests home to a large number of

animals, trees are also an important component of the water cycle. The roots of plants hold the

soil together and prevent soil erosion. The global forest cover has shrunk to half its area in the

last 11,000 years. During the period between 1990 and 2000 itself, the yearly loss of natural

forests was 16 million hectares. Deforestation at such alarming rate has been a cause of constant


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worry for environmentalists the world over. 'Biodiversity' plays an extremely important role

when it comes to maintaining the life on Earth.

Extinction of Species

The variety and interdependence of all living things has led to the evolution of world. Man has

been killing animals right since the time he acquired the skill of hunting. Although in those

times, hunting was the means for survival, human beings continued to kill animals even after

they had learned to cultivate crops. The relentless hunting by human beings, sometimes for the

hide of a cheetah or the tusks of the elephants, or simply to cook the tasty shark fin soup, has

wiped out the existence of a large number of animals in just a century. Besides hunting, human

activities like environmental pollution and deforestation has led to the extinction of a large

number of animals and plants due to loss of habitat. Recent studies have shown that in North

America, 37 animal species have become extinct in the last 50 years due to human activities.

Loss of habitat led to the extinction of the Bali subspecies of tiger in 1937. According to the

2008 annual IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) report, there were 16,928

animal and plant species that are threatened of extinction and the list keeps increasing every year.

Despite the indiscriminate exploitation of nature by some people, there are a handful of those

that are relentlessly working to reverse the detrimental effects of human activities on the

environment. The World Wildlife Fund, European Environment Agency and the National

Geographic are some organizations that run programs for the preservation of nature and educate

and inspire people to conserve all life forms be it flora or fauna. Here is a small list of activities

that can help reestablish the ecosystems.

How can Humans Improve Damaged Ecosystems

Passing and implementing strict laws for industries and colonies. Those who areresponsible for polluting air and water should be severely punished.

Creating protected wildlife reserves. Certain species that are on the verge of extinctionshould be declared as 'protected species' by respective governments.


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Breeding certain species, and releasing them afterwards so that they can live in their ownhabitat. Preserving and creating proper habitats.

Planting as many trees as possible. Reforestation or re-greening the damaged areas canhelp avoid desertification of land.

Creating awareness by celebrating 'Earth Day', 'Green Day', 'Tree Day', etc. Eliminating foreign species can help native species of plants to grow. Cleaning the rivers, ponds and lakes. Avoiding use of plastic bags. Separating dry and wet garbage, composting, using wet garbage as manure. Avoiding use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers. Using innovative and different energy forms like solar energy, wind energy, etc. Limiting the use of vehicles by following the rule of carpool, taking stairs, walking or

taking a bike ride whenever possible.

Eating local products can help avoid wastage of gas and air pollution; as food productsare transported by trucks, trains, ships or airplanes. They are processed with machines

which require electricity to run.

Current Environmental Issues

Look around. Does the summer seem hotter than it was last year? Does it seem like the monsoonhas given up on a schedule and does just as it pleases? Does it seem weird that there are freak

storms and floods? Do you see the green cover rapidly shrinking on Planet Earth and the

pollution levels rising? You aren't the only one who's witnessing all this, you know? It's

happening the world over. Alarming climatic changes, deforestation, destruction of habitat and

extinction of species as well as rising pollution levels, are only some of the current

environmental issues that we are faced with today. Ironically, humans have to combat several

such 'man-made' effects that have harmed Mother Nature in many ways, over the years. 'What

you sow is what you reap'. Ring a bell? Resisting the temptation to get all condescending, let's

get an insight into some of the major environmental issues that we need to deal with currently.

Current Environmental Issues


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The following table will highlight some of the major environmental issues that pose a major

threat today. These are the issues that need to be given importance.

Global Warming

Global warming is one of the major issues that we are

being faced with today. The term signifies an increase in

the atmospheric temperature near the earth's surface,

which is caused due to various reasons. Scientists are of

the opinion that a rise in the carbon dioxide levels will

further aggravate the situation.

The greenhouse effect causes the earth's heat to be trapped

in the atmosphere, which results in the increase in

temperatures. Global warming has thus caused a change

in the climate of the earth, causing temperatures to rise.

This in turn has an effect on various species dependent on

the basic laws of nature. A change in the same makes

survival a difficult issue. A warmer earth also causes

changes in the rainfall patterns and thus affects humans,

plants and animals as well.

