environmental geochemistry and quality assessment of mine water of jharia coalfield, india
TRANSCRIPT
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Environmental geochemistry and quality assessment of minewater of Jharia coalfield, India
Abhay Kumar Singh • M. K. Mahato •
B. Neogi • B. K. Tewary • A. Sinha
Received: 5 June 2010 / Accepted: 9 April 2011 / Published online: 2 May 2011
� Springer-Verlag 2011
Abstract A long mining history and unscientific exploi-
tation of Jharia coalfield caused many environmental
problems including water resource depletion and contam-
ination. A geochemical study of mine water in the Jharia
coalfield has been undertaken to assess its quality and
suitability for domestic, industrial and irrigation uses. For
this purpose, 92 mine water samples collected from dif-
ferent mining areas of Jharia coalfield were analysed for
pH, electrical conductivity (EC), major cations (Ca2?,
Mg2?, Na?, K?), anions (F-, Cl-, HCO3-, SO4
2-, NO3-),
dissolved silica (H4SiO4) and trace metals. The pH of the
analysed mine water samples varied from 6.2 to 8.6,
indicating mildly acidic to alkaline nature. Concentration
of TDS varied from 437 to 1,593 mg L-1 and spatial dif-
ferences in TDS values reflect the variation in lithology,
surface activities and hydrological regime prevailing in the
region. SO42- and HCO3
- are dominant in the anion and
Mg2? and Ca2? in the cation chemistry of mine water.
High concentrations of SO42- in the mine water of the
area zare attributed to the oxidative weathering of pyrites.
Ca–Mg–SO4 and Ca–Mg–HCO3 are the dominant hydro-
chemical facies. The drinking water quality assessment
indicates that number of mine water samples have high
TDS, total hardness and SO42- concentrations and needs
treatment before its utilization. Concentrations of some
trace metals (Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb) were also found to be above
the desirable levels recommended for drinking water. The
mine water is good to permissible quality and suitable for
irrigation in most cases. However, higher salinity, residual
sodium carbonate and Mg-ratio restrict its suitability for
irrigation at some sites.
Keywords Jharia coalfield � Mine water chemistry �Water quality � Trace metals � SAR � RSC
Introduction
The presence of water at mining sites creates a range of
operational and stability problems and requires an effective
water management strategy to avoid slope stability prob-
lems, oxidation of sulfides and corrosion of mining
machineries and equipments. Mining by its nature con-
sumes as well as diverts water and in this process it may
pollute the water resources of the nearby areas. During the
mining operation, huge quantities of water were pumped
out from mine sumps and pits to provide working face and
facilitate safe mining. A conservative estimate shows that
only BCCL (Bharat Coking Coal Ltd., a subsidiary of Coal
India Ltd.) mines of the Jharia coalfield region annually
discharges about 602 million m3 of mine water. Except for
some uses in reclamation and dust suppression, a major
part of the mine water is being discharged into the natural
drainages, leaving mining areas as a water deficit. The
quality of the mine water depends on a series of geological,
hydrological and mining conditions, which vary signifi-
cantly from mine to mine (Younger et al. 2002). The dis-
charged mine water varies greatly in the concentration of
contaminants and in some cases it may even meet the
drinking water specifications (Singh et al. 2010). Many
times, the discharged mine water as such is not usable and
may contain unacceptable levels of heavy metals, toxic
anions, organic and biological contaminants (Khan et al.
A. K. Singh (&) � M. K. Mahato � B. Neogi �B. K. Tewary � A. Sinha
Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research,
Council of Scientific & Industrial Research,
Barwa Road, Dhanbad, Jharkhand 826 015, India
e-mail: [email protected]
123
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:49–65
DOI 10.1007/s12665-011-1064-2
2005; Gupta 1999). The mine water resource may act as a
potential water source in the water scare mining areas and
by adopting a suitable water management strategy and
treatment process, the mine water generated during mining
operations may be harnessed and utilized to meet the
regional water demand for domestic, industrial and irriga-
tion uses (Singh 1994). However, for utilization and
management of available water resources in mining areas,
a baseline water quality data and continuous monitoring of
its quality is a prerequisite. In the present study, a geo-
chemical investigation of mine water discharges from
mines of the Jharia coalfield (JCF) has been carried out to
know the hydrochemical nature of mine water and to assess
its quality for domestic, industrial and irrigation uses.
Jharia is the most extensively explored and exploited
coalfield and sole repository of much needed prime coking
coal in India. It is a part of the Gondwana coalfields and
lies in the heart of the Damodar valley at south of the
Dhanbad city. Jharia coalfield occupies an area of 450 km2
and bounded by 23�370N–23�520 N latitudes and 86�090E–
86�300E longitudes (Fig. 1). The major coalmines of this
coalfield are situated along the north of the Damodar River.
Coal is exploited by both opencast as well as underground
mining methods in this coalfield by Bharat Coking Coal
Ltd. (BCCL), Steel Authority of India (SAIL) as well as by
some private companies i.e., TISCO (Tata Iron and Steel
Company) and Electrosteel Pvt. Ltd. Unscientific mining in
and around Jharia region has created many environmental
problems. The open cast mining has created many open
voids in the form of abandoned mines. Extraction of thick
seam by caving in the past at shallow depth has damaged
the ground surface due to subsidence and the formation of
pot holes or cracks. The developed crakes reached up to the
surface at many places and enhanced the chances of
spontaneous heating of coal seams and mine fire. The
Jharia coalfield is engulfed with almost 70 mine fires;
spread over an area of 17.32 km2 and around 34.97 km2
areas is under subsidence (Gupta and Prakash 1998). Sur-
face mine development and underground mine working
below piezometric level in this area invariably changes the
hydraulic gradient, thus affecting the ground and surface
water flow regimes vis-a-vis their quality and quantity
(Choubey 1991; Sarkar et al. 2007; Singh et al. 2007, 2008;
Tiwary 2001).
Jharia coalfield lies in a sickle shaped basin of sedi-
mentary sequence and is surrounded by Precambrian
metamorphic rocks (Fig. 2). It encompasses the Jharia
town, while the Dhanbad town lies just to the northeast
of the basin on the metamorphics. The sedimentary rocks
of the coalfields represent the Damuda Group of
Gondwana Supergroup, an Upper Palaeozoic–Mesozoic
sequence of glaciofluviatile origin. They lie unconform-
ably over the Precambrian gneiss and schist and are
pierced by igneous intrusive of Mesozoic-Tertiary times.
The Gondwana sequence in the Jharia basin begins with
Talchir Formation which is followed stratigraphically
upwards by Barakar Formation, Barren Measures and
Raniganj Formation. The oldest rocks are exposed along
the northern margin and youngest formations are out-
cropped towards south in the western part of the basin
(Sharma and Ram 1966; Chandra 1992). Archaean
metamorphic rocks consisting of granites, granitic
gneisses, quartzite mica-schists and amphibolites sur-
round Jharia coalfield, while rocks of the Talchir For-
mation are exposed as a wide outcrop in the north-west
and as a narrow strip along the northern margin. The
Barakar Formation occupies an area of about 210 km2
along the northern half of the field and consists of coarse
grained sandstones, conglomerates, shales, carbonaceous
shales, silt-stones, fireclays and coal seams. This is the
chief coal-bearing strata in this coalfield and includes
more than 25 workable coal seams. The Barakar For-
mation is overlain by Barren Measures, which is mainly
exposed in the central and southern part and devoid of
coal seams. The Barren Measures comprise about 610 m
of fine grained buff sandstones, shales, carbonaceous
shales and sideritic bands but are devoid of workable
coal seams. Overlying the Barren Measures, the Raniganj
Formation occupies an oval basin covering an area of
58 km2 at the south-western part of the basin. The rocks
comprising this formation are fine sandstones, shales,
carbonaceous shales and coal seams. Two phases of
deformation accompanied by igneous intrusion are
believed to have occurred in this basin. The earlier
(Lower Cretaceous) phase led to the intrusion of mica-
peridotite and the later one (Palaeocene) resulted in
dolerite intrusion. The mica-peridotite occurs as dykes
and sills all over the coalfield and has caused extensive
devolatilization of coal seams. The dolerite on the other
hand is restricted in aerial extent to the western part only
and has limited destructive effect on coal quality as it
occurs mainly in the form of dykes. The study area
experiences tropical climate where the maximum tem-
perature rises up to 44�C during May–June, while it dips
to 5–7�C in December–January. The average annual
rainfall of the area is 1,281 mm, and more than 85% of
the annual rainfall occurs during the four monsoon
months (June to September).
