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CHAPTER ONE

ENVIRONMENT DEFINED

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CHAPTER ONE

ENVIRONMENT DEFINED

The first chapter has three sections linking environment and environmental

philosophy. It looks into the definition, scope and comprehension of the nuances of

Nature and environment, and the relevance of philosophy to environmental studies.

The historical aspects of environmental awareness have also been taken into

consideration.

ENVIRONMENT AND NATURE: ARE THEY IDENTICAL OR

DIFFERENT

The word ‘Nature’ being the most un-definable word can never be

apprehended in its totality. None can understand Nature; all beings have to ‘bow’

down to Nature. In the ancient times, man realised that he is a part of Nature, but

now he is turning out to be an exploiter of Nature.

In philosophical phraseology, Nature needs a more profound, broad based

and fundamental comprehension. A first glimpse of meaning of Nature can be had

from the oldest book of hymns. Individual experiences of the ancient sages have

been relegated by word of mouth and passed throughout many generations. This

has been collected as Vedas or Book of Knowledge. Rich in expression of natural

beauty, these hymns are described with utmost sweetness and reverence. To this

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day, they stand unparalleled. Though symbolic, a thorough comprehension of these

symbols helps one in realising the nuances of Nature. They stand for the total

human experience and thus require astute assimilation and finer comprehension for

the modern man to decipher them.

Etymologically speaking, Nature is derived from the Latin word ‘natura’

meaning ‘to be born’. It is a Latin translation of the word ‘phyis’ from ‘phyein’

which means ‘to bring forth’. The dictionary meaning states that it is a phenomena

of the physical world collectively, including plants, animals, the landscape and

other features and products of the earth, as opposed to human creations1.

In all encompassing sense, Nature is equivalent of the material, physical and

natural world. It is a whole entity and as such is not made up of separable

classified parts; each element is co-dependent upon other element. Hence, in

ordinary parlance, Nature symbolizes all things original and rudimentary. We as

human beings are not only connected to one another but are also an extension of

Nature and all its living forces.

Natural history or natural philosophy was described by Francis Bacon as

“the great mother of the Sciences”, followed by Hobbes who gave a description of

1 <http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/nature>, accessed on 23.03.2014.

25

natural history as “the history of such facts, or effects of Nature, as have no

dependence on man’s will”2. This is another way to understand Nature.

Environment in Sanskrit is known as Paryavarana. It is basically all that

which surrounds us. The word ‘Environment’ is a derivative of the French word

‘virer’ meaning ‘to turn’, so ‘in/viron’ would imply ‘encircle’. Environment can be

explained as a multifarious set that comprises of physical, chemical, biological,

social and economical factors in which a living organism exists. Another definition

for environment is that it is the sum total of the stimulations which man receives

from his conception until his death3.

Environment comprises of both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living)

factors. It is not only the totality of physical aspects of water, land and air but also

the inter-relationships among themselves and with other living organisms including

humans. It ultimately relates to the milieu enclosing us from every side. In A.V.,

words such as Vritavrita, Abhivarah, Avritah, Parivrita relate to paryavarana4.

The circumstance that was in existence in various periods of time has a

bearing on the concept of environment. An environment is only an environment in

relation to something that it environs and is significant in so far as it interacts in

2 James Fisher and Sir Julian Huxley (Eds.), Nature – Earth Plants Animals, Macdonald & Co.(Publishers) Ltd.,

London, 1960. 3 Mahip Singh, Environmental Education, D.P.S Publishing House, Delhi, 2008, p.2. 4 Sashi Tiwari, Origin of Environmental Science from Vedas,

<http://www.sansrkit.nic.in/svimarsha/V2/c17.pdf>, accessed on 22.2.2012.