Ozone Depletion


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Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are considered to be the

main cause of ozone depletion. The term ozone depletion

implies a decline in the quantity of ozone in the Earth's

stratosphere. The loss of ozone in the lower stratosphere

was first recorded in Antarctica in the 1970s. As we all

know, the earth's atmosphere is composed of many layers;

ozone forms one such layer in the stratosphere. CFCs are

used in aerosol sprays as well as air conditioners. These,

when released into the atmosphere add to the ozone

depletion. The ozone hole in the Antarctic is caused

primarily due to these CFCs. Due to ozone depletion,

humans are faced with various other problems such as

dealing with the harmful effects of UV rays. These not

only affect humans, but in turn affect plants and various

other species of animals as well.

Pollution

Pollution is something that we face on an everyday basis.

It is probably a problem that we may have becomeimmune to, given our fast-paced lives and the fact that it

is being treated as a hackneyed issue, where a lot is

spoken about but nothing concrete is ever done.

Air pollution and noise pollution are increasing at an

alarming rate today.

Air pollution occurs with the addition of harmful

chemicals into the earth's atmosphere. The main

pollutants that cause the same are carbon monoxide, CFCs

(Chlorofluorocarbons), nitrogen oxides and sulfur


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dioxide.

Water pollution is caused when wastes are released into

the water that contaminates the same.

Soil pollution takes place when the soil is contaminated

due to various industrial activities.

Noise pollution occurs when the noise levels (honking,

loud speakers) crosses the normal decibel levels of sound.

This can have a harmful effect on one's hearing and lead

to more severe, forms of after-effects, both physical and

psychological (fatigue, irritation, stress).

Loss of Natural Resources

With the alarming rate of increase in population, the loss

of natural resources has become one of the major

concerns. Issues like deforestation, animal extinction,

shortage of water, lack of space and food are only some ofthe concerns brought on by the lack of resources. There

are many reasons that lead to the loss of natural resources

(increasing demands brought on by population explosion,

disregard for nature, human greed). This in turn affects

the varied ecosystems.

Activities such as overfishing and hunting have even led

many species of fish and animals respectively to the brink

of extinction. Forests are being cleared to meet the rising

demands for the need of paper, wood or even for land.

Mining and the burning of fossil fuels have led to further


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depletion of resources. Then again, this is merely

scratching the surface.

Nuclear Problems

Nuclear energy is generated from the splitting of uranium

atoms. This energy is used to create steam, which in turn

is used to produce electricity. While there are definite

advantages of generating nuclear power, what stands

equally true is the fact that the process of producing the

same harms the environment in many ways. The processof converting uranium into usable energy produces

radioactive waste (2000 metric tons of radioactive waste

is generated in a year in the USA alone) which is

extremely harmful for human, animal and plant health at

many levels.

Along with that, the storage of nuclear power at a plant, as

well as the fact that most other equipment in the plant will

also convert into radioactive material over time and

remain radioactive for several years is a major threat.

While decaying, radioactive material releases certain


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particles which lead to damaging effects on health like

cancer. Along with these health concerns, production of

nuclear energy also leads to several other harmful effects

like emission of carbon dioxide (during mining, transport,

waste management and other processes of producing

nuclear energy), usage of excessive water and water

discharge. Which will, in turn, affect the environment at

many levels.

Loss of Biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the combination of a diverse range

of species on earth. The varied plants, animals and

microorganisms, the different ecosystems (coral reefs,

deserts, rain forests) etc all have a unique role to play in

the cycle of earth. These diverse species lead to the boostof varied ecosystems, which thus enables them to prevent,

as well as recover from several disasters. However, due to

varied human activities like deforestation, and hunting,

the natural habitats as well as the survival of several

species is being threatened.

Several plant and animal species have been led to the

brink of extinction while others have already become

extinct. The extinction of animals and plants can lead to

varied effects, some of which are - increase in sea levels

(leading to floods), droughts, wildfires, forest destruction


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and more.

Energy Crisis

The impact of energy on human life is probably only

second to agriculture and forestry. That having been said,

the negative impact that energy as a source has on the

environment is quite far-reaching. Energy of any kind,

may it be thermal, hydro, nuclear or electric has led to

several environmental concerns.

Where earlier the concerns were restricted to the local

arena, the issues have now become global. Energy and the

activities related to energy production lead to

environmental hazards of some form or the other.

Extraction of raw material for production (emission of

carbon dioxide), transportation and the conversion to

usable forms of resources have a harmful effect on the

environment. Along with that, it has also led to concerns

like acid rain production, greenhouse effect as well asglobal warming.