Materials and methods
To asses mine water quality of the Jharia coalfield, a sys-
tematic sampling was carried out during the months of
April–May in 2009. Ninety-two representative mine water
samples were collected from mines of Block-II, Barora,
50 Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:49–65
123
BLOCK-II
BARORA GOVINDPUR
KATRAS
SIJUA KUSUNDA
POOTKEE-BALIHARI
KUSTORE
BASTACOLA
LODNA
EASTERNJHARIA
WESTERNJHARIA
PARBATPUR
1
2 3
45
6
7
8 9 10 1311
12
14
151617
1819
2021 22
23
24
25
2627
28
29
3031
32
3334
3536
37
38
39
40
41
42 43
44
45
46
47
48
50
49
51
52 53
54
55
5657
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
6566
Amlabad
AREA
AREA AREA
AREA
AREA AREA
AREA
AREA
AREA
AREA
AREA
AREA
0 1 2 3 4 5Km
SCALE
86 10'0 86 20'0
2345'
0
2340'
0
86 10'0 86 30'86 20'0
86 30'0
0
2345'
0
2340'
0Study area
I N D I A
-------Mining area boundaryMine boundary
River/drain
Sampling site
JHARIA COALFIELD
Fig. 1 Location map of the Jharia coalfield, showing mining areas and sampling sites
Fig. 2 Geological map of the Jharia coalfield
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:49–65 51
123
Govindpur, Katras, Sijua, Kusunda, Kustore, Pootkee-Ba-
lihari (PB), Bastacola, Lodna, Eastern and Western Jharia
mining areas of BCCL and Chasnala and Jeetpur mines of
SAIL (Fig. 1). The mine water samples were collected
from both underground (underground sump and surface
water discharge) and opencast (mine pit) mines in 1 L
narrow-mouthed pre-washed high density polyethylene
bottles (Table 1). At the sampling sites, bottles were also
washed with the sampled water before collecting the
samples. For trace metals, 100 ml mine water samples
were acidified with HNO3 and preserved separately. The
mine water samples were analysed for pH, electrical con-
ductivity (EC), major cations (Ca2?, Mg2?, Na1 and K1),
major anions (F-, Cl-, HCO3-, SO4
2-, NO3-), dissolved
silica (H4SiO4) and trace metals following the standard
analytical methods.
EC and pH values were measured in the field using a
portable conductivity and pH meter. In the laboratory,
the water samples were filtered through 0.45 lm Milli-
pore membrane filters to separate suspended sediments.
Acid titration and molybdosilicate methods were used to
determine the concentration of bicarbonate and dissolved
silica, respectively (APHA 1998). Major anions (F-,
Cl-, SO42-, NO3
-) were analysed on an ion chromato-
graph (Dionex Dx-120) using anion (AS12A/AG12)
columns coupled to an anion self-regenerating suppressor
(ASRS) in recycle mode. Concentration of major cations
(Ca2?, Mg2?, Na1 and K1) was measured by atomic
absorption spectrophotometer (Varian, 280 FS) in flame
mode. The analytical precision was maintained by run-
ning a known standard after every 15 samples. An
overall precision, expressed as percent relative standard
deviation (RSD), was obtained below 10% for the entire
samples. Concentration of trace metals in mine water
samples was determined by ICP–MS (Perkin Elmer). The
accuracy of the analysis was checked by analysing NIST
1643b water reference standard. The precision obtained
in most cases was better than 5% RSD with comparable
accuracy.
Results and discussion
The results of the geochemical analysis of mine water
samples collected from different mining areas of Jharia
coalfield are given in Table 2.
pH, EC and TDS
In situ measured pH of the analysed samples varied from
6.2 to 8.6 and the average pH was found to be 7.7, indi-
cating mildly acidic to alkaline nature of the mine water.
The EC ranged from 507 to 1,653 lS cm-1 with an
average value of 1,052 lS cm-1. Concentration of total
dissolved solids (TDS) in the mine water varied between
437 and 1,593 mg L-1 with an average value of
941 mg L-1. The differences in the TDS and EC values in
the water samples collected from the underground mine
sumps and pump water discharges in the case of under-
ground mine were not very significant except at few sites.
However, wide spatial variations were observed in the
concentration of TDS in different mining areas of Jharia
coalfield (Fig. 3a). The differences in TDS values may be
attributed to the variation in geological formations,
hydrological processes and prevailing mining conditions in
the region.
Major ion chemistry
Sulphate, bicarbonate, calcium and magnesium are the
dominant dissolved ions in the Jharia coalfield mine water,
constituting 33.8, 34.4, 9.3, and 7.8% of the TDS,
respectively; along with the secondary contribution from
sodium (5.3%) and chloride (5.2%). Potassium, nitrate and
fluoride have a very little contribution towards the solute
load, together account for \3% of the TDS. The anion
chemistry of mine water is dominated by SO42- and
HCO3- with secondary contribution from Cl- (Fig. 4a).
The concentration of bicarbonate varied from a minimum
of 33.3 mg L-1 to a maximum value of 732 mg L-1 (avg.
321 mg L-1), constituting 5–87% (avg. 40%) of the total
anions (TZ-) in equivalent unit. HCO3- is the most
dominant anion in the mines of Barora, Western Jharia,
Pootkee-Balihari, Eastern Jharia mining areas and Chasn-
ala and Jeetpur mines of SAIL (Fig. 3b). Bicarbonates are
mainly derived from the soil zone CO2 and dissolution of
carbonates and reaction of silicates with carbonic acid. The
soil zone in the subsurface environment contains elevated
CO2 pressure (produced as a result of decay of organic
matter and root respiration), which in turn combines with
rainwater to form bicarbonate. Concentration of sulphate
ranged from 7.7 to 806 mg L-1 with an average value of
326 mg L-1. Contribution of SO42- towards the total
anions varied from 1.3 to 91% (avg. 48%) in an equivalent
basis. Spatial variation of sulphate concentration showed
higher values for the mine water of Block-II, Govindpur,
Katras, Sijua, Kusunda, Kustore, Bastacola and Lodna
mining areas and lower values for the mines of Barora,
Western Jharia, Eastern Jharia, IISCO and some mines of
Pootkee-Balihari and Govindpur mining areas (Fig. 3c).
Sulphates in the mine water are usually derived from the
oxidative weathering of sulphide-bearing minerals such as
pyrite (FeS2), gypsum (CaSO4. � 2H2O) and anhydrite
(CaSO4). Jharia coals are poor in sulphur; usually contain
less than 1% sulphur. However, mineral pyrite (FeS2) is
reported to occur as a secondary mineral in these coals and
52 Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:49–65
123
Table 1 Information of sampling site, name of mining area and mines, and nature of mine water sample
S. no. Sample site Mining area Mines name Water type S. no. Sample site Mining area Mines name Water type
1 1 Block-II Jamunia OCP P/W 47 35a Pootkee-Balihari K.B. (5/6) P/W
2 2 Block-II OCP P/W 48 35b U/W
3 3 Barora Phularitand P/W 49 36a K.B. (10/12) P/W
4 4 Muraidih OCP P/W 50 36b U/W
5 5 Satabdi OCP P/W 51 37a S.B. (5/7) P/W
6 6a Govindpur Kharkharee U/W 52 37b U/W
7 6b P/W 53 38a Bhagaband P/W
8 7a Maheshpur U/W 54 38b U/W
9 7b P/W 55 39a Kustore Alkusha P/W
10 8a Kooridih U/W 56 39b U/W
11 8b P/W 57 40 Kustore U/W
12 9 Govindpur P/W 58 41 Burahgarh P/W
13 10 Akash Kinaree P/W 59 42 Horriladih P/W
14 11a Katras Salanpur U/W 60 43 Bhalgora P/W
15 11b P/W 61 44 Simla Bahal P/W
16 12a Ramkanali U/W 62 45 E. Bhuggatdih U/W
17 12b P/W 63 46a Bastacola Bastacolla U/W
18 13 Keshalpur U/W 64 46b P/W
19 14a Angarpathra U/W 65 46c U/W
20 14b P/W 66 47a Bera U/W
21 15 Gaslitand P/W 67 47b U/W
22 16a Katras-chot U/W 68 47c P/W
23 16b P/W 69 47d P/W
24 17 Sijua Mudidih P/W 70 48 Dobari U/W
25 18 Tetulmari P/W 71 49 Kuya P/W
26 19 S. Bansjora P/W 72 50 Ganhoodih P/W
27 20 Kankanee P/W 73 51a Lodna Lodna (8-Seam) P/W
28 21 Loyabad P/W 74 51b Lodna (7-Seam) P/W
29 22 Bansdeopur P/W 75 52a Jealgora (II) P/W
30 23 East Basseriya P/W 76 52b Jealgora (VII) P/W
31 24 Basseriya P/W 77 53 Joyrampur P/W
32 25 Gondudih OCP P/W 78 54 North Tisra OCP P/W
33 26 Kusunda Khas-Kusunda U/W 79 55 South Tisra OCP P/W
34 27 Godhur P/W 80 56 Eastern Jharia North Bhawrah P/W
35 28 Dhansar U/W 81 57a South Bhawrah P/W
36 29 Kusunda OCP P/W 82 57b P/W
