English Grammar

Adjectives

An adjective is a word like clever, beautiful, green, hungry, brave, which is used when we describe people, things, events etc. Adjectives are used in connection with nouns and pronouns.

He wore a red shirt. We need some square tables. Each hand has five fingers. You are naughty. She is a beautiful girl. He is an honest boy. This is a wooden chair. She wore a gold necklace. It was an earthen pot. Sugar is sweet.

Position of adjectives

Most adjectives can go in two main positions in a sentence:

a) before a noun (attributive position)

Our new principal is an old lady. He is a clever boy.

b) after be, seem, look and other copular verbs (predicative position)

I am glad to meet you. You don't look happy to see me. The milk turned sour. She felt bad.

Adverbs

Adverbs are words like tomorrow, daily, badly, once and too. They tell us more about other words, especially verbs.

The child smiled sweetly. (The adverb sweetly modifies the verb smiled.) She walked slowly. (The adverb slowly modifies the verb walked.) He talked politely. (The adverb politely modifies the verb talked.)

Sometimes adverbs modify adjectives.

It was a very important question. (The adverb very modifies the adjective important.) You are so sweet. (The adverb so modifies the adjective sweet.)

Adverbs can also modify other adverbs.

He walked very slowly. (The adverb very modifies the adverb slowly.) She sang extremely well. (The adverb extremely modifies the adverb well.)

 

Articles

The articles a/an (the indefinite article) and the (the definite article) belong to a group of words called determiners. They normally go at the beginning of noun phrases.

Alice is a financial advisor. She is working for an insurance company. I have been to the doctor. Can I talk to the manager?

What are articles used for?

Articles are used to show whether we are talking about things that are known both to the speaker and to the listener, or that are not known to them both. Articles can also show whether we are talking about things in general or particular things.

Points to be noted

A singular countable noun normally has an article or other determiner (my, this, her, some etc.) with it. We can say a dog, my dog, that dog or every dog, but not just dog.

I saw a child in the store. They have a house in the city. Can I use your car? He is my friend. Who is that boy in the red shirt?

Plural and uncountable nouns can be used with or without an article or other determiner.

Children usually rush about. Milk is rich in nutrients. Is there any milk in the bottle? Water is precious. Time is money.

Auxiliary Verbs

An auxiliary verb is one which helps other verbs to make tenses, passive forms etc. There are two groups - primary auxiliaries and modal auxiliaries.

Primary auxiliaries

Be, do, have and their various forms are called primary auxiliaries.

Be is used with other verbs to make progressive and passive verbs forms.

I am writing. He was punished for lying.

Do is used to make questions, negatives and emphatic forms of non-auxiliary verbs.

Do you know where John lives? I don’t know. Do sit down.

Have is used to make perfect verbs forms.

I have completed my work. She has acted in a film. They had forgotten to send the letter.

Primary auxiliaries merely help to express statements of fact.

She is writing. I am working. You have done wrong. He did not come in time. They have arrived.

Note that be, do and have can also function as principal verbs. They are called auxiliaries only when they help other verbs to form their tenses and moods.

You were wrong. (Principal verb) You have done wrong. (Auxiliary verb) She is a good singer. (Principal verb) She is singing. (Auxiliary verb)

Auxiliary Verbs

An auxiliary verb is one which helps other verbs to make tenses, passive forms etc. There are two groups - primary auxiliaries and modal auxiliaries.

Modal auxiliaries

The verbs will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might, must, ought, dare and need are usually called modal auxiliaries. They are used with other verbs to express actions, events or situations that exist only as conceptions of the mind - permissions, possibilities, certainty, ability, wishes, obligations etc. They may also express simple futurity.

I can swim. She will come. I must go now. Should I call them? She might come.

Modal auxiliaries have three common characteristics.

1. They are never used alone. A principal verb is either present or implied.

I can fly an aeroplane. He should behave. Will you go? Yes, I will (go).

2. Modal auxiliaries have no –s in the third person singular.

I can swim. She can swim. (NOT She cans …) I may pass. He may pass. They may pass.