26

some way with that thing5. The immediate surroundings of human being can be

called as Environment and environment in its vastness is called as Nature. Human

beings’ actions affect the environment which in turn affect the Nature;

environment being a subset of Nature. Though perception of Nature differs for

different beings, but by all considerations, any disturbance befalling the

environment has a bearing on Nature. When we consider the entity in totality, it is

called as Nature and when we consider the entity in particularity, it can be called as

Environment. Thus, we can state that Environment is particularity or vyashti while

Nature is totality or sashti. If there is any difference between Nature and

Environment, the term environment is meaningful only in the context of the

immediate relationship Nature has with human beings. Finding no clear cut

differences ideologically, the difference between Nature and Environment is

unclear and hence not so serious matter needing further discussion.

NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL ENVIRONMENT

Man cannot control Nature but man controls his environment. The natural

environment is distinguished with built or man-made and as such artificial

environment. The artificial environment is made up areas and components strongly

influenced by human actions. A geographical area devoid of human impact can be

referred to as natural environment.

5 Wagner Philip, The Human Use of Earth, Collier-Macmillan Ltd, 3rd Edition, Philippines, 1973, p.12.

27

Accordingly one can consider the natural environment to have been created

without any influence of human activity and the artificial environment to have

been created due to human activity. Even here, there is a connection between the

individual and artificial environment in two aspects6.

1) There is contribution of the individual not only to construction but also

maintenance of the artificial environment.

2) Artificial environment contributes to the sustenance and protection of the

individual.

A completely natural or artificial environment is impossible. At present, it is

hard to comprehend natural environment devoid of human interception except for a

few exceptions of uninhabitable places such as barren land. Man adapts to Nature

but he has to depend on the natural processes for his survival. Hence, there can be

no absolutely artificial environment as man is liable to respond to the natural laws

governing the physical and biological systems7.

Taking into account the primitive ages when human civilization evolved on

Earth, human being was completely attuned to Nature. The archaic and medieval

human being lived in these natural surroundings using natural resources that were

at his disposal and etched out a simple living. The natural environment slowly got

6 Ibid., 7 Ian. L. McHarg, The place of nature in the city of man, Western man and Environmental Ethics, Ian.G.Barbour

(Ed.),Wesley Publishing Co.Inc., Philippines, 1973, p.176-177.

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converted into artificial when the natural surroundings came to be modified by him

to suit his ever-growing needs and deeds.

The balance in Nature was maintained so long as man’s usage of natural

resources was within specific boundaries. Presently, the indiscriminate usage of

natural resources has started influencing the dynamics of plant and animal life on

earth by altering their natural balance. Collis in his book, ‘The Triumph of Tree’

has referred to three eras namely Era of Mythology, Era of Economy and Era of

Ecology8. Each era has its own set of problems that need varied solutions. As

rightly pointed out by Collis, we are currently in the third era.

The natural environment has two components. The first one relates to the

natural systems and the second relates to the worldwide presence of natural

resources. Both these components exist exclusive to man’s activity and

intervention. Study of Nature is on the basis of the study of the environment. It is

not only descriptive but also prescriptive. It is descriptive in the sense that it

attempts to study the nature of the environment as it is. The study of Nature is also

prescriptive in the sense that it explains Nature as it ought to be in relation to the

human being or living being. There is an inseparable relation or what Ramanuja

calls Aprthak-siddhi9 between human being and Nature. By Aprthak-siddhi we

8 Wendell Berry, A Secular Pilgrimage, Western man and Environmental Ethics, Ian.G.Barbour (Ed.),

Op.Cit.,p.138.

Also See John Stewart Collis, The Triumph of the Tree, Cape publishers, Morrow-Sloane,1954. 9 Hiriyanna M, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 2000, p.398.

29

mean that there are two things which are related in such a way that one cannot

exist without the other. Similarly Nature and human beings are related in such a

way as human being cannot survive without Nature.

Environment has two parts consisting of both subjective and objective.

Objective part implies that which is outside human’s personality and subjective

implies that which is inside human beings’ personality referring to a man’s body,

mind and breath. Thus there are both outer determinants and inner determinants

that help in shaping human beings’ environment, which are called by Swami

Vivekananda as External and Internal Nature10, to be discussed later. One cannot

ignore, in this context, the Indian view of his belief especially Jainas, in the

existence of life in all of Nature. Environmental balance can be had only in the

context of man’s acceptance of this view. Human being is neither totally identical

with environment (Nature) nor radically different from Nature. This is one of the

metaphysical bases of accepting environmentalism in India. The view is what is

called bhedabheda vada or identity in difference11.

ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Philosophy is an objective inquiry into all aspects of one’s experience or

knowledge. It is a critical analysis of ideas and beliefs normally accepted and taken

10 Swami Vivekananda, Selection of Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Advaita Ashrama, Kolkata,1999,

p.334. 11 Hiriyanna M, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Op.Cit., p.323.

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for granted. It examines the fundamental questions, beliefs, values and assumptions

made by man in the way of action and holds forth as a solid anchor giving his life a

meaningful direction. The triangular sectors of ontology, epistemology and

axiology are the ways in which philosophy is studied. Philosophy is called ‘tattva

jnana’ in Indian terminology. ‘Tattva’, a Sanskrit word literally means ‘essential

nature of Ultimate Reality’ and ‘Jnana’ refers to ‘Knowledge’. Thus Indian

philosophy aims to impart proper know-how of the Ultimate Reality.

Simplistic definition of environmental philosophy is nurturing of wisdom

with a specific interest in the environment. Part of it is an exploration of what one

knows and believes about the environment. Modern man’s scientific quest is the

reason behind “Nature” to be studied as multi-environments. In fact the recognition

and characterisation of environment happen with the help of one’s sense organs,

initially separately and then collectively12. Thus, environmental philosophy helps

in assimilation and comprehension of this knowledge. Thus, it requires one to

develop wisdom about the environment and discuss what is best for it, especially

with respect to one’s own actions within it.

‘Essential qualities of environment’ is one way of looking at the word

Nature. Nineteenth century popularity of the study of natural history got displaced

by more specialised studies under environmental science. Environmental science is

12 Kenneth J. Gregory (Ed.), Environmental Sciences – A Student’s Companion, SAGE Publications Ltd, New

Delhi, 2009, p.77.

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a generic term used to denote all the disciplines that contribute and help in the

investigation of the environment13. Environmental studies deals with all issues that

affects a living organism. It takes a multidisciplinary approach that brings about an

appreciation of our natural world and human impact on its integrity14. It is into

analyzing the problems of various types of ecosystems, biodiversity, ecology and

how and in what way they can be mitigated. Thus if environmental science is a

systematic study of environment, environmental studies is applied science relating

to practical application.

Environmental philosophy has two aspects in it, that of environment and

philosophy. The thesis specifically deals with the philosophical aspects of

environmentalism. The difference between environmental science and

environmental philosophy should never be over emphasized because the study of

environmentalism gives the material for the study of environmental philosophy

without which no judgements can be passed. Similarly, environmentalism also

depends on environmental philosophy in the sense that the latter helps in the

maintenance of environmental balance in accordance with ethical principles. The

role of ethical principles as such in this context is very crucial.

13 Ibid, Pp.25,196. 14 Erach Bharucha, Text Book of Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses, Universities Press (India)

Private Ltd., Hyderabad, 2010, p.2.

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VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

A full-fledged study of environment started in the 18th century in various

scientific fields, prime among it being the concepts of ecosystem and ecology. An

ecosystem is a system formed by the interactions of varieties of individual

organisms among one another and also with their physical environment15. It

includes all the organisms living in a community as well as the abiotic factors with

which they interact16.

The term Biodiversity is used to describe the number, variety and variability

of living organisms and is described in terms of genes, species and ecosystems17.

Thus it relates to the innumerable variety of microorganisms, animals and plants all

of which exist in an ecosystem.

A human being controls the ecology of a place as he has a role to play in the

composition of artificial environment. Ernst Heinrich Haeckel was the first person

to have coined the term ‘ecology’ in 1869, but it gained popularity through major

developments only in the 20th century. Derived from the Greek word ‘oikos’

meaning ‘home’ and ‘logy’ implying ‘study’; the etymological meaning being the

study of the home or environment. Ecology is the science of studying both

environment and its varied living organisms along with their inter-relationships.