37 30a Pootkee-Balihari Kendawadih P/W 83 58 Sudamdih P/W
38 30b U/W 84 59 Patherdih P/W
39 31a Gopalichack P/W 85 60 Amlabad P/W
40 31b U/W 86 61 Western Jharia Moonidih P/W
41 32a Pootkee P/W 87 62 Murlidih P/W
42 32b U/W 88 63 Bhatdee P/W
43 33a PB Project P/W 89 64a IISCO Chasnala U/W
44 33b U/W 90 64b P/W
45 34a Aralgaria P/W 91 65 Jeetpur U/W
46 34b U/W 92 66 Electrosteel Parbatpur OCP P/W
U/W underground sump water, P/W pump water discharges at surface, OCP open cast project
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:49–65 53
123
associated sediments (Chandra 1992). The observed high
values of SO42- in mine waters of the study area are
attributed to the weathering of pyrites by the following
reactions (Lowson et al. 1993):
2FeS2 þ 7O2 þ 2H2O ¼ 2Feþ2 þ 4SO2�4 þ 4Hþ
4Fe2þ þ O2 þ 4Hþ ¼ 4Fe3þ þ 2H2O
FeS2 þ 14Fe3þ þ 8H2O ¼ 15Fe2þ þ 2SO2�4 þ 16Hþ
Chloride concentration in the analysed mine water
samples ranged from 1.3 to 258.9 mg L-1 with an average
value of 46.7 mg L-1. On an average, chloride is
contributing about 10% of the total anionic balance in
the Jharia coal mine waters. The spatial distribution of
Cl- concentration shows relatively higher values for the
Salanpur (258.9 mg L-1) and Bastacola mines (142
mg L-1). Chloride is present in lower concentrations in
common rock types than any other major constituents of
natural water. It is assumed that bulk of the chloride in
water is derived primarily from halite, sea spray, brines and
hot springs. Abnormal concentration of chloride may result
from anthropogenic sources including agricultural runoff,
domestic and industrial wastes and leaching of saline
86 10'0
86 10'0
2345'
0
2340'
0
2345'
0
2340'
0
86 30'0
86 30'0
Total Dissolved Solids
1 23
4
5
6
7
89 10
11
12 13
14
1516 17
1819
20
21 22
23
24 2526 27
28
29
303132
33
34
35
38
3940
36 374142
43
44 45
46 4748
4950
5152 53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
6566
86 10'0
86 10'0
2345'
0
2340'
0
2345'
0
2340'
0
86 30'0
86 30'0
Bicarbonate
1 23
4
5
6
7
89 10
11
12 13
14
1516 17
1819
20
21 22
23
24 2526 27
28
29
303132
33
34
35
38
3940
36 374142
43
44 45
46 4748
4950
5152 53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
6566
86 10'0
86 10'0
2345'
0
2340'
0
2345'
0
2340'
0
86 30'0
86 30'0
Total Dissolved Solids
1 23
4
5
6
7
89 10
11
12 13
14
1516 17
1819
20
21 22
23
24 2526 27
28
29
303132
33
34
35
38
3940
36 374142
43
44 45
46 4748
4950
5152 53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
6566
1 2 3
4
5
6
7
89 10
1112 13
14
1516 17
1819
20
21 22
23
24 2526 27
28
29
303132
33
34
35
38
3940
36 374142
43
44 45
46 4748
4950
5152 53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
6566
Sulphate
a
b
c
Fig. 3 Concentration contour
map of a TDS, b bicarbonate,
c sulphate, d calcium,
e magnesium and f total
hardness, showing spatial
variation
54 Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:49–65
123
residues in the soil. The large lateral variation in the Cl-
concentration and observed high values in some mine
water samples indicate local recharge and may be
attributed to the contamination by untreated industrial
and mining waste effluents.
Concentration of fluoride in the Jharia mine water
samples ranged from 0.15 to 4.46 mg L-1 (avg.
0.80 mg L-1). In general, concentrations of F- were found
to be low as compared with the other anions, accounting for
\1.0% to the total anionic balance. A relatively higher F-
concentration was observed in the mine water of Satabdi
(2.96 mg L-1), Simla Bahal (2.48 mg L-1), and Amlabad
mines (4.46 mg L-1). Higher F- values in these samples
may be due to the weathering of fluoride-bearing minerals
such as biotite, muscovite, fluorite and apatite, which occur
as accessory minerals in the granites, granite-gneisses and
intrusive rocks of the area. Concentration of NO3- ranged
from BDL to 82.0 mg L-1 and average concentration value
was 9.7 mg L-1, contributing about 1% the total anions.
The chief sources of the nitrate are—biological fixation,
atmospheric precipitation and the application of fertilizers
and industrial sewage (Appelo and Postma 1993). The use
of explosive in the mining areas may also be one possible
source of nitrate in the mine water.
86 10'0
86 10'0
2345'
0
2340'
0
2345'
0
2340'
0
86 30'0
86 30'0
1 2 3
4
5
6
7
89 10
11
12 13
14
1516 17
1819
20
21 22
23
24 2526 27
28
29
303132
33
34
35
38
3940
36 374142
43
44 45
46 4748
4950
5152 53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
6566
Calcium
86 10'0
86 10'0
2345'
0
2340'
0
2345'
0
2340'
0
86 30'0
86 30'0
Magnesium
1 23
4
5
6
7
89 10
11
12 13
14
1516 17
1819
20
21 22
23
24 2526 27
28
29
303132
33
34
35
38
3940
36 374142
43
44 45
46 4748
4950
5152 53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
6566
86 10'0
86 10'0
2345'
0
2340'
0
2345'
0
2340'
0
86 30'0
86 30'0
Total Hardness
1 23
4
5
6
7
89 10
11
12 1314
1516 17
1819
20
21 22
23
24 2526 27
28
29
303132
33
34
35
38
3940
36 374142
43
44 45
46 4748
4950
5152 53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
6566
d
e
f
Fig. 3 continued
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:49–65 55
123
The cation diagram relating Ca2?, Mg2? and Na? ? K?
indicate that cationic chemistry of the Jharia mine water is
dominated by magnesium and calcium except at four sites
(Fig. 4b). Concentration of Mg2? was reported in the
minimum range of 4.8 mg L-1 to the maximum of
158 mg L-1 with an average concentration value of
75.3 mg L-1. On an average, Mg2? accounts for 47%
(2.7–70%) of the total cations (TZ?) in equivalent unit.
The spatial variation of Mg2? concentration shows higher
values in the mines of Block-II, Jamunia, Maheshpur,
Govindpur, Gaslitand, Katras-Chot, Loyabad, Kankanee,
Kustore, Basseriya, Jealgora, Gopalichak, Pootkee, K.B.
and Bhagaband (Fig. 3d). The principle source of Mg2? in
natural water is ferromagnesian mineral (olivine, augite,
diopside biotite, hornblend) in igneous and metamorphic
rocks and magnesium carbonate (dolomite) in sedimentary
rock. The higher concentrations of Mg2? and high Mg2?/
Ca2? and HCO3/silica ratios in the mine water of the study
area indicate weathering of ferromagnesian minerals as a
possible source of Mg2? in this water (Hounslow 1995;
Pawar et al. 2008). Weathering and dissolution of calcium
carbonate (limestone and dolomite) and calc-silicate min-
erals (amphiboles, pyroxenes, olivine, biotite, etc.) are the
most common source of calcium in water. Concentration of
Ca2? in the mine water of Jharia coalfield varied from
minimum value of 6.0 mg L-1 to maximum value of
182 mg L-1 with an average of 86.1 mg L-1. Calcium
accounts for 34% of the total cations in the Jharia coal
mine water and contribution of Ca2? is relatively higher for
the mines of Bastacola area as compared with the other
sites (Fig. 3e).
Concentrations of sodium ranged from 14 to
251 mg L-1 in the Jharia coal mine water with an average
value of 48.7 mg L-1. On an average, Na? constitutes 17%
(5.5–87%) of the total cations in equivalent unit. The
spatial variation of Na? concentration was higher in the
mine water of Murilidih and Bhatdih mines of Raniganj
Formation and Amlabad mines of Eastern Jharia mining
area (Table 2). Sodium accounted for 66–87% of the total
cationic mass balance in these samples. Potassium was
found to be the least dominant cation in the mine water of
the area. Concentration of K? varied between 2.5 and
33.2 mg L-1 (avg. 8.2 mg L-1), constituting \2% of the
total cations. Na? and K? in the aquatic system are mainly
derived from the atmospheric deposition; evaporate disso-
lution and silicate weathering (Berner and Berner 1987).
Weathering of Na and K silicates such as albite, anorthite
and orthoclase are the possible source minerals for the
Na? and K? in the present study area (Kumar et al. 2006;
Gaofeng et al. 2010). The evaporate encrustations of Na?/K?
salts developed due to cyclic wetting and drying periods of
Damodar River cause the formation of alkaline/saline soils,
which may also serve as a source of Na? and K? (Singh et al.
2005).
