Environmental Ethics ~ ‘The Discipline of Ethics’For syllabus and course resources,

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Bron TaylorThe University of Floridawww.ReligionandNature.com/bron

THE DISCIPLINE OF ETHICS

What is ethics?

Analysis of concepts such as "ought" "right" and "wrong", "good" and "bad", duty, responsibility, etc.

Inquiry into nature of morality or moral acts.

The search for the morally good life.

Two Main Branches

Normative Ethics

Non-Normative Non-Normative EthicsEthics

Normative Theories of ObligationIntroducing the Ethics Analysis Chart

Normative theories depend on many assumptions:

Nature of Reality – Metaphysics / Religion / Cosmology (on the chart)

Nature of Homo sapiens / Moral Anthropology

– whether there is or is not any "essential" immutable human nature

Epistemology– Understandings of how we know what we know

Nature of other organisms– pertains to moral considerability

Normative Theories of ObligationEpistemology

Induction Induction (empirical) (empirical) Deduction Deduction (based on (based on presuppositions)?presuppositions)?

Metaethical analysis of the ways people think Metaethical analysis of the ways people think about and justify their moral values:about and justify their moral values:

Naturalism Non-Cognitivism IntuitionismNaturalism Non-Cognitivism Intuitionism

Normative Theories of Obligation:

Consequentialist Consequentialist theories (aka

"Teleological theories") focus on "ends" (goals, conditions). • Examples: Natural Law theories (e.g.,

Aristotle/Aquinas)• Environmental ethics stressing the

protection of environmental processes (such as evolution) as the central goal

Normative Theories of Obligation: Deontological

Deontological theories focus on "means" (rules of action, duties)•Deontological ethics claim some

actions are right or wrong in and of themselves. (E.g., Kant)

Normative Theories of Obligation: Virtue Ethics

Virtue Ethics -- focus on traits or character: the good person can know and do the right thing.

Normative Applied Ethics

Applied Ethics: making moral judgments about actions and conditions

Three Principles that come into play

1) Rights 2) Justice 3) Beneficence

Applied Ethics: Rights

1) Rights (promoting autonomy/freedom)•Usually perceived to "trump" (take

priority over) justice & beneficence principles–negative: freedoms from...repression;

to life, liberty, pursuit of happiness.–positive: freedoms to...(food, clothing,

shelter, health care, education).

Applied Ethics: Justice

2) Justice -- (Rendering to each their due)•Penal Justice: the guilty get

punished.•Distributive justice: re. how

burdens and benefits, goods, services, preferred jobs and salaries are distributed.

Applied Ethics: Beneficence

3) Beneficence (concern for the commonweal)•Concerned with the common

good, and re. the obligation to promote good over evil.

•Here the concern is for norms of value: what is good? What is bad? What is the highest good?

Applied Ethics: Rules

From Rights, Justice and Beneficence Principles, people deduce more general rules

Environmental e.g.s:• Right to clean water/air. Don't violate

related laws.• Environmental justice. Don't make the poor

bear an undue burden of our society's pollution: distribute pollution sites in affluent as well as poor neighborhoods.

• Beneficence. Pursue an environment in which all species, including humans, can flourish.

Applied Ethics: Judgments

From Principles & Rules people make more specific judgments:

evaluations of conditions, and

action prohibitions and prescriptions

Applied Ethics: JudgmentsExamples:

– Rights e.g.: Coerced contraception violates human liberties.

– Justice e.g.: Environmental Justice requires affluent nations to limit their consumption and help pay for contraceptive services for the poor

– Beneficence e.g.: Garrett Hardin's argument that "lifeboat ethics" justify coercive measures to prevent immigration in the North and to promote contraception in the South.

Non-Normative Ethics (2 types)

“Metaethics”

“Descriptive ethics”

“Metathics” (non-normative)

analysis of concepts such as "ought" "right" and "wrong", "good" and "bad", duty, responsibility, etc.

analysis about how people come to, reason about, and justify their normative ethics.

» heavily dependent on Analytic Philosophy

Descriptive ethics (non-normative)

analysis of role of ethics in the social world

analysis of human "worldviews," narratives, customs, rites, and so on; the cultural carriers of moral notions and claims

»heavily dependent on the social science

End ‘the Discipline of Ethics’ (part I)End ‘the Discipline of Ethics’ (part I)

‘‘The Discipline of Ethics’ (part II):The Discipline of Ethics’ (part II):

. .. . an excursus on Rights, Justice, and Beneficence

Understanding these critical Understanding these critical ethical principlesethical principles

Rights are about the protection of an individual's interests, freedoms, etc.

Rights are entitlements to act, or to be acted toward, in some specific way. There are • - negative rights (freedom from some action by

others) and • - positive rights (others have a duty to provide

some form of aid).

Rights-Based TheoriesRights-Based Theories

United Nations endorses United Nations endorses positive rightspositive rights

Increasingly modern culture has recognized positive rights: to life (food, clothing, shelter, etc.).

- United Nations Declaration on Universal Human Rights.

Problems:• Rights lose their force when people feel exceptions

are morally justified, and most proposed rights seem to have exceptions.

Justice is about the distribution of society's burdens and benefits.

There are different principles underlying different conceptions of justice:

Usually inequalities are allowed when they are the result of relevant differences between persons.

