enlisted information dominance warefare specialist (eidws ... · –polar operational environmental...

Fleet Weather Center Norfolk 1

Enlisted Information Dominance

Warefare Specialist (EIDWS)

Common Core

114 METOC


• Objectives:

– Define and Discuss how does Naval Oceanography support the Information

Dominance Mission

– Discuss the various types of METOC products available through the Navy

Oceanography Portal (NOP) - Oceanography webpage

– Discuss the capabilities of environmental satellites

– Define/discuss meteorological terms and elements

– Discuss the effects of weather on military operations

– Define/discuss oceanographic terms and elements

– Discuss how the ocean surface, subsurface and littoral, impacts the environment

to operations

– Describe the thermal layers within the ocean

– Discuss the effects and significance of parameters on the transmission of sound in

seawater

– Discuss the basic relationship of METOC to Geospatial Intelligence

– Describe the impacts of environmental conditions to the following warfare areas

– Discuss the effects that the atmospheric conditions can have on the

electromagnetic propagation of a radar beam

EIDWS Common Core 114 METOC


• Objectives:

– Describe the criteria and weather conditions associated with warnings

– Discuss the Tropical Cyclone Conditions of Readiness (COR)

– Discuss astronomical data types




• References:

– OPNAV INST 5300.12, The Information Dominance Corp, OCT 09

– Navy Oceanography Portal (NOP) http://www.usno.navy.mil/

– AG3 METOC Training Manual https://wwwa.nko.navy.mil/portal/aviation/home/AG

– NAVEDTRA 12853 Aerographer‟s Mate 1 and C

– JOINT PUBLICATION 2-03, Geospatial Intelligence Support to Joint Operations

– RP-33, Fleet Oceanographic and Acoustic Reference Manual

– Joint METOC Handbook

– JOINT PUBLICATION 3-03, Joint Interdiction

– TM 3-07.6-05, Navy Warfare Development Command TACMEMO, Foreign

Humanitarian Assistance/Disaster Relief Operations Planning

– JOINT PUBLICATION 3-41, Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and High-

Yield Explosives Consequence Management

– NTTP 3-03-4-1, Multi-Service Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Strike

Coordination and Reconnaissance

– METOC 50-1T-0202, Atmospheric Refraction

http://www.usno.navy.mil/

https://wwwa.nko.navy.mil/portal/aviation/home/AG



• References:

– OPNAVINST 3140.24F, Warnings and Conditions of Readiness Concerning

Hazardous or Destructive Weather Phenomena

– CJCSINST 6130.01D CJCS Master Positioning, Navigation, and Timing Plan, MAY

08.

– NAVMETOCCOMINST 3140.1L, United States Navy Meteorological &

Oceanographic Support Manual



• Define and Discuss how does Naval Oceanography support the Information Dominance

Mission:

– Develops and deliver dominant information capabilities in support of U.S. Navy,

Joint and national warfighting requirements.



• Discuss the various types of METOC products available through the Navy

Oceanography Portal (NOP) - Oceanography webpage:

– The following NMOC components make their products available to the public

through this portal:

• The U.S. Naval Observatory (USNO) – provides a wide range of astronomical

data and products, and serves as the official source of time for the U.S.

Department of Defense and a standard of time for the entire United States.

• The Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) – is the U.S. Department of Defense

agency responsible for issuing tropical cyclone warnings for the Pacific and

Indian Oceans.

• The Naval Oceanography Operations Command (NOOC) – advises Navy

operations on the impact of ocean and atmospheric conditions in every theater

and for every operation.

• The Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center (FNMOC) –

provides the highest quality, most relevant and timely worldwide meteorology

and oceanography support to U.S. and coalition forces from its Operations

Center in Monterey, California.

• The Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVO) – maximizes seapower by applying

relevant oceanographic knowledge in support of U.S. National Security.



• Discuss the capabilities of the following environmental satellites:

– Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) – GOES satellites are a

mainstay of weather forecasting in the United States and are the backbone of

short‐term forecasting. The real‐time weather data gathered by GOES satellites,

combined with data from weather surveillance radar (WSR‐88D), and automated

surface observing systems tremendously aid weather forecasters in providing

warnings of thunderstorms, winter storms, flash floods, hurricanes, and other

severe weather. These warnings help to save lives and preserve property.

There are four GOES currently in orbit. GOES‐10, stationed over 60° west, provides

24‐hour coverage of South America. GOES‐11 is stationed over 135° west and is

the primary western U.S. satellite. Coverage from GOES‐11 extends from middle

America westward to near the dateline in the Pacific ocean, and north and south to

around 60° latitude. GOES‐12 is stationed over 75° west and provides 24‐hour

coverage for the eastern portion of the U.S. to nearly the west coast of Africa and

north and south to around 60° latitude. GOES‐13 is first of the new generation of

GOES and is stationed over 105° west.GOES‐13 currently serves as a backup to

GOES‐11 and 12.




– Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) Cont: – Improvements

in technology have allowed us to take atmospheric soundings with the GOES‐11

and 12 and the current GOES satellites have a separate imager and sounder that

allow them to continuously scan and sample the atmosphere without one

interfering with the other. Other improvements include three‐axis stabilization and

enhanced signal to noise capability. Three‐axis stabilization is a significant

improvement over the spin scan sensors. Three‐axis stabilization allows the

satellite to keep sensors continuously aimed at the earth instead of wasting time

looking out into space. The improved signal‐tonoise function allows for more

accurate sensing and improved imaging.