Geochemical relationship and water type
The geochemical nature and relationship between dis-
solved ions in water may also be evaluated by plotting the
analytical data on Piper (1944) trilinear diagram. The Piper
diagram is an ingenious construction, consists of two tri-
angles at the lower left and lower right, describing the
relative composition of cations and anions and an inter-
vening diamond-shaped field that represents the composi-
tion of water with respect to both cations and anions. The
plot of geochemical data on diamond-shaped field reveals
that majority of the plotted points fall in the region 1, 3, 4,
5, 6 and 9 (Fig. 5). The plotted points of 93% mine water
samples fall in the region 1, which suggest dominance of
alkaline earths (Ca ? Mg) over alkalies (Na ? K). Alka-
lies exceed alkaline earths in only 7% of the mine water
HCO3 Cl
SO4
Mg
Ca Na+K
a
b
Fig. 4 Ternary a anion and b cation diagrams showing contribution
of individual ions towards the anionic and cationic mass balance
56 Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:49–65
123
Table 2 Geochemical characteristics of mine water of Jharia coalfield
Samplesite
pH EC TDS F- Cl- HCO3- SO4
2- NO3- Silica Ca2? Mg2? Na? K? TH %Na SAR RSC MH KI PI
1 7.7 1,108 1,086 1.02 12.3 330 464 33.81 17.5 89 113 19 6.2 687 6.7 0.32 -1.52 67.7 0.06 21.6
2 7.8 1,102 1,059 0.99 11.1 325 453 30.33 15.8 88 112 18 5.0 680 6.3 0.30 -1.53 67.7 0.06 21.5
3 7.1 563 468 0.57 25.6 276 63 0.40 12.5 28 36 21 5.1 218 19.3 0.62 2.33 67.9 0.21 57.7
4 7.6 559 459 0.68 24.3 251 67 3.69 22.8 34 24 29 2.5 184 26.5 0.93 2.27 53.8 0.34 66.7
5 7.8 1,315 867 2.96 37.8 364 210 26.88 16.5 98 86 20 5.4 598 7.8 0.36 -0.06 59.1 0.07 25.8
6a 8.0 988 784 0.48 37.6 357 192 6.62 20.0 47 83 37 4.4 459 15.8 0.75 1.22 74.4 0.18 37.4
6b 8.2 912 854 0.45 31.4 395 201 2.29 17.8 65 97 40 5.0 561 14.3 0.73 0.81 71.1 0.16 33.1
7a 8.2 851 699 0.83 50.0 230 235 7.00 15.4 65 54 35 6.4 384 18.0 0.78 -0.10 57.8 0.20 37.6
7b 8.3 1,082 991 0.70 26.4 383 321 0.72 19.5 88 116 30 6.8 697 9.6 0.49 -0.75 68.5 0.09 25.0
8a 8.2 943 767 1.07 25.0 184 351 2.23 18.8 90 41 50 4.4 394 22.5 1.10 -0.94 42.9 0.28 39.0
8b 7.5 1,287 1,134 0.80 15.0 66 753 3.68 26.3 166 66 33 4.5 686 10.2 0.55 -5.81 39.6 0.10 16.3
9 8.0 1,151 998 0.79 27.0 345 383 4.79 10.6 94 100 28 4.5 646 9.4 0.48 -0.86 63.7 0.09 25.4
10 7.9 1,050 934 0.60 33.0 188 488 0.62 15.9 121 64 20 3.2 566 7.8 0.37 -2.60 46.6 0.08 21.6
11a 7.6 1,541 1,344 0.30 258.9 66 550 82.03 13.6 175 58 130 10.1 676 30.5 2.18 -5.70 35.3 0.42 34.9
11b 8.0 945 943 0.47 126.8 190 285 48.03 21.9 112 45 106 7.8 465 34.1 2.14 -1.55 39.8 0.50 45.9
12a 8.1 1,095 1,054 0.37 38.4 148 566 3.77 17.3 133 94 48 4.9 719 13.3 0.78 -4.81 53.8 0.15 22.2
12b 8.2 1,104 1,087 0.68 41.1 162 605 5.03 16.4 126 79 47 4.7 640 14.5 0.81 -3.78 50.8 0.16 24.8
13 8.0 868 816 0.46 19.9 116 478 1.83 16.1 108 42 30 4.0 443 13.7 0.62 -2.54 39.1 0.15 26.4
14a 8.3 889 823 0.40 31.0 223 361 8.03 18.9 70 74 30 6.4 479 13.3 0.60 -1.17 63.5 0.14 29.6
14b 8.4 865 821 0.40 23.0 219 365 0.90 15.5 76 77 39 5.4 506 15.3 0.75 -1.51 62.6 0.17 30.4
15 8.3 1,154 1,068 0.72 35.8 532 253 1.03 17.8 61 125 35 6.4 666 11.2 0.59 1.99 77.2 0.11 30.1
16a 8.2 1,228 1,189 0.66 73.5 383 450 2.76 15.1 99 115 44 6.3 720 12.6 0.71 -0.98 65.7 0.13 27.1
16b 8.3 1,232 1,191 0.70 60.0 378 461 3.38 15.3 100 119 47 6.9 739 13.1 0.75 -1.26 66.2 0.14 26.9
17 7.9 983 893 0.63 50.5 213 398 6.03 22.7 84 79 34 5.5 535 13.2 0.64 -1.90 60.8 0.14 27.5
18 7.9 1,146 917 0.65 28.8 173 487 4.48 13.4 100 62 39 8.8 505 16.0 0.76 -2.24 50.5 0.17 28.7
19 7.6 1,102 998 0.73 28.5 223 476 29.76 16.4 98 75 40 9.3 553 15.2 0.74 -1.91 55.8 0.16 28.5
20 7.9 1,258 1,206 0.62 49.9 476 403 7.82 22.9 81 121 38 6.2 700 11.5 0.62 0.74 71.1 0.12 28.4
21 7.5 1,287 1,255 0.60 51.3 481 413 5.83 27.6 103 118 47 7.4 742 13.1 0.75 0.40 65.4 0.14 28.7
22 7.8 1,273 1,115 0.51 48.9 354 423 3.87 29.7 106 99 43 7.2 672 13.3 0.72 -0.97 60.6 0.14 28.0
23 6.5 1,033 820 1.06 19.5 193 387 5.18 18.1 109 54 24 10.1 494 11.6 0.47 -1.81 45.0 0.11 25.8
24 7.2 1,402 1,226 0.95 60.5 296 598 8.16 19.1 60 135 29 19.3 705 11.1 0.48 -2.27 78.8 0.09 22.6
25 7.1 965 872 0.88 21.5 146 424 72.32 10.7 113 57 22 6.1 517 9.7 0.42 -2.80 45.4 0.09 22.2
26 6.8 762 643 0.97 23.9 116 316 14.32 14.7 91 40 21 6.1 392 12.0 0.46 -2.04 42.0 0.12 26.2
27 7.3 655 487 1.38 31.9 124 190 0.59 16.5 79 24 15 3.8 296 11.2 0.38 -0.94 33.4 0.11 31.6
28 7.9 799 694 0.29 14.8 129 353 0.23 14.8 116 34 26 5.6 430 12.9 0.55 -2.20 32.6 0.13 26.6
29 7.5 810 664 1.07 78.3 195 172 2.12 18.5 64 36 76 20.5 308 38.4 1.88 0.10 48.1 0.54 53.8
30a 7.0 713 516 0.41 78.4 159 107 5.17 41.4 49 30 29 16.8 246 25.6 0.80 0.13 50.2 0.26 46.6
30b 7.3 1,027 968 0.82 44.6 270 405 4.38 16.3 104 83 27 12.6 601 11.1 0.48 -1.63 56.8 0.10 24.9
31a 7.1 1,453 1,402 0.53 51.8 459 587 5.70 12.6 111 136 31 6.6 836 8.3 0.47 -0.91 66.9 0.08 22.6
31b 7.3 1,458 1,378 0.57 53.1 447 569 4.89 13.0 114 139 31 7.6 856 8.3 0.46 -1.31 66.8 0.08 22.0
32a 7.6 1,159 1,158 0.63 55.1 571 284 3.22 17.7 75 108 37 5.8 631 12.2 0.64 2.99 70.4 0.13 32.8
32b 7.5 1,237 1,176 0.72 55.6 609 260 5.19 12.6 77 110 39 6.0 645 12.5 0.67 3.48 70.2 0.13 33.3
33a 7.8 779 692 0.49 70.1 395 58 8.92 15.1 36 65 35 8.3 357 19.5 0.81 2.87 74.9 0.21 46.9
33b 8.0 887 762 1.09 65.4 443 71 7.90 14.4 39 76 36 9.1 410 18.0 0.77 3.12 76.3 0.19 43.6
34a 7.2 1,058 1,052 0.55 47.2 655 97 4.09 14.1 59 90 73 12.0 517 25.2 1.40 5.52 71.5 0.31 47.7
34b 7.5 1,078 1,052 0.58 41.0 663 100 3.42 13.6 56 93 74 6.5 522 24.5 1.41 5.60 73.2 0.31 47.7
35a 7.5 1,566 1,515 0.64 43.6 495 634 2.88 18.3 126 155 32 9.0 952 7.9 0.45 -1.49 67.0 0.07 20.8
35b 7.3 1,608 1,593 0.60 41.5 499 709 3.52 17.2 125 158 31 8.1 962 7.5 0.43 -1.52 67.6 0.07 20.4
36a 7.5 959 879 0.50 57.3 506 110 1.03 16.0 50 96 36 6.9 520 14.4 0.69 3.05 76.0 0.15 37.2
36b 7.5 968 898 0.58 58.2 522 118 2.32 16.0 47 92 35 6.7 496 14.6 0.68 3.55 76.3 0.15 38.9
37a 7.6 740 664 0.51 64.0 380 43 5.28 20.6 41 68 32 10.2 382 17.8 0.71 2.37 73.2 0.18 43.0
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:49–65 57
123
samples and plotted points fall in the region 2. In majority
of the samples (74%), strong acids (SO4 ? Cl) exceed
weak acids (HCO3) and plotted points fall in the region 4.