Problem: what are relevant differences?

Justice-Based TheoriesJustice-Based Theories

Justice-Different Justice-Different understandingsunderstandings

Justice as Equality. There are no relevant differences between people, therefore all should share benefits / burdens equally.

• (Or limited equalitarian thought: all should be equal as far as subsistence needs being met before surplus goods are distributed on any other basis.)

Problem: people differ in all characteristics; and most believe that need, ability and effort are relevant characteristics.

Justice as Contribution (e.g., to the group, society, humanity).

Problem: But this can ignore human needs.

Justice as meeting needs: Socialism.

Premise: human potential is realized in creative work in co-operation with other people; it is not realized in consumption.

Therefore, work should be done according to one's creative abilities, and benefits distributed according to needs.

Problem: Such distribution erodes productive efficiency and can’t work given competitive human nature.

Moreover, with socialism the freedom to choose a vocation may be eroded, because you should do that which contributes most to others, rather than pursue one’s your own passions. (Of course, all societies have limited amounts of preferred jobs, so vocational choice is always limited.)

Justice as Freedom - Libertarianism & Anarchism:

A just society is one free of any coercion, where the freely entered contract is the only norm. (Rights = freedom from the coercion of others.)

Critique: Those without wealth or power enter any bargaining at a disadvantage so they cannot make choices with the same freedom as those already privileged.

Justice as Fairness -- Philosophical Liberalism:

Conflicts are to be resolved by procedures upon which rational people will agree

Basic principle: equal treatment.

Each person has a right to the most liberty compatible with the most liberty for all.

Justice as Fairness (cont.)

Socio-economic burdens/benefits ought to be distributed based on merit, as long as the competition is fair (i.e., as long as there is equal opportunity).

Critiques: It is not proven that disadvantaged persons will or should accept an procedural equality, which empirical evidence does not demonstrate as reality. I.e., why accept a hypothetical (and mythical) equality of opportunity, over a potential equality of condition.

Utilitarianism: Utilitarianism: An Influential Beneficence-Based An Influential Beneficence-Based ethicsethics

Maxim: Act to promote the Maxim: Act to promote the greatest aggregate ratio of good greatest aggregate ratio of good over evil (pleasure over pain) for over evil (pleasure over pain) for everyone concernedeveryone concerned

Utilitarianism is about Utilitarianism is about aggregate social benefitsaggregate social benefits

Morally right Morally right action, or a morally action, or a morally good society, good society, promotes the promotes the greatest possible greatest possible average average satisfactions of satisfactions of human beings. human beings.

This includes This includes economic factors as economic factors as well as less tangible well as less tangible ones such as well ones such as well being (however being (however defined) and defined) and happiness.happiness.

Utilitarianism’s Strengths:Utilitarianism’s Strengths: Egalitarian: all are to be considered in end of Egalitarian: all are to be considered in end of

happiness. Happiness ought not be at expense of happiness. Happiness ought not be at expense of other's misery.other's misery.

Its combination of egoism & altruism: reflects Its combination of egoism & altruism: reflects common sense.common sense.

Allows people to pursue their own interests as Allows people to pursue their own interests as well as the common good. well as the common good. • "Seeks greatest amount of individual liberty compatible "Seeks greatest amount of individual liberty compatible

with the greatest among of public liberty."with the greatest among of public liberty."

Utilitarianism assumes:Utilitarianism assumes:

costs/benefits are measurable.costs/benefits are measurable. all those affected are included in the all those affected are included in the

analysis.analysis. we can assign numerical values to we can assign numerical values to

intangibles such as beauty, health, & lifeintangibles such as beauty, health, & life we can predict consequenceswe can predict consequences

And Utilitarianism cannot decide whose And Utilitarianism cannot decide whose pleasure and pain counts. Whose does? pleasure and pain counts. Whose does? Only humans?Only humans?

Rights take precedence (if they are implicated)

Beneficence/utilitarian principles are usually seen as the least important ones

However, many believe utilitarian considerations can override other principles if the gains or the prevention of harm is important enough.

What are the priorities What are the priorities between Principles of between Principles of Rights, Justice, and Rights, Justice, and Beneficence?Beneficence?

REMEDIES to violations of rights or social justice

(Re)distributive Justice: redistribute burdens / benefits according to a given moral standard (e.g. economic equality, equal liberty, equal treatment [fair procedures]).

Retributive Justice: When perpetrator knowingly violates moral statute, if punishment is no greater than needed for deterrence.

Compensatory Justice: Theorists have different views about which conditions must be met

Compensatory Justice: 2 views about necessary conditions

1) Injurious action must be wrong or negligent; the person's injury 1) Injurious action must be wrong or negligent; the person's injury must be the real cause of the injury; and the person must have must be the real cause of the injury; and the person must have voluntarily inflicted the injury.voluntarily inflicted the injury.• Such conditions generally must be met in today's Such conditions generally must be met in today's

law.law.2) Compensation is due if real injury or real privilege is based on 2) Compensation is due if real injury or real privilege is based on

the past actions of one's group, otherwise injustice wins.the past actions of one's group, otherwise injustice wins.

For this class:For this class:

Is nature due compensatory, “restorative” action Is nature due compensatory, “restorative” action because humans have harmed her?because humans have harmed her?