– Polar Operational Environmental Satellite (POES) – NOAA TIROS‐N National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) satellites are managed by the

National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service (NESDIS), and form

the Polar Operational Environmental Satellite (POES) system.

Because of the polar orbiting nature of the NOAA TIROS‐N satellites, these

satellites are able to collect global data on a daily basis for a variety of land, ocean,

and atmospheric applications via the AVHRR, Advanced Very High Resolution

Radiometer imager. The AVHRR is characterized by a very wide field of

observation, nearly 2700 km and has a spatial resolution of 1.1 km, and utilizes five

channels in the visible, near infrared, mid‐infrared and thermal infrared spectral

bands. NOAA satellites also carry the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder (TOVS)

that is designed to study the vertical temperature and atmospheric chemical

composition of the atmosphere. TOVS is comprised of 3 sensor sub‐assemblies

including the HIRS, High‐resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder, MSU, Microwave

Sounding Unit, and SSU, Stratospheric Sounding Unit. The 3 sensors are

specifically designed for studying the profiles of water vapor, temperature, and

total atmospheric ozone content.




– Polar Operational Environmental Satellite (POES) Cont: – Data from the TIROS‐N

series supports a broad range of environmental monitoring applications including

weather analysis and forecasting, climate research and prediction, global sea

surface temperature measurements, atmospheric soundings of temperature and

humidity, ocean dynamics research, volcanic eruption monitoring, forest fire

detection, global vegetation analysis, search and rescue, and many other

applications. The current setup, a morning and afternoon satellite, provides global

coverage over each region of the earth four times daily. Polar orbiting satellites are

defined by the ascending (north to south) node time, which is the local time when

the satellite crosses the equator. There are currently 6 satellites in orbit: NOAA‐15

and 16 serve as the AM and PM secondary satellites respectively; NOAA‐17 serves

as the AM backup, NOAA‐18 serves as the PM primary, and NOAA‐19 is currently

undergoing operational verification.

NOAA satellites The sixth satellite is called METOP‐A, was developed by a

consortium of European companies, and is part of a new European undertaking to

provide weather data services used to monitor climate and improve weather

forecasts. METOP‐A serves as the AM primary satellite.




– Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) – Since the mid‐1960's, when the

Department of Defense (DoD) initiated the Defense Meteorological Satellite

Program (DMSP), low earth orbiting satellites provided the military with important

environmental information. The DMSP satellites "see" such environmental features

as clouds, bodies of water, snow, fire, and pollution in the visual and infrared

spectra. Scanning radiometers record information which can help determine cloud

type and height, land and surface water temperatures, water currents, ocean

surface features, ice, and snow. Communicated to ground‐based terminals, the

data is processed, interpreted by meteorologists, and ultimately used in planning

and conducting U.S. military operations worldwide.

There are currently 6 DMSP satellites in orbit. F‐12 is used to provide tactical data,

F‐13, 14, and 15 are secondary satellites, while F‐16 and 17 serve as primary

satellites. Each DMSP satellite has a 101 minute, sun‐synchronous, near‐polar orbit

at an altitude of 830 km above the surface of the earth. The visible and infrared

sensors collect images across a 3000 km swath, providing global coverage twice

per day. The combination of day/night and dawn/dusk satellites allows monitoring

of global information every 6 hours. The microwave imager (MI) and sounders (T1,

T2) cover one half the width of the visible and infrared swath. These instruments

cover the polar regions at least twice and the equatorial region once per day.




– The National Polar - orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System

(NPOESS) – NPOESS is the next generation of low earth orbiting environmental

satellites. The NPOESS will circle the Earth approximately once every 100 minutes.

During these rotations, the NPOESS will provide global coverage, monitor

environmental conditions, and collect, disseminate and process data about the

Earth‟s weather, atmosphere, oceans, land, and near‐space environment.

NPOESS will have 5 major sensors on board. The MIS (Microwave Imager/Sounder,

will perform key measurements for the NPOESS system to include soil moisture

and sea surface winds by collecting global microwave radiometry and sounding

data. ATMS, Advanced Technology Microwave Sounder, will operate in conjunction

with the Cross‐track Infrared Sounder (CrIS) to profile atmospheric temperature

and moisture. CrIS, in conjunction with the ATMS, will collect atmospheric data to

permit the calculation of temperature and moisture profiles at high temporal

resolution. OMPS, Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite, will monitor ozone from

space. And finally, VIIRS, the Visible/Infrared Imager/Radiometer Suite will collect

visible and infrared imagery and radiometric data. NPOESS is being developed

under an historic agreement among civil, scientific and military communities and

will eventually replace both POES and DMSP.




– Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) – The Tropical Rainfall Measuring

Mission (TRMM) is a joint mission between NASA and the National Space

Development Agency (NASDA) of Japan. TRMM is a research satellite designed to

help our understanding of the water cycle in the atmosphere. By covering the

tropical and semi‐tropical regions of the Earth, TRMM provides much needed data

on rainfall and the heat release associated with rainfall.