Waste Management

Wastes can be of several kinds (industrial, nuclear,

chemical, domestic) and each can lead to environmental

degradation. From the excessive plastic produced at home

to the radioactive waste produced by nuclear plants, the

impact of the same on the environment can be disastrous.

Not only are these wastes harmful on their own, but the

techniques (or the lack) of proper waste management and

disposal adds to this problem manifold. Emissions from


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industries as well as toxic by-products like mercury, crude

oil, plastic and lead are not properly disposed off. They

are dumped into the oceans and soil, thus leading to

disastrous impacts on all life forms.

Of these, oil spills have become another major concern.

These wastes lead to the destruction of natural habitats of

both plants and animals and other species as well, in both

land and water. They therefore make the environment

toxic. Along with increasing the risk of extinction of

several species, it also leads to other health concerns such

as the development of fatal diseases like cancer and lead

poisoning.

Concerns

File:Hyalella Aztecan.jpg

The presence of some species, like this crustacean, may be used as an environmental health

indicator.

Environmental health addresses all human-health-related aspects of both thenatural environment

and thebuilt environment. Environmental health concerns include:

Air quality, including both ambient outdoor air and indoor air quality, which alsocomprises concerns aboutenvironmental tobacco smoke.

Body artsafety, includingtattooing,body piercingandpermanent cosmetics. Climate changeand its effects on health. Disaster preparednessand response. Food safety, including inagriculture,transportation,food processing,wholesaleandretail

distribution and sale.

Hazardous materialsmanagement, includinghazardous wastemanagement, contaminatedsite remediation, the prevention of leaks from underground storage tanks and the
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Upload?wpDestFile=Hyalella_Aztecan.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Upload?wpDestFile=Hyalella_Aztecan.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haleakala_Aztecan&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haleakala_Aztecan&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Built_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Built_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Built_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoor_air_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoor_air_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_tobacco_smokehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_tobacco_smokehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_tobacco_smokehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tattooinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tattooinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tattooinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_piercinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_piercinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_piercinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_cosmeticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_cosmeticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_cosmeticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster_preparednesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster_preparednesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wholesalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wholesalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wholesalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retailhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retailhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retailhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_materialshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_materialshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_storage_tankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_storage_tankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_storage_tankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_materialshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retailhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wholesalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster_preparednesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_cosmeticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_piercinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tattooinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_tobacco_smokehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoor_air_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Built_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haleakala_Aztecan&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Upload?wpDestFile=Hyalella_Aztecan.jpg


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prevention of hazardous materials releases to the environment and responses to

emergency situations resulting from such releases.

Housing, including substandard housing abatement and the inspection of jails andprisons.

Childhoodlead poisoningprevention. Land use planning, includingsmart growth. Liquid waste disposal, including city waste water treatmentplants and on-site waste

water disposal systems, such asseptic tanksystems andchemical toilets.

Medical wastemanagement and disposal. Noise pollutioncontrol. Occupational healthandindustrial hygiene. Radiological health, including exposure to ionizing radiationfromX-raysorradioactive

isotopes.

Recreational water illness prevention, including from swimming pools, spas and oceanandfreshwaterbathing places.

Safedrinking water. Solid waste management, including landfills, recycling facilities, composting and solid

waste transfer stations.

Toxicchemical exposure whether inconsumer products, housing, workplaces, air, wateror soil.

Vector control, including the control ofmosquitoes,rodents,flies,cockroachesand otheranimals that may transmitpathogens.

According to recent estimates, about 5 to 10 % of disability adjusted life years (DALYs) lost are

due to environmental causes in Europe. By far the most important factor is fineparticulate matter

pollution in urban air.[4]

Similarly, environmental exposures have been estimated to contribute to

4.9 million (8.7%) deaths and 86 million (5.7%)DALYsglobally.[5]