15 S.C.Santra, Environmental Science, New Central Book Agency (P) Ltd, Calcutta, 2001, p.49. 16 Kenneth J Gregory (Ed.), Environmental Science – A Student’s companion, Op.Cit., p.22. 17 S.C.Santra, Environmental Science, New Central Book Agency (P) Ltd, Op.Cit.,p.70.

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Thus ecology is the “biology of ecosystems”. It is defined as the

environmental matrix of the biosphere, the interactions among specific organisms

and the environment, and the structure and functioning of the whole ecosystems.

The term ‘Biosphere’, proposed by Eduard Suess relates to the zone of planet earth

which contains life in all its forms together with the conditions promoting life,

such as the presence of minerals, water, light and other factors18. Ecology has

tremendous practical value as it helps in comprehending impact of human actions

on the biosphere.

The scope of environment science is so vast that it comprises many sub-

branches; the list of some branches19 can be given as follows.

TABLE 1:

Sl.

No. Various Disciplines Narration

1 Atmospheric

Sciences

Study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects

from other systems and the effects of the

atmosphere on these other systems.

2 Biogeography It is the science of distribution of plants and

animals.

3 Biogeochemistry or

ecological chemistry

It is concerned with chemical dynamics between

organisms and the environment.

4 Climatology It studies the frequency of weather systems on large

18 Kenneth J Gregory (Ed.), Environmental Science – A Student’s companion, Op.Cit., Pp. 20, 91. 19 Ibid., Pp.8 -74.

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scales of both space and time.

5 Earth System

Science

It is the study of earth as a system in terms of its

various component systems.

6 Environmental

Biology

Biology being the study of life; environmental

biology is a highly diversified science ranging from

studies of individual parts of cells to the entire

biosphere.

7 Environmental

Chemistry

It is the study of chemistry in the natural world.

8 Genetics It is the study of biologically inherited traits and

characteristics.

9 Geochemistry It is the study of chemical dynamics, interactions,

and processes of the earth surface.

10 Glaciology It is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the

distribution and behaviour of snow and ice on the

earth’s surface.

11 Geology It is the study of the planet earth.

12 Hydrology It is the study of different forms of water, their

distribution and circulation in the natural

environment.

13 Limnology It is the study of physical, chemical, geological and

biological aspects of fresh water ecosystems.

14 Meteorology It is the study of the atmosphere and processes that

produce weather.

15 Microclimate It is study of the distinctive climate of a small scale

area such as garden, hill, valley, coast, forest, or

part of a city.

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16 Oceanography It is called marine science and deals with the

scientific study of the oceans.

17 Palaeoecology Study of past ecologies; reconstruction of

ecological change that help in understanding the

background to climate change and environmental

degradation.

18 Palaeogeography It is the study of the past history of the earth.

19 Physiology It concerns with the study of the different organ

systems in an organism, both among themselves

and with the environment in carrying out life

sustaining activities.

20 Soil science It is the science of soils and their influence on

plants and water.

Apart from the branches listed in Table 1, few more topics that are extension

of and prefixed with environment are subjects like physics, biotechnology,

toxicology, technology, geology, microbiology and green chemistry. These various

disciplines are suggestive of the level that man has been able to dissect Nature or

environment as a ruse to learn more about its different aspects. Yet he is nowhere

near achieving wisdom not to degrade environment but instead to preserve and

conserve20 it. This is where Environmental Philosophy comes into the picture.

All these are disciplines of not only modern science but also of philosophy

because philosophy deals with Nature of Ultimate Reality and the Universe. Hence 20 Though both the words are used interchangeably, but to be more specific ‘Conserve’ implies to cherish and use

sparingly (the resources) while ‘Preserve’ implies to retain and maintain (the resources).

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studying philosophy from the environmental perspective may not be out of place

here. Environmental philosophy helps in taking a holistic view by not approaching

a particular problem exclusively from a single scientific discipline. Where ecology

is a scientific term, environmental philosophy can be reframed as the philosophical

study of inter-relationships between living things and their environment.

HISTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHY

As a philosophical endeavour, the environmental protection and

conservation of Nature in Indian context dates back to pre-Vedic times. The

artefacts excavated from Harappa and Indus Valley sites bear testimony to it. The

excavations show that these ancient cities were well planned. The decisive

evidence can be seen in their laying of streets and roads in cardinal21 directions and

construction of bathrooms inside houses. The existence of these houses even after

4500 years or 2500 BC is a clear indication of the presence of highly skilled and

technologically advanced engineers and architects in those days22. Their drainage

systems and waterways, the likes of which was seen only 2000 years later in Rome

is another proof of their “intellectual sophistication”23. All these are indicators of

significance given to orderliness and cleanliness by ancients that were followed in

their daily living.

21 Cardinal refers to North – South and East –West directions. 22 Charles J Naegele, Ancient History of India - Manusmriti Revisited, D.K.Printworld (P) Ltd., New Delhi,

2011, Pp.122-124. 23 Ibid., p.38.

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The guardianship and maintenance of Nature has been an ancient custom

and unwritten law in India. Since early times, ancestors had perceived divinity in

the whole Nature and had reverence for plants, trees, forests, animals, land, rivers,

mountains, elements and all living and non-living beings. Man’s tendency was to

associate god with everything in the universe. We see this in the symbolic

representation through association of birds and animals in the form of vehicle of

Gods and Goddesses as seen in Indian scriptures and mythologies. Trees such as

Peepul and Banyan were venerated. All the Indian scriptures from Vedic lore to

Upanishads including Brahmanas and Aranyakas along with the great epics of

Ramayana and Mahabharata to name a few, have laid great stress in revering

Nature.

The concept of Panchavati reflects the importance given to forests.

Panchavati implies a grove having five trees. Another meaning attributed to it is

that it is a grove or forest which has five different types of trees growing in it.

Classification of forests in ancient Indian literature was based on the form of the

forest and the purpose it served. There are three types of forests. Mahavana was

impenetrable and was a place for mystical manifestation of natural and

supernatural forces. Tapovana was not impenetrable and could be accessed by man

where it served as a place for meditation and teaching. Srivana was used for

celebrating festivals. Trees were worshipped as Vriksha Devata or tree deity with

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prayerful offerings of water, flowers and sweets. The worshipful attitude towards

Nature and the extraordinary awareness exhibited in the scriptures enlightens us of

the ecological equilibrium that was in place during the ancient period.

When it comes to the rulers of India, King Ashoka, ruler of Maurya Dynasty

of India from 273 to 232 BC can be considered to be one of the foremost

environmentalists. Having embraced Buddhism after the Kalinga war, the edicts he

left reveals the level of responsibilities he took in preserving environment and

cultivating good values in life. He was instrumental in promoting road-side tree

plantation, digging of wells and rest houses to be used by weary travellers24. It is

worth to note here that after the decline of Harappa Civilization, the next period of

unification and sophistication in Indian history can be seen in the times of Mauryan

kings such as Emperor Ashoka25.

The environmental policies that Ashoka incorporated, included

establishment of forest and wildlife reserves, restricted hunting for food gathering,

and prohibition of cruelty to both domestic and wild animals. He also listed out

names of certain animals that needed protection much like the Endangered Act of

24 Vincent A. Smith, Indian Rulers - Asoka, Sir William Wilson Hunter (Ed.), Cosmo Publications, New Delhi,

2003, p.154. 25 Charles J Naegele, Ancient History of India - Manusmriti Revisited, Op.Cit., p.38.

39

U.N. He was also the foremost ruler to have buildings of animal specific hospital

where medical treatment was given for animals26.

It is invaluable to note here some of the moral instructions that Ashoka had

inscribed in his edicts, such as “To do good is difficult. One who does good first

does something hard to do. I have done many good deeds, whoever amongst them

neglects this, they will do evil. Truly, it is easy to do evil”27. And again in another

edict he states, “People see only their good deeds saying, "I have done this good

deed." But they do not see their evil deeds saying, "I have done this evil deed"28.

These moral observations recognise the fact that man’s essential weakness lies in

not comprehending his evil actions.