This helps understand the interactions between water vapor, clouds and

precipitation, which are central to regulating the earth‟s climate. The TRMM

satellite carries five instruments; the first space borne Precipitation Radar (PR), a

Visible and Infrared Scanner (VIRS), a Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS), a Cloud and

Earth Radiant Energy System (CERES), and the TRMM Microwave Imager (TMI).

The sensors allow us to measure the surface rain rate, atmospheric liquid water, as

well as “dissect” tropical cyclones at various levels by using microwave

frequencies.



• Define/discuss the following meteorological terms and elements:

– Wind direction/speed –

• Wind Direction – is the average direction from which the wind is blowing during

a specified period. Airflow from the north toward the south is referred to as a

"North wind." Wind direction always shows minor fluctuations. These minor

fluctuations are normally "averaged out" when determining a wind direction.

Several conventions are used to report wind direction. As an assistant

forecaster/forecaster, you must be familiar with the relationship between these

direction‐reporting conventions.

Wind direction is expressed in azimuth bearing or by the 8‐point or 16‐point

compass. In addition, the wind direction may be a true, relative, or a magnetic

wind direction. Wind direction is normally observed to the nearest 5° of

azimuth, but reported (and forecast) to the nearest 10°. The Navy uses true wind

direction.

• Wind Speed – is the average rate of air motion, or the distance air moves in a

specified unit of time. The instantaneous wind speed is the speed of the air at

any moment. The instantaneous wind speed will usually show minor

fluctuations over time. Fluctuations between the highest instantaneous speed

and the lowest instantaneous speed are averaged to obtain mean wind speed.

Mean wind speed is the arithmetic or graphical average wind speed during the

period of observation, which is normally 2 minutes.




– Wind direction/speed Cont: –

• Wind Speed Cont: – For example, wind speeds on a recorder chart during a

2‐minute observation period may constantly vary between 24 and 32 knots. The

average, 28 knots, is the mean wind speed. Mean wind speed is the value

observed and reported for "wind speed" in all meteorological observations.

All U.S. military weather observations use nautical miles per hour, or knots (kts)

as the standard for measuring observed, reported, and forecasted wind speeds.

– Temperature –

• Ambiant Air Temperature – (also called the dry‐bulb temperature) reflects the

amount of heat present in the air. It is read directly from a ventilated

thermometer on an electric psychrometer, sling psychrometer, or from

automatic measuring equipment. The temperature must be obtained to the

nearest 1/10 of a degree and may be read in either Fahrenheit or Celsius

degrees.

• Wind Chill Temperature – is the temperature required under no‐wind conditions

that will equal the cooling effect of the air (the actual air temperature) and the

wind on an average sized, nude person in the shade. Moisture content of the air,

visible moisture on the skin or clothing, presence of sunshine, clothing, and

physical activity are not considered.




– Temperature Cont: –

• Heat Stress – is a measure of how hot the air feels based on temperature and

humidity.

– Precipitation – includes all forms of moisture that fall to the earth's surface, such

as rain, drizzle, snow, and hail. Precipitation is observed and classified by form,

type, intensity, and character.

– Relative Humidity – is the ratio of how much water vapor is in the air, compared to

the amount of water vapor at the current temperature and pressure that air can

possibly hold. RH is expressed as a percentage.

– Sky Condition – is a description of the appearance of the sky or “State‐of‐the‐sky”

(a specific term that equates to one of the 27 internationally recognized sky states).

Sky condition may be evaluated either automatically by instrument or manually

with or without instruments and is reported in eighths (or oktas).

– Atmospheric Pressure – refers to the pressure exerted by the column of air on any

point of the earth's surface.




– Air Mass – a is a large volume of air defined by its temperature and water vapor

content. Air masses cover many hundreds or thousands of square miles, and

adopt the characteristics of the surface below them. They are classified according

to latitude and their continental or maritime source regions. Colder air masses are

termed polar or arctic, while warmer air masses are deemed tropical.

Continental and superior air masses are dry while maritime and monsoon air

masses are moist. Weather fronts separate air masses with different density

(temperature and/or moisture) characteristics. Once an air mass moves away from

its source region, underlying vegetation and water bodies can quickly modify its

character. Classification schemes tackle an air mass' characteristics, and well as

modification.

– Cold/Warm/Occluded Front –

• Cold Front – is defined as the leading edge of a cooler mass of air, replacing (at

ground level) a warmer mass of air.

• Warm Front – is defined as the leading edge of an advancing mass of warm air;

it separates warm air from the colder air ahead.




– Cold/Warm/Occluded Front Cont: –

• Occluded Front – is formed during the process of cyclogenesis when a cold

front overtakes a warm front. When this occurs, the warm air is separated

(occluded) from the cyclone center at the Earth's surface. The point where the

front and the occluded front meet (and consequently the nearest location of

warm air to the center of the cyclone) is called the triple point.

There are two types of occlusion, warm and cold. In a cold occlusion, the air

mass overtaking the warm front is cooler than the cool air ahead of the warm

front, and plows under both air masses. In a warm occlusion, the air mass

overtaking the warm front is not as cool as the cold air ahead of the warm front,

and rides over the colder air mass while lifting the warm air.

– Restricted Visibility – is obstructions to vision that reduces visibility below 7

statute miles. Lithometeors (any dry particle suspended in, or falling from, the

atmosphere i.e.: haze, smoke, dust, dust devils, ash, and sand) and Hydrometeors

(liquid or solid water particles falling through, suspended in such as fog, dew, and

frost; all forms of precipitation (rain, drizzle, snow and hail) are the Meteorological

conditions that obstruct visibility.