3. Modal auxiliaries do not have infinitives (to may, to shall etc.) or participles (maying, shalling, shalled etc.). You cannot say to shall, to must or to may.

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are words that join other words or clauses together.

God made the country and man made the town. He was poor but he was honest. She must weep or she will die. John and Mary got married.

Conjunctions not only join clauses together; they also show how the meanings of the two clauses are related.

I decided to consult a doctor because I was not feeling well. (cause) He is slow but he is sure. (contrast) Ann wrote the letters and Peter posted them. (addition) Either take it or leave it. (alternative) He is very wealthy, yet very unhappy. (contrast) You can have tea or coffee.

A conjunction and its clause can sometimes stand alone. This happens, for example, in answers.

When are you going to start? When I am ready. Why are you crying? Because John beat me.

Afterthoughts may also begin with conjunctions.

Ok, I did it. – But I didn’t mean it.

Writers and speakers may also separate clauses for emphasis.

Phrase conjunctions

Some conjunctions are made up of two or more words.

He looks as if he were on the brink of a breakdown. It looks as though it is going to rain. As soon as I finish this book, I will start another. We started early so that we might not miss the show.

Relative pronouns as conjunctions

Relative pronouns (who, which and that) join clauses like conjunctions.

I saw a beggar who was deaf and dumb.

In the above sentence who stands for the beggar – hence it is a pronoun. It also connects the two sentences I saw a beggar and He was deaf and dumb – hence it is a conjunction.

A relative pronoun is the subject or object of the verb that comes after it. So we do not need another subject or object.

Trust no man who does not love his country. (NOT Trust no man who he does not …) The snake which we could not kill crept into a hole. (NOT The snake which we could not kill it

crept …)

Degrees of Comparison

Filed in English Grammar

English adjectives and adverbs commonly distinguish three degrees: the positive (the basic form), the comparative (expressing a higher degree than is present in something else) and the superlative (expressing a maximal degree).

Comparative and superlative adjectives: formation

The comparative is formed with –er or more; the superlative is formed with –est or most. One syllable adjectives like big and fast tend to prefer –er and –est. Larger ones like beautiful and carefully take more and most.

John is tall. John is taller than Peter. John is the tallest man I know. Susie drives carefully. Susie drives more carefully than Alice. Susie drives the most carefully of anybody in Paris.

Determiners

Determiners are words like a, my, this, those, each, either, some, few, all and both. They come at the beginning of noun phrases, but they are not adjectives.

a new bookevery week some riceenough troublemy mother

English grammar recognises two main groups of determiners – Group A and Group B.

Group A determiners

Articles, demonstratives and possessives are often called Group A determiners. They help to identify things.

Articles - a, an, theDemonstratives - this, that, these, thosePossessives - my, our, your, their, her, his, its, one’s, whose

Two Group A determiners cannot be put together. We can say my car, this car or the car, but not the my car, this my car or my this car.

If we have to put two Group A determiners together, we use the structure a/this + noun + of mine/yours.

this car of mine a friend of yours

Group B Determiners

Most of them indicate something about quantity.

Examples are:

some, any, no each, every, either, neither much, many, more, most a little, less, least a few, fewer, fewest all, both, half what, whatever, which, whichever one, two, three etc.

We can put two Group B determiners together, if the combination makes sense.

We meet every few days. Have you got any more rice?

Group B + Group A

Group B determiners can be used directly before nouns without of.

Have they got any children? Most people love children.

But if we want to put a Group B determiner before a noun with a Group A determiner, we have to use of.

Compare:

some children some of the children neither method neither of these methods most plants most of the plants

Points to be noted

We can leave out of after all, both and half when they are followed by nouns.

all my friends OR all of my friends both (of) my parents half (of) her income

But note that we cannot leave out of when all, both and half are followed by pronouns.

all of us (NOT all us) both of them (NOT both them)

No and every are not used before of; instead we use none and every one.

no children none of the children every child every one of the children

Group A + Group B

Certain Group B determiners can be used after Group A determiners. They are: many, most, least, little and few.

a little time his many ideas a few questions the most money

Common prepositions: usage

It is difficult to learn to use prepositions correctly in a foreign language. Most English prepositions have several different functions. At the same time different prepositions can have very similar uses. Here are some of the most common prepositions in English. Example sentences and explanations are given to illustrate the usage of each preposition.