Information

The Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program (TEHIP)[6]

at theUnited States

National Library of Medicine(NLM) maintains a comprehensive toxicology and environmental
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Househttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Househttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substandard_housinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substandard_housinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jailshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jailshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_poisoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_poisoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_poisoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use_planninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use_planninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_growthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_growthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_growthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_water_treatmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_water_treatmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septic_tankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septic_tankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septic_tankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_toilethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_toilethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_toilethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_hygienehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_hygienehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_hygienehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionizing_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionizing_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-rayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-rayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-rayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_isotopeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_isotopeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_isotopeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_isotopeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swimming_poolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swimming_poolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swimming_poolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freshwaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freshwaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freshwaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_waste_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_waste_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recyclinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recyclinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compostinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compostinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_productshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_productshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_productshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitoeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitoeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitoeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockroacheshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockroacheshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockroacheshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DALYshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DALYshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DALYshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_health#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_health#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_health#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DALYshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DALYshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DALYshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_health#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_health#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_health#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_health#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_health#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_health#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Library_of_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Library_of_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Library_of_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Library_of_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Library_of_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Library_of_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_health#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_health#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DALYshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_health#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DALYshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockroacheshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitoeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_productshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compostinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recyclinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_waste_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freshwaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swimming_poolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_isotopeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_isotopeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-rayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionizing_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_hygienehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_toilethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septic_tankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_water_treatmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_growthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use_planninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_poisoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jailshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substandard_housinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House


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health web site that includes access to resources produced by TEHIP and by other government

agencies and organizations. This web site includes links to databases, bibliographies, tutorials,

and other scientific and consumer-oriented resources. TEHIP also is responsible for the

Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET),[7]

an integrated system of toxicology and environmental

health databases that are available free of charge on the web.

Mapping

There are many environmental health mapping tools. TOXMAP is a Geographic Information

System (GIS) from the Division of Specialized Information Services[8]

of the United States

National Library of Medicine(NLM) that uses maps of the United States to help users visually

explore data from theUnited States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA)Toxics Release

Inventoryand Superfund Basic Research Programs. TOXMAP is a resource funded by the US

Federal Government. TOXMAP's chemical and environmental health information is taken from

NLM's Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET)[9]

and PubMed, and from other authoritative

sources.

Conclusion

As public health moves more toward examining how both ecologic and social processes affect

disease transmission, and more specifically toward examining the fundamental role of

environmental change in creating the landscape of human disease, a systems theory framework is

needed from which to integrate and analyze data obtained from the disparate but relevant fields

of study involved. As the review of contemporary frameworks suggests, the inherent

multidimensionality of these problems precludes the use of standard analytic approaches.

The EnvID framework builds on previous frameworks by a) articulating a broad but flexible and

logical system specification; b) explicitly incorporating transmission groups that provide

important links to public health intervention strategies; c) emphasizing the intersection of PECs

and these transmission processes; d) incorporating a matrix formulation that specifies system

components, identifies knowledge gaps in the literature, and facilitates the integration of an
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existing body of research; and e) emphasizing dynamic processes and hypothesis generation. The

EnvID framework attempts to facilitate the integration of a body of research, and in so doing,

identifies the source of disputes and prioritizes avenues for resolution. As research advances, the

EnvID framework can help integrate the various factors at play in determining environment-

disease relationships and the connections between them.

Since the IOM's report on Nursing and the Environment was released, there have been many

successful efforts to achieve this goal of full integration. The ANA has now adopted principles of

environmental health nursing practice and multiple continuing nursing education modules on

environmental health. Many state nurses associations and specialty organizations now house

environmental health task forces. The National Association of Pediatric Nurse Practitioners has

pledged its support of the National Environmental Education and Training Foundation's positionstatement on health professionals and environmental health education. These groups are affecting

change in hospitals, communities, and in the legislature, and these changes improve the health

and quality of life of children and their families. Individual nurses at the basic and advanced

practice levels, nursing professional organizations, nursing academics, and researchers all have

been pioneering ways in which to combine their passion about human health with their concern

about environmental protection, thus caring for the earth while caring for their patients and

learning that the two are inextricable.

References

www.eea.europa.eu/

www.ehhi.org

health.usgs.gov

www.oecd.org
http://www.eea.europa.eu/http://www.eea.europa.eu/http://www.ehhi.org/http://www.ehhi.org/http://www.oecd.org/http://www.oecd.org/http://www.oecd.org/http://www.ehhi.org/http://www.eea.europa.eu/


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^Novice, Robert (editor) (1999-03-29)."Overview of the environment and health in Europe in the

1990s"(PDF). World Health Organization.

^California Health and Safety Code, section 106615(e)

^Environmental Health: from Global to Local. 2nd. edition. Edited by Howard Frumkin. John Wiley &

Sons. San Fransisco. 2010.

^National and regional story (Netherlands) - Environmental burden of disease in Europe: the Abode

project. EEA.
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