– Fog – is a suspension of small visible water droplets (or ice crystals) in the air that

reduces horizontal and/or vertical visibility at the earth's surface. Fog is number

one inhibitor to Military Operations.




– Sunrise/Sunset – conventionally refer to the times when the upper edge of the disk

of the Sun is on the horizon, considered unobstructed relative to the location of

interest. Atmospheric conditions are assumed to be average, and the location is in

a level region on the Earth's surface.

– Moonrise/Moonset – times are computed for exactly the same circumstances as for

sunrise and sunset. However, moonrise and moonset may occur at any time during

a 24 hour period and, consequently, it is often possible for the Moon to be seen

during daylight, and to have moonless nights. It is also possible that a moonrise or

moonset does not occur relative to a specific place on a given date.

– Lunar illumination – is the appearance of the illuminated portion of the Moon as

seen by an observer. The amount of light illuminated to the earth depends on the

phase of the moon.




– Tropical Cyclones Cont –

• Tropical Depression – is an organized system of clouds and thunderstorms

with a defined, closed surface circulation and maximum sustained winds of less

than 34 knots. It has no eye and does not typically have the organization or the

spiral shape of more powerful storms.

• Tropical Storm – is an organized system of strong thunderstorms with a defined

surface circulation and maximum sustained winds between 34 to 63 knots. At

this point, the distinctive cyclonic shape starts to develop, although an eye is

not usually present.

• Hurricane/Typhoon – is a system with sustained winds of at least 64 knots. A

cyclone of this intensity tends to develop an eye, an area of relative calm (and

lowest atmospheric pressure) at the center of circulation. The eye is often

visible in satellite images as a small, circular, cloud-free spot.




– Thunderstorm – is a form of weather characterized by the presence of lightning

and its acoustic effect on the Earth's atmosphere known as thunder. The

meteorologically-assigned cloud type associated with the thunderstorm is the

cumulonimbus. Thunderstorms are usually accompanied by strong winds, heavy

rain and sometimes snow, sleet, hail, or no precipitation at all. Thunderstorms may

line up in a series or rainband, known as a squall line. Criteria for thunderstorms to

be classified as a severe thunderstorms is sustained winds of 50 knots or greater,

and/or hail 1 inch or greater, and/or tornadoes.

– Tornado/Waterspout – is a violent, dangerous, rotating column of air that is in

contact with both the surface of the earth and a cumulonimbus cloud. Tornadoes

come in many shapes and sizes, but are typically in the form of a visible

condensation funnel, whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled

by a cloud of debris and dust. Waterspouts are smaller, weaker tornadoes that

develop over the water. Waterspouts normally form from towering cumulus

clouds.

– Funnel Cloud – is a funnel-shaped cloud of condensed water droplets, associated

with a rotating column of wind and extending from the base of a cumulonimbus but

does not reaching the ground or a water surface.



• Discuss the following effects of weather on military operations:

– Visibility – the major impacts are on shore and shipboard flight operations as well

as targeting and strike weather (for aircraft and Tomahawk missions). Visibility

also impacts surface, amphibious, mine warfare, and special operations.

– Precipitation – (like visibility) plays a major impact on all operations. Precipitation

also impacts radar performance (refractivity profile), and electro-optical systems

performance.

– Winds – depending on the strength, winds can have a major impact all operations.

– Cloud Cover – (like visibility) cloud cover can impact all major operations and/or

the support to those operations.

– Temperature and Humidity – the major impact is on ground troop movement and

special operations. Extreme temperatures impacts targeting, radar and Electro-

optical systems performance as well.




– Joint METOC Handbook Appendix C - METOC Impacts on Operations – This

appendix provides a list of METOC impacts for typical operations (ground, air,

naval, amphibious), various platforms, and weapons systems. This is not an all-

inclusive list.

Operational commanders set critical METOC thresholds. The METOC values listed

below are UNCLASSIFIED examples of critical thresholds, which can significantly

effect tactical operations or weapon systems. During the planning phase of each

exercise or operation, METOC limiting factors and thresholds must be reevaluated

to ensure mission success.

Joint missions are affected by a wide variety of METOC conditions. Mission

planners must be aware of METOC factors that will affect their operations, ensuring

the greatest chance of mission success. All planners must be familiar with critical

METOC thresholds in order to effectively use weapon systems and to provide

maximum safety for friendly personnel. Planners must communicate their mission-

specific thresholds to METOC personnel, so that „heads-up‟ alerts can be issued.

METOC personnel must be knowledgeable about critical METOC thresholds for the

weapon systems they support, to ensure they provide important information

required by decision makers.




– Joint METOC Handbook Appendix C - METOC Impacts on Operations Cont: –

• Weather impacts are typically provided in “stoplight” format:

– Green (Favorable) – minimal operational impacts

– Amber (Marginal) – moderate operational impact

– Red (Unfavorable) – severe operational impact



• Define/discuss the following oceanographic terms and elements:

– Ocean Eddies – are independent circulations or rings of cold or warm water.