In 26% of mine water samples, weak acids exceed strong
acids and plotted points fall in zone 3. Plotted points of
63% samples fall in the zone 6; indicating non-carbonate
hardness exceeds 50%. In about 21% samples, carbonate
hardness (secondary salinity) exceeds 50%, while in three
water samples carbonate alkali (primary alkalinity) exceeds
50% and plotted points fall in the region 5 and 8, respec-
tively. Plotted points of 11 samples (12%) fall in the field 9,
which indicate water of an intermediate (mixed) chemical
character and no one cation–anion pair exceeds 50%. The
trilinear plot reveals that mine water of the studied area is
Table 2 continued
Samplesite
pH EC TDS F- Cl- HCO3- SO4
2- NO3- Silica Ca2? Mg2? Na? K? TH %Na SAR RSC MH KI PI
37b 7.7 792 690 0.55 64.4 399 48 4.42 21.5 43 68 31 10.5 387 17.3 0.69 2.63 72.3 0.17 43.0
38a 7.9 997 897 0.98 61.0 532 79 4.51 27.4 49 96 39 8.5 517 15.6 0.75 3.50 76.4 0.16 38.6
38b 7.6 1,025 960 0.95 60.6 585 66 2.06 28.3 53 112 40 10.8 593 14.5 0.71 3.60 77.7 0.15 35.6
39a 7.9 1,332 1,138 0.83 44.8 250 575 6.19 25.4 104 98 25 9.6 663 9.1 0.42 -2.58 60.8 0.08 21.7
39b 8.5 1,201 1,107 0.59 18.2 208 624 0.23 16.8 136 71 25 6.8 632 9.1 0.43 -2.94 46.3 0.09 21.4
40 8.4 1,642 1,438 0.55 19.6 267 806 0.22 17.4 182 104 31 10.1 882 8.3 0.45 -4.50 48.5 0.08 18.1
41 8.1 1,106 1,080 1.40 58.3 460 306 4.07 23.9 84 96 34 10.9 605 12.7 0.60 1.45 65.3 0.12 31.1
42 7.2 1,402 923 0.98 56.8 296 260 42.81 33.8 84 98 40 10.6 613 14.1 0.70 -1.33 65.8 0.14 28.2
43 8.1 1,256 1,038 0.73 85.9 321 378 7.52 33.4 78 85 37 11.6 544 14.9 0.69 -0.23 64.2 0.15 31.2
44 7.9 1,065 1,000 2.48 99.3 303 342 3.77 23.1 81 87 47 12.5 560 17.4 0.86 -0.68 63.9 0.18 32.3
45 8.5 1,156 1,034 0.37 32.1 204 546 0.32 19.7 129 63 32 8.4 581 12.1 0.58 -2.50 44.6 0.12 24.8
46a 7.7 1,065 949 0.45 28.2 117 550 0.12 19.4 145 45 36 7.3 547 13.8 0.67 -3.57 33.8 0.14 23.6
46b 8.0 983 731 1.00 142.0 177 176 3.58 12.6 52 24 131 11.4 229 56.7 3.77 0.60 43.2 1.25 72.1
46c 7.8 1,014 847 0.93 78.7 59 466 5.70 12.1 122 60 36 7.4 552 13.7 0.67 -4.58 44.8 0.14 20.2
47a 7.6 867 747 0.15 19.2 33 485 0.67 16.3 119 32 35 6.2 429 16.4 0.74 -3.76 30.7 0.18 22.4
47b 6.9 812 696 0.74 1.3 62 443 0.04 14.7 98 50 21 4.9 451 10.3 0.43 -3.51 45.7 0.10 19.4
47c 7.7 817 728 0.54 17.2 78 446 0.03 15.4 97 49 21 4.9 444 10.5 0.43 -3.18 45.4 0.10 20.9
47d 8.1 803 718 0.85 17.2 74 435 0.04 15.1 97 49 23 6.2 444 11.6 0.47 -3.25 45.4 0.11 21.3
48 8.2 857 682 0.41 11.0 125 341 0.10 15.4 116 35 34 4.5 434 15.5 0.71 -2.30 33.2 0.17 28.7
49 6.4 793 775 0.61 17.0 108 443 1.01 17.5 125 46 14 3.1 502 6.4 0.27 -3.26 37.8 0.06 18.2
50 6.2 865 713 1.04 33.6 70 408 9.55 17.5 103 43 23 5.4 434 11.6 0.48 -3.21 40.8 0.12 21.4
51a 7.4 1,325 1,284 0.80 72.4 325 545 5.48 30.2 140 102 44 19.2 769 13.5 0.69 -2.42 54.6 0.12 24.4
51b 7.1 1,044 952 0.78 24.6 183 474 13.71 32.0 121 64 25 14.3 566 11.4 0.46 -2.69 46.6 0.10 22.8
52a 7.7 1,653 1,562 1.17 93.6 405 612 22.19 37.9 164 132 61 33.2 953 15.5 0.86 -2.95 57.0 0.14 24.1
52b 8.1 1,522 1,447 0.82 7.5 535 554 16.38 25.8 105 120 64 19.0 756 17.8 1.01 1.15 65.3 0.18 32.1
53 7.8 1,064 1,022 1.00 35.8 253 472 16.78 17.9 100 87 25 14.0 608 10.6 0.44 -1.97 58.9 0.09 23.6
54 6.7 911 677 0.69 1.7 51 414 35.75 13.5 90 43 21 6.1 402 11.8 0.46 -3.20 44.1 0.11 20.4
55 7.8 1,305 964 0.74 25.2 545 129 26.78 17.2 93 45 76 6.8 417 29.4 1.62 4.74 44.4 0.40 54.0
56 8.1 1,031 945 0.63 63.6 576 63 15.32 9.9 46 121 38 12.6 612 13.9 0.67 3.25 81.3 0.13 34.0
57a 7.8 766 687 0.58 67.5 295 128 9.01 17.5 49 76 34 10.9 435 16.8 0.71 0.45 71.9 0.17 36.1
57b 8.0 747 705 1.23 51.7 412 44 4.42 14.0 43 73 52 10.9 408 23.8 1.12 2.64 73.7 0.28 46.7
58 7.9 802 744 0.92 48.0 434 66 7.80 21.9 49 43 66 8.1 299 34.0 1.66 4.10 59.1 0.48 62.6
59 7.6 507 437 1.19 35.7 212 61 11.65 15.5 36 28 32 5.4 205 27.2 0.97 1.41 56.2 0.34 59.3
60 8.3 1,348 1,024 4.46 61.9 642 7.72 6.38 22.8 6 14 251 7.6 73 88.4 12.82 9.79 79.4 7.52 114.5
61 8.3 897 871 0.83 63.3 525 18 15.27 32.3 26 27 156 7.2 176 66.5 5.12 6.83 63.1 1.93 94.3
62 8.6 951 904 0.68 37.9 567 28 5.60 28.8 20 17 195 3.4 120 78.1 7.75 8.09 58.4 3.54 106.0
63 8.6 1,246 1,166 0.76 29.8 732 42 4.67 29.2 93 4.8 226 3.6 253 66.3 6.18 9.47 8.1 1.95 89.3
64a 8.0 814 693 0.44 64.7 338 78.5 12.42 18.9 52 57 64 7.1 364 28.9 1.46 1.87 64.4 0.38 51.0
64b 8.2 950 816 0.54 55.4 299 213.1 10.89 20.4 73 74 63 7.1 487 23.1 1.24 0.04 62.6 0.28 39.7
65 8.0 1,116 937 0.62 64.1 521 82.1 3.87 21.6 66 79 92 6.3 490 29.8 1.81 3.60 66.4 0.41 50.2
66 7.6 969 939 1.23 22.1 611 22.6 39.22 19.0 9.8 58 171 4.5 263 58.9 4.59 7.36 90.7 1.41 83.5
Units: Concentration in mg L-1, except pH, EC (lS cm-1), SAR (meq l-1), RSC (meq l-1), PI (meq l-1), KI (meq l-1) and MH (%)
TH total hardness, MH magnesium hazard, SAR sodium adsorption ratio, RSC residual sodium carbonate, KI Kelley index, PI permeability index
58 Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:49–65
123
essentially Ca–Mg–SO4 and Ca–Mg–HCO3 type water
except a few samples of Na–HCO3 type.