-ing forms

When -ing forms are used like nouns, they are often called gerunds.

Smoking is injurious to health. I like shooting.

Grammar notes

Note that a gerund is used like a noun. But when there is a noun which has a similar meaning to an -ing form, the noun is preferred.

We are waiting for his arrival. (NOT We are waiting for his arriving.)

Forms of the gerund

Note the structure of present, perfect, passive and negative –ing forms.

I like shooting. (present) He does not like being seen in her company. (passive) She loves being looked at. (passive) He was charged with having committed arson. (perfect) He complained of having been tortured by the police. (perfect passive) Not knowing what to do, she went home. (negative)

A gerund can be the subject, object, object of a preposition or complement of a verb.

Flying makes me sick. (subject) Trespassing is prohibited. (subject) We don't allow smoking in our house. (object) My favourite activity is reading. (complement) Our mistake was trusting him. (complement) I don’t believe in buying wine as an investment. (object of a preposition)

Gerund with its own object

A gerund can have its own object.

Compare:

Smoking is injurious to health. Smoking cigarettes is injurious to health. (The noun cigarette is the object of the gerund

smoking.) I love reading. I love reading novels. (Novels is the object of reading) Killing foxes is a horrible pastime. I love driving a fast car.

But note that when an –ing form is used with an article, it cannot usually have a direct object. Instead, we can use an of-structure.

The killing of foxes is a horrible pastime. (NOT The killing foxes …) The smoking of cigarettes is injurious to health. (NOT The smoking cigarettes …) The climbing of mountains is a good sport. (NOT The climbing mountains …)

Object pronouns before –ing forms

Determiners and possessives are often used with –ing forms.

They insisted on my resigning the post. Does my smoking annoy you? I don't mind your coming late. I hate all this useless arguing. There is no hope of his arriving on time. She was angry at John’s trying to lie to her.

In an informal style, it is more common to use object pronouns (like John, me, him, you) instead of possessives (your, his, my, John’s) with –ing forms.

They insisted on me resigning the post. She was angry at John trying to lie to her.

Object forms are also preferred when the gerund is in the passive form or when the noun denotes a lifeless thing.

We were shocked at President Kennedy being assassinated. (NOT Kennedy’s …) There is no danger of the roof crashing. (NOT roof’s) There is no hope of the fog lifting for another hour. (NOT fog’s)

Some verbs (e.g. see, hear, watch, feel) are normally followed by object + -ing form.

I saw him running out of the room. (NOT I saw his …)

It as a preparatory subject

When the subject is a phrase that includes a gerund, 'it' is often used as a preparatory subject to begin the sentence.

It is nice talking to you. (= Talking to you is nice.)

The structure is particularly common with any/no good, any/no use, worth etc.

It is no good your trying to deceive us. (=Your trying to deceive us is no good.) Is it any good my talking to him? It is no use trying to convince them. It is no fun being shot. Is it worth complaining about his conduct? It is no use waiting. Is it worth talking to him?

Subject complements

Some clauses consist of a subject, the verb be and an expression that either modifies the subject or denotes something identical to the subject.

Jane is a journalist. The children were very excited. Susie is in the shower.

The expression that modifies the subject in clauses like these is often called a subject complement. Subject complements can also follow other copular verbs like become, seem and look.

Alice became a doctor. She looks depressed.

Object complement

An object complement is a phrase which follows a direct object and either modifies that object or denotes something identical to it.

She called me a liar. They made her a star. I consider hang-gliding dangerous.

Complements of verbs, nouns and adjectives

Words and expressions which complete the meaning of a verb, noun or adjective are also called complements.

I am fond of children. (of children is the complement of the adjective fond.) I am sorry to tell you this. (to tell you this is the complement of the adjective sorry.) Let us get a bottle of wine. (of wine is the complement of the noun bottle.) She wants to find a new job. (to find a new job is the complement of the verb wants.)