• Cold Eddies – form on the south side of the Gulf Stream and maintain a

counterclockwise circulation. Cold Eddies descend through the water column,

due to their denseness as compared to the surrounding warmer water, and

become indiscernible over time.

• Warm Eddies – form on the north side of the Gulf Stream and drift into the

colder waters of the Labrador Current maintaining their clockwise rotation.

– Bathythermograph – The measurement and recording of subsurface water

temperature at various depths is called a bathythermograph observation.

Bathythermograph observations are normally conducted only in ocean depths of

100 fathoms (600 feet) or greater. The abbreviation "BT" is often used for the term

bathythermograph.

– Bioluminescence – Plankton organisms are chiefly responsible for

bioluminescence in the sea. The smallest forms are luminescent bacteria that

usually feed on decaying matter or live in various marine animals. However, with a

supply of the proper nutrients, luminescent bacteria can develop in great masses

in the sea, causing a general bluish-green glow in the water. The glow is usually

diffused and barely detectable, although exceptionally bright displays caused by

luminous bacteria occasionally are observed in coastal regions near the outflow of

large rivers. The light given off frequently outlines the current front where the river

and ocean meet.




– Seas –

• Sea Wave – also known as wind waves, are waves generated by the wind in the

local area. Light winds usually produce seas with small wave heights, small

wave lengths, and short periods. Higher winds usually produce waves with

higher heights, longer wave lengths, and longer periods. When the wind over

water produces sea waves, the wave crests are generally aligned perpendicular

to the direction the wind is blowing. The continuing force of the wind on the

waves distorts the ideal sine wave pattern, forming sharper crests.

• Wave Height – is the vertical distance, usually measured in feet, from the crest

of a wave (the highest portion of a wave) to the trough of the wave (the lowest

portion of the wave).

• Wave Period – is the time, usually measured in seconds, that it takes for a

complete wave cycle (crest to crest or trough to trough) to pass a given fixed

point. Wave period is dependent upon the speed of movement of the wave

across the surface. The speed of movement varies with wave length. Shorter

wavelength waves move slower and longer wave‐length waves move faster.




– Seas Cont: –

• Swell Wave – are seas that have moved out and away from the area in which

they were formed. Because of their different wave lengths and wave speeds,

waves move outward from the windy areas where they formed, and separate

into groups of waves with distinct wave periods. Since the winds are no longer

pushing on the waves, they take on a more typical sine wave pattern with

generally equally rounded crests and troughs and appear smooth and regular in

appearance.

– Sea Surface Temperature (SST) – is the water temperature close to the surface.

– Tides –

• Ebb – is a current that flows away from the shore with a falling tide.

• Flood – is a current that flow toward the shore as a with the rising tide.

• High – Sea level rises over several hours, covering the intertidal zone; flood

tide. The water rises to its highest level, reaching high tide.

• Low – Sea level falls over several hours, revealing the intertidal zone; ebb tide.

The water stops falling, reaching low tide.




– Currents –

• Open Ocean – is a continuous, directed movement of ocean water generated by

the forces acting upon this mean flow, such as breaking waves, wind, Coriolis

force, temperature and salinity differences and tides caused by the gravitational

pull of the Moon and the Sun. Depth contours, shoreline configurations and

interaction with other currents influence a current's direction and strength.

Ocean currents can flow for great distances, and together they create the great

flow of the global conveyor belt which plays a dominant part in determining the

climate of many of the Earth‟s regions.

• Littoral – or Longshore currents occur in the surf zone and are caused by

waves approaching the beach at an angle. At times the current is almost

imperceptible, but at other times, it can be quite strong. Longshore currents

increase in velocity with increasing breaker height, increasing breaker crest

speed, increasing angle between breaker crests and bottom contours, and

decreasing wave period. A steep beach will have a stronger longshore current

than a more gently sloping beach.




– Currents Cont: –

• Rip – are often erroneously called “rip tides”, but they are not associated with

tides. They are caused by return flow of water from the beach. The current

resembles a small jet in the breaker zone, which fans out behind the breakers

and become quite diffuse. This strong current extends from the surface to the

bottom. The strength of rip currents is not predictable, but is determined using

the same factors that control longshore currents. Rip currents may or may not

occur, but when they do, they can be irregularly spaced or spaced at long or

short intervals. They commonly form at the down current end of a beach where

a headland (a point where the land juts out into the water) deflects the

longshore current seaward.

– Surf Zone – is the area from the water up rush outward to the point at which waves

first show any indication of breaking.




– Breaker Type –

• Spilling Breakers – occur with gentle and flat beach slopes. As a wave moves

toward the beach, steepness increases gradually and the peak of the crest

gently slips down the face of the wave. The water at the crest of a wave may

create foam as it spills over. Spilling breakers also occur more frequently when

deep‐water sea waves approach the beach. The shorter wavelength of a sea

wave means that the wave is steeper in the deep water and that the water spills

from the crest as the waves begin to feel bottom. Because the water constantly

spills from the crest in shorter wavelength (shorter period) waves, the height of

spilling waves rarely increases as dramatically when the wave feels bottom, as

do the longer period waves. Because they occur on mild sloping beaches,

spilling breakers typically produce surf zones that extend far offshore.