Trace element chemistry
Table 3 shows concentration of 21 trace metals analysed in
42 mine water samples collected from different mines of
Jharia coalfield. With a few exceptions, trace metal con-
centrations did not exceed the permissible limits specified
by the World Health Organization (WHO 1997) and Indian
Drinking Water Standards (BIS 1991). However, concen-
trations of Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Cu were above the desirable
limit of the WHO (1997) and Indian Drinking Water
Standard (BIS 1991) at some sites. The amount of Fe
ranged from 143 to 855 lg L-1, exceeding the desirable
limit of 300 lg L-1 in 73% of mine water samples; how-
ever, it was below the maximum permissible limit of
1,000 lg L-1 (BIS 1991). Concentration of Mn varied
between 4.5 and 1,200 lg L-1 (avg. 152 lg L-1), excee-
ded the permissible limit of 500 lg L-1 in six mine water
samples (14%). The amount of Pb detected ranged from 7.6
to 35.9 lg L-1, well below the Indian permissible limit of
50 lg L-1. The amount of highly toxic metals, such as Cd,
As, and Se, was also found to be well within the specified
limit of Indian Drinking Water Standards (BIS 1991).
Concentrations of Pb and As exceed the limit of 10 lg L-1
of WHO (1997) in 73 and 12% of the analysed mine water
samples, respectively. Concentration of Ni also exceeds the
WHO limit of 20 lg L-1 in 21% of the mine water sam-
ples. Boron concentrations ranged from 14 to 77 lg L-1
(avg. 33 lg L-1), below the drinking water desirable limit
of 300 lg L-1. Concentration of Ba ranged from 17 to
2,116 lg L-1 (avg. 227 lg L-1), exceed the WHO speci-
fied limit of 700 lg L-1 in 14% of the mine water samples.
Concentrations of other measured metals in majority of the
mine water samples were found well below the desirable/
permissible levels recommended for the drinking water.
The water that contained higher concentrations of trace
metals (i.e., Fe, Mn, Pb, Ni, Ba) would require treatment
before domestic and irrigation use.
Water quality assessment
The data obtained by geochemical analyses were evaluated
in the terms of its suitability for drinking, irrigation, live-
stock and industrial uses.
Suitability for drinking and livestock uses
To asses the suitability for drinking and public health
purposes, the hydro-chemical parameters of the mine water
of the study area were compared with the prescribed limit
of WHO (1997) and Indian Standard for Drinking Water
(BIS 1991). Table 4 shows that most of the mine water of
the study area is not suitable for direct use in drinking and
domestic purposes and need treatment before utilization.
TDS, total hardness (TH) and SO4 are the major objec-
tionable parameters in this water. Carrol (1962) proposed
four classes of water as fresh (\1,000 mg L-1), brackish
(1,000–10,000 mg L-1), saline (10,000–100,000 mg L-1)
and brine ([100,000 mg L-1) based on TDS. TDS of 64%
of the analysed mine water samples is falling in the
Fig. 5 Piper’s trilinear diagram
showing the relationship
between dissolved ions and
water types
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:49–65 59
123
category of fresh and 36% in the category of brackish
water. TDS concentration exceeds the desirable limit of
500 mg L-1 in 96% and maximum permissible limit of
1,000 mg L-1 in 36% of the mine water samples.
Water hardness is the property attributed to the presence
of alkaline earths in solution. On the basis of hardness,
water can be classified as soft (\75 mg L-1), moderately
hard (75–150 mg L-1), hard (150–300 mg L-1) and very
Table 3 Trace element chemistry of mine water of Jharia coalfield
Sample site Li Be B V Cr Mn Fe Ni Co Cu Zn As Se Rb Sr Mo Ag Cd Sb Ba Pb
1 22.1 0.03 27 2.1 10.5 17.3 553 31.1 2.2 11.7 34 0.9 3.3 6.9 298 4.2 0.15 0.06 0.45 47 18.7
2 23.2 BDL 31 2.2 10.4 24.4 547 30.7 1.5 10.1 58 0.9 1.8 7.0 287 6.0 0.14 0.08 0.40 44 18.3
3 23.7 0.05 26 1.3 5.4 12.5 274 7.2 0.3 7.3 442 1.0 0.7 6.0 224 1.3 0.06 0.41 0.10 55 9.9
4 4.9 0.02 15 2.8 5.3 10.9 241 9.5 0.3 15.4 18 1.3 0.9 4.0 183 3.4 0.10 0.06 0.14 37 10.3
6 43.8 0.03 28 1.5 7.1 16.0 502 14.4 0.5 33.7 88 23.6 2.0 8.8 616 4.6 1.11 0.23 0.26 100 15.0
7a 48.6 0.05 19 1.3 6.8 10.3 442 19.4 0.5 60.9 109 15.4 1.3 9.4 427 19.8 0.85 0.37 0.18 53 15.4
8a 25.3 0.71 49 1.7 6.5 652.8 765 52.0 4.4 28.9 208 6.8 3.6 16.4 558 2.7 2.51 0.42 0.16 46 13.4
10 22.4 0.09 32 1.4 5.9 20.9 605 17.3 0.7 76.8 69 2.8 0.8 11.3 308 5.1 0.54 0.32 0.24 35 10.9
13 15.3 0.16 26 1.2 5.5 49.5 508 20.6 0.7 11.4 64 0.5 0.8 11.5 422 1.7 0.23 0.16 0.09 36 11.2
14a 30.9 0.04 37 1.4 6.3 7.4 401 11.5 0.4 12.5 35 0.6 1.1 10.9 273 3.7 0.13 0.24 0.39 44 10.5
15 38.1 BDL 38 1.9 9.9 579.5 471 14.4 2.7 12.7 18 0.9 3.8 9.7 224 2.1 0.21 0.03 0.13 69 19.1
16a 60.2 BDL 33 2.3 10.1 13.6 481 15.2 0.5 14.7 24 0.6 3.3 10.5 323 1.7 0.15 0.05 0.18 40 23.8
17 27.1 0.05 29 1.5 5.4 8.3 398 10.5 0.4 10.6 18 0.6 1.3 10.1 254 1.3 0.07 0.04 0.10 41 10.4
19 35.2 0.03 25 1.2 7.6 6.3 420 12.1 0.9 12.3 18 0.8 4.2 25.1 197 30.0 0.09 0.18 0.13 31 7.8
21 39.2 0.18 41 2.5 10.0 41.6 855 21.2 0.7 27.6 45 0.6 0.5 9.2 188 11.1 0.12 3.24 0.26 41 33.8
23 55.0 0.09 32 0.9 4.9 85.3 410 16.3 0.9 7.2 34 0.3 1.0 28.7 282 1.3 0.08 0.15 0.08 17 11.0
26 10.0 0.08 21 1.1 5.3 14.3 386 12.3 0.4 7.0 64 0.3 1.8 15.3 253 1.2 0.10 0.20 0.12 27 10.0
30a 55.4 0.03 40 1.4 5.3 13.2 371 9.6 0.3 5.5 21 0.4 1.2 24.2 260 1.3 0.09 0.05 0.09 30 9.2
31a 38.3 0.05 42 1.8 10.0 51.3 558 17.7 1.2 12.4 20 0.6 2.7 8.9 239 2.2 1.20 0.04 0.17 29 18.3
32a 36.0 0.13 36 1.8 9.4 54.4 449 10.8 0.6 7.6 14 1.7 3.0 7.0 353 1.7 1.09 0.02 0.09 115 18.3
33a 28.7 0.04 17 1.1 5.4 4.5 226 7.0 0.2 8.7 43 0.5 0.9 6.4 281 1.9 0.43 0.03 0.62 1,537 7.7
34a 42.7 0.03 28 1.7 9.5 50.1 303 11.2 0.5 12.0 13 0.4 0.3 5.4 840 2.2 3.13 0.04 0.16 148 17.2
35a 38.7 0.05 52 1.9 11.4 187.1 631 17.7 1.0 9.5 22 1.0 2.3 10.9 339 3.1 10.04 0.10 0.18 35 20.6
36a 24.6 0.04 26 1.5 5.0 17.9 284 8.2 0.3 7.6 13 0.9 3.1 5.2 417 2.0 0.56 0.05 0.19 113 7.7
37a 36.1 0.04 21 1.1 4.9 6.3 226 7.3 0.2 7.9 85 0.6 1.7 9.5 504 1.8 0.55 0.04 0.12 2,116 10.1
38a 20.2 0.04 20 2.4 5.2 13.3 294 9.3 0.3 11.0 1,294 0.5 1.7 4.7 815 0.8 0.59 0.02 0.13 152 9.7
39a 78.1 BDL 44 1.1 5.3 10.1 517 15.5 0.6 8.2 25 0.4 1.9 39.3 315 1.5 0.07 0.38 0.08 31 8.2
43 85.8 0.08 77 3.0 10.3 20.9 476 24.1 0.4 44.6 46 0.9 5.2 21.7 272 3.4 0.19 1.74 0.25 64 35.9
46a 13.6 0.17 26 1.0 5.7 151.3 626 32.7 2.0 4.6 83 0.4 3.4 21.1 238 1.1 0.50 0.14 0.06 28 8.6
47b 16.0 0.04 20 0.9 4.8 697.4 423 16.0 2.3 5.0 23 0.2 1.5 12.3 320 0.8 0.06 0.07 0.04 33 8.5
49 10.0 0.09 41 4.2 4.7 594.0 417 13.5 1.3 9.2 25 2.2 1.9 43.6 352 1.7 0.05 0.11 0.24 48 7.6
51b 69.2 0.03 70 3.6 9.5 96.0 547 25.4 1.1 22.8 91 1.9 0.2 35.1 335 2.1 0.27 0.05 0.21 49 19.6
52a 58.5 0.07 59 4.2 10.5 295.7 524 24.7 1.3 12.4 26 1.2 1.9 27.3 571 2.9 0.19 0.13 0.24 78 19.8
53 51.6 0.13 37 3.2 12.9 8.6 427 24.2 0.4 19.5 934 1.1 2.9 24.1 241 2.3 0.23 0.24 0.43 40 25.6
54 11.4 0.06 14 1.5 5.7 1,200.1 393 84.0 20.1 7.9 69 1.8 2.9 14.1 323 0.7 0.16 0.39 0.12 28 11.0
55 17.0 0.04 24 3.2 7.1 29.8 277 17.4 0.5 16.4 88 14.1 3.1 11.4 557 4.7 4.12 0.19 0.24 112 16.1
58 41.9 0.13 48 1.4 12.3 128.6 496 19.2 0.8 81.9 297 48.3 3.0 16.8 401 5.5 2.06 0.70 0.62 754 20.9
59 11.5 0.03 28 4.2 7.4 985.2 298 18.5 0.4 12.3 54 7.1 3.5 14.7 185 7.8 0.58 0.44 0.30 147 16.2
61 52.6 0.04 29 2.5 5.1 31.2 175 5.6 0.3 8.6 38 1.1 0.7 11.1 350 106.2 0.05 0.43 4.71 1,259 7.9
62 8.4 0.03 23 1.9 5.3 6.2 143 5.9 0.1 30.8 27 0.9 2.3 4.5 882 2.1 0.05 0.03 2.16 718 11.4
63 8.1 0.10 32 2.2 9.6 5.0 241 9.0 0.2 21.9 17 1.9 1.9 5.7 211 13.9 0.11 0.07 0.11 275 17.6
64 11.6 0.05 30 2.3 6.7 142.3 391 16.6 0.5 36.5 51 16.8 1.8 14.1 649 7.0 13.62 0.16 0.46 826 16.7
Unit: Concentration in lg L-1, BDL below detection limit (0.005 lg L-1 for Be)
60 Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:49–65
123
hard ([300 mg L-1) water (Sawyer and McCarty 1967).