Another edict states that teachings of Buddhism and regulations help in

animal protection, but it is only through persuasion that people can progress and

bring about a change in themselves. Animal protection should be through such acts

of non-killing of living beings and respecting all life29. Thus, in Ashoka's own

words, one can acknowledge his strong beliefs about morality, the need for

differentiating between good and bad actions and the continuous need for enticing

all to do what is environmentally good for the whole of the society.

26 S.Ven Dhammika, The Edicts of King Ashoka- An English rendering,

<http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html>, accessed on 06.01.2015. 27 Ibid., 28 Ibid., 29 Ibid.,

40

EMERGENCE OF MODERN ENVIRONMENTALISM

Indian Environmentalism throughout its history never separated environment

and Nature from man. A harmonious living was established where in the balance in

Nature was ever maintained. The environmental degradation being faced today is

unprecedented and globally man is facing the consequences of imbalance in Nature

overtly brought about by man’s selfish motives and actions. Indian philosophy has

a rich tradition of viewing Nature as life giving and life sustaining force and thus

an apt “source of ecological wisdom”30.

Be it in the Harappa Civilization as unearthed through excavations, or the

Vedic way of life as revealed by Vedic scriptures, or the knowledge gained from

King Ashoka’s edicts; all these are a direct result of the reverence had for Nature.

Thus in Indian context, the environmental mindfulness existed from ancient times

but its impact had reduced over the centuries.

The emergence of modern day environmentalism arose with the harsh

realisation of the after-effects of environmental pollution and natural resource

depletion that distorted the quality of life on earth. This is when man realised the

importance of preservation and conservation of the natural environment. The

global environmental movement began as a nineteenth century phenomena giving

rise to a series of independent responses to local issues in a number of places at

30 George A James, The Significance of Indian Traditions for Environmental Ethics, Ethical Perspectives on

Environmental Issues in India, A.P.H Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 1999, p.11.

41

varied times. These environmental local movements grew into national and

international movements, and in due course have reached global proportions. The

new brand of environmentalism poses questions and issues that had not been

considered either in action or thought until then.

Twentieth century saw the advent of the organised movement which initially

started in the west in the form of preservation of Nature and natural resources.

Rachel Carson’s book ‘Silent Spring’ in 1962, caught the western public attention

for the first time as it showcased how human’s well being depended on the

condition of the whole biotic communities31 and thus, gave rise to organised mass

resistance on the use of pesticide in agricultural practices. The onset of industrial

revolution might be the chief cause for many of the environmental problems. But

the roots of the environmental movements lay in the socio-economic changes

brought about by rapid technological growth due to breakthrough in man’s

scientific understanding.

Some of the early environmental movements32 in India include the Chipko

movement of 1974 where the deforestation attempt on hill slopes was resisted by

local people, Silent Valley Movement of Kerala that helped in saving the Silent

Valley ecosystem, and Karnataka’s Appiko movement which helped in saving 31 Alan Drengson, Bill Devall and Mark A Schroll, The Deep Ecology Movement: Origins, Development, and

Future Prospects (Toward a Transpersonal Ecosophy), International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 30(1-2),

2011, <http://www.transpersonalstudies.org/ImagesRepository/ijts/Downloads/

Drengson-Devall.pdf >, Pp. 101-117. 32 S.C.Santra, Environmental Science, New Central Book Agency (P) Ltd, Op.Cit., p.827.

42

Kalase forest. Mention can also be made of environmental movements such as

Narmada Bachao Andolan and Tehri Dam which fought against the construction of

massive dams on Narmada and Bhagirathi rivers. As can be seen, the root basis for

these movements was not only the industrial activity that was affecting the very

livelihood of villagers and tribals but also the displacement of people. The

submergence of agricultural and wildlife habitats was an added issue as it lead to

large scale forest and wildlife loss.

In the present context, the positive aspect is that the appreciation and

concern for environmental issues has increased leading to the mushrooming of

many environmental movements that are helping in spreading awareness about the

need to safe-guard environment. Whatever be the movements involved, the prime

motivation factor is the reverence and respect man should have towards

environment and Nature.