• Plunging Breakers – occur with a moderate to steep beach slope. In this type of

breaker, a large quantity of water at the crest of a wave curls out ahead of the

wave crest, temporarily forming a tube of water on the wave face, before the

water plunges down the face of the wave in a violent tumbling action. Plunging

breakers are characterized by the loud explosive sound made when the air

trapped in the curl is released. Plunging breakers are more commonly

associated with swell waves, which approach the beach with much longer

wavelengths. The shortening of the wavelength as the wave feels bottom

causes a great mass of water to build up in the crest in a short time. Longer

period swell waves may double in height when feeling bottom.




– Breaker Type Cont: –

• Surging Breakers – are normally seen only with a very steep beach slope. This

type of breaker is often described as creating the appearance that the water

level at the beach is suddenly rising and falling. The entire face of the wave

usually displays churning water and produces foam, but an actual curl never

develops. The water depth decreases so rapidly that the waves do not reach

critical steepness until they are right on the beach. The entire wave surges up

the beach and most of the energy is reflected back seaward. These waves can

be very dangerous for landing craft.

– Ocean Fronts – is the interface between two water masses of different physical

characteristics. Usually, fronts show strong horizontal gradients of temperature

and salinity, with resulting density variation and current shear. Some fronts which

have weak horizontal gradients at the surface have strong gradients below the

surface. In some cases, gradients are weak at all levels, but variability across the

front, as reflected by the shape of the thermal profile, is sufficient to complicate

sound transmission.




– Ocean Bottom –

• Topography – The ocean bottom is considered to consist of four major

physiographic or morphological provinces: the Continental Shelf, the

Continental Slope and Rise, the Ocean Basin, and Mid-Ocean Ridges (e.g.,

Submarine Ridges). In addition, many other features (for example, ridges,

trenches, seamounts, and guyots) are found within these major provinces.

• Composition – The ocean bottom is covered by various types of bottom

sediments mixed with dissolved shells and bones of marine organisms.

Sediment deposits are thin or absent on the newly formed crust of mid ocean

ridges and are thickest on the older crust and near continents. The four major

classifications of sediments are terrigenous, pelagic, glacial marine, and

volcanic.

• Discuss how the ocean surface, subsurface and littoral, impacts the environment to

operations:

– It is clear that any one of these effects can have a significant impact on USW

Operations. Together they determine the mode and range of sound propagation

and thus control the effectiveness of both short-range and long-range acoustic

systems.



• Describe the following thermal layers within the ocean:

– Mixed Layer – is the upper layer of the three‐layered ocean model. The mixed layer

consists of nearly uniform, or isothermal relatively warmer temperatures with

depth, in middle latitudes, and extends from the surface to a maximum depth of

about 450 meters, or 1,500 feet. This layer gets its name from the mixing processes

that bring about its fairly constant warm temperatures. The two mixing processes

are classified as mechanical and convective.

– Thermocline – is the central layer of the three‐layered ocean model. The main

thermocline is found at the base of the mixed layer and is marked by a rapid

decrease of water temperature with depth. At high latitudes there is no marked

change in water temperature with the seasons, while in the mid‐latitudes, a

seasonal thermocline develops with the approach of summer

– Deep Layer – is the bottom layer of water, which in the middle latitudes exists

below 1,200 meters. This layer is characterized by fairly constant cold

temperatures, generally less than 4°C.



• Discuss the effects and significance of parameters on the transmission of sound in

seawater:

– Temperature – Sound speed decreases at lower temperatures and increases at

higher temperatures. Sound speed increases at a rate of approximately 3.2 m/sec

for every 1°C increase in temperature. The speed of sound in water is about 4 times

greater than the speed of sound in air. Seawater is denser than fresh water;

therefore, at the same temperature, the speed of sound in seawater will be slightly

greater than the speed of sound in fresh water. In steel, sound speed is about 15

times greater than in air. Sound travels at approximately 5,200 m/sec through a thin

steel rod.

– Pressure – The effect of pressure on sound speed is a function of depth. Pressure

increases with depth and sound speed increases with higher pressure. Sound

speed increases approximately 1.7 m/sec per 100 meters of depth. Pressure is the

dominant sound speed controller below 300 meters, because below 300 meters, the

temperature is relatively constant.

– Salinity – The effect of salinity on sound speed is slight in the open sea, because

salinity values are nearly constant. The affect of salinity on sound speed is

greatest where there is a significant influx of fresh water or where surface

evaporation creates high salinity. A one part per thousand (1‰) increase in salinity

increases sound speed 1.4 m/sec.



• Discuss the basic relationship of METOC to Geospatial Intelligence:

– METOC data is considered an intelligence layer of the GEOINT information base.

METOC conditions can affect other GEOINT activities, so a detailed understanding

of the operational environment, both in the planning process and during ongoing

operations, is critical to joint operations.

The GEOINT cell will coordinate with the meteorological and oceanographic

(METOC) cell to acquire climatology and real-time meteorology, oceanography, and

space weather information to support GEOINT collection and dissemination.



• Describe the impacts of environmental conditions to the following warfare areas:

– Anti-submarine Warfare Operations – Environmental conditions significantly

impacts ASW operations. Depending on the environmental conditions, sound

propagation and detection effectiveness of both short-range and long-range

acoustic systems can be enhanced or degraded.

– Naval Special Warfare Operations – Target area environmental conditions include

terrain restrictions, time of day, adverse weather, and seasonal and temperature

effects. These conditions may camouflage or conceal targets, reduce visibility, and

degrade weapon systems and force capabilities.