The hardness of the analysed mine water samples varied
from 73 to 962 mg L-1 (avg. 525 mg L-1), indicating soft
to very hard types of water. The data indicate that 97% of
the mine water samples have TH values higher than
300 mg L-1, which is the desirable limit and 33% samples
exceed the maximum permissible limit of 600 mg L-1
(BIS 1991). Hardness has no known adverse effect on
health, but it can prevent the formation of lather with soap
and increases the boiling point of the water. The high TH
may cause precipitation of calcium carbonate and encrus-
tation on water supply distribution systems. Long-term
consumption of extremely hard water might lead to an
increased incidence of urolithiasis, anencephaly, parental
mortality, some types of cancer and cardio-vascular dis-
orders (Agrawal and Jagetia 1997; Durvey et al. 1991).
Among the cations, Na? is the most important ion for
human health and a higher sodium intake may cause
hypertension, congenial heart disease, nervous disorder and
kidney problems. The recommended limit for sodium con-
centration in drinking water is 200 mg L-1 (BIS 1991).
Concentrations of sodium are within the prescribed limit in
the mine water samples except two samples of Bhatdee and
Amlabad mines. Calcium and magnesium are the essential
nutrients for plants and animals and they play an important
role in the development of bone, nervous system and cell.
One possible adverse effect from ingesting high concentra-
tion of Ca2? for long periods of time may be an increased risk
Table 4 Statistical summary of measured parameters, compared with WHO and Indian standards for drinking water
Parameters Minimum Maximum Average SD WHO (1997) BIS (1991) IS:10500
Maximum desirable Highest permissible Maximum desirable Highest permissible
Major ions (mg L-1)
pH 6.2 8.6 7.7 0.5 7.0–8.5 6.5–9.2 6.5–8.5 8.5–9.2
EC 507 1,653 1,052 249 750 1,500 – –
TDS 437 1,593 941 250 500 1,500 500 2,000
F- 0.15 4.46 0.80 0.55 0.6–0.9 1.5 1.0 1.5
Cl- 1.3 258.9 46.7 33.6 250 600 250 1,000
HCO3- 33 732 321 175 200 600 200 600
SO42- 7.7 806 326 203 200 600 200 400
NO3- 0.03 82.0 9.7 14.3 – 50 45 100
Silica 9.9 41.4 19.3 6.2 – – – –
Ca2? 6.0 182 86 37 75 200 75 200
Mg2? 4.8 158 75 34 30 150 30 100
Na? 14 251 48 43 50 200 – –
K? 2.5 33.2 8.2 4.6 100 200 – –
TH 73 962 525 184 100 500 300 600
Trace element (lg L-1)
B 14 77 33.2 13.6 500 1,000 5,000
Cr 4.7 12.9 7.4 2.4 50 50 No relaxation
Mn 4.5 1,200 152 282 500 100 300
Fe 143 855 428 151 300 300 1,000
Ni 5.6 84 18.3 13.6 20 – –
Co 0.1 20.1 1.3 3.1 – – –
Cu 4.6 81.9 18.7 18 2,000 50 1,500
Zn 12.8 1,294 113.4 243.4 4,000 5,000 15,000
As 0.2 48.3 3.9 8.7 10 50 No relaxation
Se 0.2 5.2 2.1 1.2 10 10 No relaxation
Cd 0.02 3.2 0.28 0.5 3.0 10 No relaxation
Pb 7.6 35.9 14.8 6.7 10 50 No relaxation
Ba 17 2,116 227 449 700
Ag 0.05 13.62 1.11 2.61 –
Sb 0.04 4.71 0.37 0.76 50
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:49–65 61
123
of kidney stones. Concentration of Ca2? and Mg2? is
exceeding the desirable limits of 75 and 30 mg L-1 in
majority of the mine water samples. However, Ca2? con-
centration is within the maximum permissible limit of
200 mg L-1 and Mg2? exceeded the limit of 100 mg L-1 in
22% of the analysed mine water samples (BIS 1991).
Concentration of sulphate in 43% of the mine water
samples exceeds the maximum permissible limit of
400 mg L-1, restricting direct use for drinking and domestic
uses. Higher concentration of sulphate in drinking water is
associated with respiratory problems (Subba 1993). High
SO42- concentration may have a laxative effect with excess
of Mg2? in water. Water with 200–400 mg L-1 sulphate has
a bitter taste and those with 1,000 mg L-1 or more of SO42-
may cause intestinal disorder. Sulphate causes odor and
corrosion of sewer in anaerobic conditions because it gets
converted to hydrogen sulphide. It may also cause corrosion
of metals in the distribution system, particularly in water
having low alkalinity. Concentrations of F- and NO3- are
found within the permissible limit of 1.5 and 45 mg L-1
except in three and two mine water samples, respectively. The
trace metal analysis shows that in many mine water samples,
the concentration of certain trace metals (Fe, Mn, Pb, Ni) was
present above the desirable level recommended for the
drinking water by Indian Standard Institution (BIS 1991).
Concentrations of other metal in most cases are found well
within the threshold values.
Water for livestock should be of high quality to prevent
livestock diseases, salt imbalance, or poisoning by toxic
constituents. Most of the water quality variables for live-
stock are the same as for human drinking water resources,
although the total permissible levels of total suspended
solid and salinity may be higher. Mine water discharges in
natural drains serve as drinking water source for livestock
at many places. The data in Ayers and Wascot (1985) and
Shuval et al. (1986) indicate that water having salinity
\1,500 mg L-1 and Mg \250 mg L-1 is suitable for
drinking by most livestock. Most of the mine water dis-
charged from the area meet these standards and can be used
for livestock after preliminary treatment and filtration.
Suitability for irrigation use
A large quantity of mine water generated and discharged
during mining operations in the Jharia coalfield can be
utilized for irrigation in nearby villages. However, mine
water for irrigation is valuable only when its quality sat-
isfies the needs of soil and plants of the area for normal
growth and crop production. Electrical conductivity and
Na? are the important parameters to assess the water
quality for irrigation use. The high salt content in irrigation
water causes an increase in soil solution osmotic pressure.
The salts besides affecting the growth of the plants directly,
also affect the soil structure, permeability and aeration,
which indirectly affect the plant growth. To assess the
suitability of mine water for irrigation use, the parameters
such as—sodium absorption ratio (SAR), percent sodium
(%Na), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), permeability
index (PI), Kelley index (KI) and magnesium hazard (MH)
have been computed by following equations:
SAR ¼ Na= CaþMgð Þ=2½ �0:5 ðiÞNa% ¼ Naþ K= CaþMgþ Naþ Kð Þ � 100 ðiiÞRSC ¼ CO3 þ HCO3ð Þ � Ca þ Mgð Þ ðiiiÞPI ¼ Na þ pHCO3ð Þ= CaþMgþ Nað Þ � 100 ðivÞ
KI ¼ Naþ= Ca2þ þMg2þ� �ðvÞ
MH ¼ Mg= CaþMgð Þ � 100 ðviÞ
All concentrations are in meq l-1.