– Mine Warfare Operations – Mine warfare is almost always conducted in nearshore

areas that present special environmental conditions not usually encountered in

open ocean areas, including: Sound speed that is highly dependent upon salinity.

Although salinity may be treated as constant for open ocean areas, fresh water

runoff creates strong salinity gradients in nearshore areas. Ambient noise that is

higher than normal. Biologic activity levels and diversity that are higher. Nearshore

areas that typically have a high level of nonmilitary activity. Land runoff that

generates much more turbidity than for open ocean areas.

– Air Defense Operations – Ceiling, visibility, temperature, and winds have the

greatest weather effects on weapon systems and mission capabilities supporting

suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD).



• Describe the impacts of environmental conditions to the following warfare areas:

– Information Warfare Operations – Target area environmental conditions include

terrain restrictions, time of day, adverse weather, and seasonal and temperature

effects. These conditions may camouflage or conceal targets, reduce visibility, and

degrade weapon systems and force capabilities. Terrain features may affect

acquisition of the target, requiring specialized weapons and attack tactics. For

example, heavily forested emplacements or staging areas may be more suited to

SOF direct action missions than laser-guided weapons.

– Humanitarian Assistance/Disaster Relief Operations – Environmental conditions

include terrain restrictions, time of day, adverse weather to include cloud cover

and visibility/precipitation, and seasonal and temperature effects may hamper

capabilities to provide humanitarian aid.

– Chemical, Biological, and Nuclear Warfare – The effect weather and terrain may

have on the CBRNE material to include dispersion of chemical, biological,

radiological agents or toxic material by wind.

– Strike Warfare – Visibility, precipitation, winds and cloud cover effects capabilities

for shore and shipboard flight operations as well as targeting and cover support

missions.



• Discuss the effects that the atmospheric conditions can have on the electromagnetic

propagation of a radar beam:

– Standard Refraction – In free space, an EM wave will travel in a straight line

because conditions are uniform and the index of refraction is the same throughout

the column. Within Earth‟s atmosphere, however, the velocity of the wave is less

than that of free space. So the propagating wave will be bent downward from a

straight line. This is described as normal refraction occurs.

Normal refractivity exists in most areas about 50% of the time. AP is not present

under normal refractive conditions.

– Super-Refraction – In this situation, the vertical distributions of temperature,

moisture, and pressure cause the radar waves to bend more toward the surface of

Earth than under normal conditions.

As the refractivity gradient continues to decrease, the wave path‟s curve will

approach the radius of curvature of the earth.

Super-refractive conditions can extend radar coverage up to 50% above normal.



• Discuss the effects that the atmospheric conditions can have on the electromagnetic

propagation of a radar beam:

– Sub-Refraction – Sub-refractive conditions cause the radar waves to be refracted

les than normal and therefore upward and away from Earth‟s surface. Waves that

are curved upward offer the smallest ranges and worst opportunity for distant

detection.

– Trapping – If the radius of curvature for the wave becomes smaller than Earth‟s,

waves may become trapped between two areas: Earth‟s surface, and the negative

gradient causing the downward refraction.

Trapping produces the greatest extremes in radar performance and can

significantly extend radar ranges. Radar waves refracting sharply downwards,

then reflecting off of Earth‟s surface, may travel distances well beyond normal.

Trapping can occur between the surface and an overlying region of the atmosphere

with faster speed characteristics. It can also occur between two layers of the

atmosphere that have different characteristics. This is known as an elevated duct.



• Describe the criteria and weather conditions associated with warnings:

– Small Craft Warning:

• Criteria: 18 – 33 knots sustained, include forecast seas.

KNHK MUGM (also issued for 5ft seas)

KNIP Hampton Roads

KNRB Subase Kings Bay

KNPA Subase Groton

KNQX Colts Neck, Earle NJ

KNGP

• Minimum Required Lead Time: Issue 2 hours prior to expected onset of wind

warning criteria.

• Maximum Length of Time for Warning: 24 hours for each issuance,

commencing when the warning time is valid.

– Gale Wind Warning:

• Criteria: 34 – 47 knots sustained.


warning criteria.






– Storm Wind Warning:

• Criteria: 48 knots or greater sustained.


warning criteria.



– Local Airfield Wind Advisory (AWA):

• Criteria: 18 – 33 knots sustained or frequent gust to 25 knots.


warning criteria.






– High Seas:

• Criteria: These warnings are issued every 12 hours whenever actual or forecast

significant wave heights in an ocean area of the Northern Hemisphere equal or

exceed 12 Feet.

– Severe/Thunderstorm Watch: (Severe Criteria: wind sustained ≥ 50 knots, and/or

hail ≥ 1” in diameter, and/or tornadoes.)

• Criteria: Expected within 25NM.

• Minimum Required Lead Time: Issue 2 hours prior to lightning within 25SM

and/or issue 6 hours prior to expected onset.



– Severe/Thunderstorm Warning: (Severe Criteria: wind sustained ≥ 50 knots, and/or

hail ≥ 1” in diameter, and/or tornadoes.)

• Criteria: Imminent or within 1 hour (w/in 10SM)

• Minimum Required Lead Time: Issue 1 hours prior to expected onset or

expected lightning within 10SM.

• Maximum Length of Time for Warning: 6 hours for each issuance, commencing

when the warning time is valid.




– Hurricane/Typhoon:

• Criteria:

– Tropical Depression: 20 – 33 knots.

– Tropical Storm: 34 – 63 knots.

– Hurricane: 64 knots or greater.

• CAT 1: 64 – 82 knots.

• CAT 2: 83 – 95 knots.

• CAT 3: 96 – 113 knots.

• CAT 4: 114 – 135 knots.

• CAT 5: > 135 knots.

NOTE: CAT 3, 4, and 5 are considered MAJOR hurricanes.

– Typhoon: (64 knots or greater) is a term used in the Pacific Ocean

instead of hurricane. The term Super Typhoon is used for typhoons

when winds speeds are 130 knots or greater.




– Extreme Temperatures: When conditions warrant, Heat Index and Wind-Chill are

reflected in most forecasts until the likelihood ceases.




– Winter Snow Advisory:

• Criteria: Expect ≤ 1” of snow accumulation in 12 hours, or ≤ 2” of snow

accumulation in 24 hours.

• Minimum Required Lead Time: Issue 6 hours prior to expected onset of warning

criteria conditions or by Close of Business (COB) the day prior if conditions are

expected to occur overnight.



– Winter Snow Warning:

• Criteria: Moderate – Heavy (> 1” of snow accumulation in 12 hours, or > 2” of

snow accumulation in 24 hours).









– Freezing Precipitation Advisory:

• Criteria: Freezing Precipitation Event ≤ ¼” accumulation.






– Freezing Precipitation Warning:

• Criteria: Freezing Precipitation Event > ¼” accumulation.









– Flash Flood: Heavy rainfall may result in, or has produced, flash flooding.

– Hazardous Surf: Rip currents and high surf.

– Tsunami: NOAA's two Tsunami Warning Centers (Pacific Tsunami Warning Center

and West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center) have separate areas of

responsibility, which are the geographical areas within which each Center has the

responsibility for the dissemination of messages and the provision of interpretive

information to emergency managers and other officials, news media, and the

public.

– Earthquake: The USGS Earthquake Hazards Program (EHP) of the U.S. Geological

Survey (USGS) is part of the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program

(NEHRP) led by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).

The USGS role in NEHRP is to provide Earth sciences information and products for

earthquake loss reduction. The goals of the USGS' EHP are:

• Improve earthquake hazard identification and risk assessment methods and

their use;

• Maintain and improve comprehensive earthquake monitoring in the United

States with focus on "real-time" systems in urban areas;

• Improve the understanding of earthquakes occurrence and their effects and

consequences.



• Discuss the Tropical Cyclone Conditions of Readiness (COR):

– Atlantic Hurricane Season: 01 June through 30 November.

– Tropical Cyclone Conditions of Readiness:

• CONDITION V – Destructive force winds (50 knots or as specified) are possible

within 96 hours.

• CONDITION IV – Destructive force winds are possible within 72 hours.

• CONDITION IVA – Destructive force winds are possible within 72 hours. (Cuba

and Puerto Rico maintain this condition throughout the season).

• CONDITION III – Destructive force winds are possible within 48 hours.

• CONDITION II – Destructive force winds are anticipated within 24 hours.

• CONDITION I – Destructive force winds are anticipated within 12 hours.



• Discuss the Tropical Cyclone Conditions of Readiness (COR):

–Ship Sortie Criteria: If one or more of the following conditions are forecasted, then

Ship Sortie Conditions will be issued by Fleet Forces Command based

recommendations provided by the SRO/CDO:

• Sustained winds 50 knots or greater on station.

• Heavy seas 12 feet or greater (wave height).

• Storm surge 4 feet or greater during high tide.

–Ship Sortie Conditions:

• SORTIE CONDITION CHARLIE – Prepare to sortie within 48 hours.

• SORTIE CONDITION BRAVO – Expected to sortie within 24 hours.

• SORTIE CONDITION ALPHA – Commence sortie to sea.



• Discuss the following astronomical data types:

– Nautical Almanac - For over 150 years the United States Nautical Almanac Office

has published The Nautical Almanac, first as part of the American Ephemeris and

Nautical Almanac, and then on its own, to provide the US Navy with a convenient

form of the astronomical data used for celestial navigation. This book is still the

standard resource for marine celestial navigation for the U.S. Navy.

The book contains the following data tabulated at hourly intervals to a precision of

0.1 arcminute: the Greenwich hour angle and declination of the Sun, Moon, and

navigational planets; the Greenwich hour angle of Aries; positions of the

navigational stars; rise and set times of the Sun and Moon for a range of latitudes;

and other data. Each edition also contains a sight reduction table; sight reduction

formulas; and various correction tables for sight reduction. There is a useful

concise sight reduction form at the back of the book. The Nautical Almanac is

available nine months in advance of its edition date.

– Astronomical Almanac - contains a wide variety of both technical and general

astronomical information. The book is a worldwide resource for fundamental

astronomical data. It is a joint publication of the U.S. Nautical Almanac Office and

Her Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office in the UK, and contains data supplied by

many scientists from around the world.

The material appears in sections, each section addressing a specific astronomical

category. The book also includes references to the material, explanations, and

examples. It is available one year in advance of its date.

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