A high salt concentration (high EC) in water leads to
formation of saline soil, while high sodium concentration
leads to development of an alkaline soil. The sodium or
alkali hazard is determined by the absolute and relative
concentration of cations and expressed in terms of sodium
adsorption ratio (SAR). The calculated value of SAR in the
mine water of the study area ranges from 0.27 to 12.8 (avg.
1.14). The plot of data on US salinity diagram, in which the
EC is taken as salinity hazard and SAR as alkalinity hazard
shows that majority of the water samples fall in the cate-
gory C3S1, indicating high salinity and low alkali water
(Fig. 6). High salinity water (C3) cannot be used on soils
Sod
ium
Ads
orpt
ion
Rat
io(S
AR
)
100 250 750 2250
S1
S2
S3
S4
Low
Med
ium
Hig
hV
.Hig
hS
OD
IUM
(ALK
ALI
)H
AZ
AR
DSALINITY HAZARD
C1 C2 C3 C4Low Medium High V.High
Electrical Conductivity (µS/cm)
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
Fig. 6 U.S. salinity diagram for classification of irrigation waters
(after Richards 1954)
62 Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:49–65
123
with restricted drainage and requires special management
of salinity control. Such water can be used to irrigate salt-
tolerant and semi-tolerant crops under favourable drainage
conditions. Plotted points of five water samples fall in the
C2S1, two in the C3S2 and one in C3S3 zones in salinity
diagram. Medium salinity and low sodium (C2S1) water
can be used for irrigation in most soils and crops with little
danger of the development of harmful levels of
exchangeable sodium. Medium alkali (S2) water will
present an appreciable sodium hazard in fine textured soils
having high cation exchange capacity especially under low
leaching conditions. This water can be used on coarse
textured or organic soils with good permeability. High
alkali (S3) water may produce harmful levels of
exchangeable sodium in soils and will require special soil
management i.e., good drainage, high leaching, and organic
matter addition.
Percent sodium (%Na) is widely used for evaluating the
suitability of water quality for irrigation (Wilcox 1955).
High sodium irrigation water causes exchange of Na? in
water for Ca2? and Mg2? in soil and reduces the perme-
ability and eventually results in soil with poor internal
drainage. Hence, air and water circulation is restricted
during wet conditions and such soils are usually hard when
dry (Collins and Jenkins 1996; Saleh et al. 1999). The
Indian Standard (BIS 1991) recommends a maximum
sodium percentage (%Na) of 60% for irrigation water. The
percent sodium in the study area ranged between 6.3 and
88.4% with an average value of 18.9%. The plot of ana-
lytical data on the Wilcox (1955) diagram relating EC and
%Na shows that the majority of the plotted points (96%)
fall in the excellent to good and good to permissible zones,
which suggests that mine water can be used for irrigation
(Fig. 7). In three mine water samples, percent sodium
values exceed the recommended limit of 60%.
The quantity of bicarbonate and carbonate in excess of
alkaline earths (Ca2? ? Mg2?) expressed as residual
sodium carbonate (RSC) also influences the suitability of
water for irrigation (Eaton 1950; Richards 1954). The
anions HCO3- and CO3
- in the irrigation water tend to
precipitate calcium and magnesium ions in the soil
resulting in increase in the proportion of the sodium ions
(Karanth 1989). RSC was considered to be indicative of the
sodicity hazard of water. Irrigation water having RSC value
[5 meq l-1 is considered as harmful to the growth of
plants, while water with RSC values above 2.5 meq l-1 are
not considered suitable for irrigation. In most of the ana-
lysed mine water samples, RSC values were below
2.5 meq l-1 and found suitable for irrigation use. However,
RSC values are higher than the 2.5 and 5.0 meq l-1 in 23
and 7% of the analysed mine water samples, respectively,
suggesting marginally suitable to unsuitable for irrigation.
Soil permeability is affected by long-term use of water
rich in Na?, Ca2?, Mg2?, and HCO3. Doneen (1964)
classified irrigation water in three PI classes. Class-I and
Class-II water types are suitable for irrigation with 75% or
more of maximum permeability, while Class-III type of
water, with 25% of maximum permeability, are unsuitable
for irrigation. Plotting our data on Doneen’s chart indicate
that the mine water of the area fall in Class-I and Class-II,
implying that the water is good for irrigation use with 75%
or more of maximum permeability (Domenico and Sch-
wartz 1990). Only two mine water samples belong to
Class-III of unsuitable category (Fig. 8).
Kelley index (KI) and magnesium ratio (MR) are also
used in classification of water for irrigation. Water with
[1.0 Kelley’s ratio indicates an excess level of sodium and
is unsuitable for irrigation (Kelley 1946; Paliwal 1967).
Water with Kelley’s ratio of \1.0 is only considered suit-
able for irrigation. Kelley’s ratio in the Jharia mine water
varied from 0.06 to 7.61 (avg. 0.35). Ninety-six percent of
the analysed mine water samples record KI value\1.0 and
thus suitable for irrigation. The magnesium ratio is the
excess amount of magnesium over calcium and magne-
sium. The excess of Mg affects the quality of soil, resulting
in poor agricultural returns. A magnesium ratio [50% is
considered as harmful and unsuitable for irrigation (Sza-
bolcs and Darab 1964; Sreedevi 2004). The magnesium
ratio in the Jharia mine water samples varies between 8.1
and 90.7 with an average value of 58.2. The magnesium
Exc
elle
ntto
good
Goo
dt o
perm
issi
ble
Dou
tful t
oun
s ui ta
ble
Permissible to doutful
Unsuitable
Doutful to unsuitable
Uns
uita
ble
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Electrical Conductivity (EC) µS/cm
0
20
40
60
80
100
Per
cent
Sod
ium
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Total Concentration (meq/l)
Fig. 7 Plot of sodium percent versus electrical conductivity (after
Wilcox 1955)
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:49–65 63
123
ratio of 65% mine water samples was found above 50 and
based on this criteria, the mine water of the study area can
be categorized as unsuitable for irrigation.
Suitability for industrial uses
The water quality requirement for industries varies consid-
erably between areas, kind of industries and processes. One
useful parameter to assess the quality for industrial purposes
is the saturation index (SI) of minerals (Rhades and Berstein
1971). The plot of saturation index of calcite (SIc) versus
saturation index of dolomite (SId) demonstrates that most of
the mine water samples are supersaturated with respect to
both calcite and dolomite and the SId values are higher than
SIc values (Fig. 9). The supersaturation may cause the pre-
cipitation of minerals and restricts the safe use of water for
industrial purpose particularly in electrical power stations,
industrial boiler houses, etc. The high TDS, TH and SO42-
concentration in majority of the mine water samples of the
area make this water unsafe for textiles, paper and allied
industries. Food industries such as dairying, brewing and
carbonated beverage canning must comply with drinking
water standards with disinfections and treatment before use.
Conclusion
The mine water of the Jharia coalfield is mildly acidic to
alkaline in nature. The chemistry of the mine water is
dominated by Mg2? and Ca2? in cationic and SO42- and
HCO3- in anionic composition. Weathering and ion
exchange processes are the major controlling factors for
mine water chemistry. High concentration of SO42- in the
mine water of Jharia coalfield may be attributed to
weathering of pyrites associated with the coal seams and
shales. High concentration of Mg2? and high Mg2?/Ca2?
ratio suggest weathering of ferromagnesian minerals.
Ca–Mg–SO4 and Ca–Mg–HCO3- are the dominant hyd-
rochemical facies in the Jharia mine water. Higher con-
centration of EC, TDS, TH, SO42-, Fe, Mn, Ni and Pb in a
number of mine water samples as such make it unsafe for
drinking uses. The water can be used for domestic uses
after treatment and disinfection. The quality assessment for
irrigation use shows that mine water of the area is good to
permissible quality and can be used in irrigation. However,
high salinity, RSC and Mg-hazard values at some sites
restrict the suitability of water for irrigation uses and
demands suitable water treatment and soil management
plan for the area.
Acknowledgments Authors are thankful to Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research, New Delhi for the financial support under
IAP mode of 11th Five Year Plan Project. AKS is grateful to Dr. T. B.
Singh, Dr. S. Singh, Dr. G. C. Mondal and other laboratory colleagues
of Geo-environment Division, CIMFR for his kind support and
encouragement to carryout the study. I extend my sincere thanks to
Dr. V. Balram and Dr. M. Satyanarayan, Scientists, NGRI, Hyderabad
for their help in geochemical analysis by ICP–MS.
CLASS - I
CLASS - IICLASS - III
25%
ofM
a xim
umP
erm
eabi
lity
75%
Max
imum
Per
mea
bilit
y
020406080100120
Permeability Index (PI)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50T
otal
Con
cent
ratio
nm
eq/l
Fig. 8 Classification of irrigation water based on the permeability
index (after Doneen 1964)
Cal
cite
Cal
cite
DolomiteDolomite
SaturationUndersaturation
Un
der
satu
rati
on
Sat
ura
tio
n
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
SI Calcite
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
SI D
olo
mit
e
Fig. 9 Plot of saturation indices (SI) of calcite (SIc) versus dolomite
(SId)
64 Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:49–65
123
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