It is important to know what kinds of complements can come after a particular word. For example, interested can be followed by in … -ing or by an infinitive; want can be followed by an infinitive, but suggest cannot; on the other hand suggest can be followed by a that-clause, but want cannot.

I am interested in learning to fly. I want to take a long holiday. The doctor suggested taking a long holiday. The doctor suggested that I should take a long holiday.

Copular verbs

We use a special kind of verb to join two parts of a sentence and to express either that the two parts denote the same thing or that the first has the property denoted by the second. These verbs are called copulas or copular verbs. Common copular verbs are: be, seem, look, turn, become, appear, sound, smell, taste, feel and get.

Alice is my girlfriend. (The sentence asserts that Alice and my girlfriend are the same person.) Alice is British. (The sentence asserts the quality of ‘Britishness’ to Alice.) She seems happy. She became famous. It is getting late. The stew smells good.

Adjectives after copular verbs

Copular verbs are followed by adjectives, not adverbs.

Compare:

She spoke intelligently. (Spoke is an ordinary verb. It is modified by the adverb intelligently.) She looks intelligent. (Intelligent is an adjective in predicative position. It tells you about the

person herself – rather like saying She is intelligent. Look is a copular verb.)

Note that some copular verbs are also used with other meanings as ordinary non-copular verbs. They are then used with adverbs, not adjectives. Examples are: appear, look, taste and feel.

Countable and Uncountable nouns

Countable nouns are the names of separate objects, people, ideas etc which can be counted. They have plurals.

Examples are: dog, tree, girl, book, occasion and link

We can use numbers and the article a/an with countable nouns.

a dog two books three girls

Uncountable nouns

Uncountable or mass nouns are the names of materials, liquids, abstract qualities, collections and other things which we do not see as separate objects. Most uncountable nouns are singular with no plurals. Examples are: wheat, sand, weather, water, wool, milk

We cannot use numbers with uncountable nouns. They are also not normally used with the article a/an.

Here is a list of common words which are usually uncountable in English. Corresponding countable expressions are given in brackets.

accommodation (countable - a place to live)advice (a piece of advice) baggage (a piece of baggage; a bag, a case) bread (a piece of bread; a loaf; a roll) chess (a game of chess) chewing gum (a piece of chewing gum) equipment (a piece of equipment; a tool) furniture (a piece/article of furniture) grass (a blade of grass) information (a piece of information) knowledge (a fact) lightning (a flash of lightning) luck (a bit/stroke of luck) luggage (a piece of luggage; a bag) money (a note; a coin; a sum) news (a piece of news) poetry (a poem) thunder (a clap of thunder) travel (a journey/trip) work (a job; a piece of work)

Countable or uncountable

Sometimes it is not easy to see whether a noun is countable or uncountable. For instance, travel is normally uncountable, while journey is countable. It is impossible to give complete details. The following rules, however, should help.

Illnesses

The names of illnesses are usually uncountable in English. Examples are: chickenpox, measles, cancer, diabetes, flu etc.

If you have had chickenpox, you can’t get it again.

But note that the words for some minor ailments are uncountable. Examples are: a cold, a headache

I have a bad headache.

Mixed uses

Many nouns have both countable and uncountable uses, sometimes with a difference of meaning.

Words for materials are usually uncountable. But note that the same word is often used as countable noun to refer to something made of the material.

Have you got some typing paper? (uncountable) I want a paper. (countable) Have you got any coffee? Could I have two coffees? (= two cups of coffee)

Many abstract nouns are uncountable when used in a general sense. The same noun can be countable in a particular sense.

She hasn’t got enough experience for the job. (uncountable) It was a strange experience. (countable) Take your own time. (uncountable) Have a good time. (countable)

Plural uncountable nouns

Some uncountable nouns are plural. They have no singular forms with the same meaning, and cannot be used with numbers. Examples are: trousers, jeans, pyjamas, pants, scissors, spectacles, glasses, arms, goods, customs, groceries, clothes and thanks

Have you bought the groceries? Many thanks for your help.

Other plural uncountable nouns include the expressions the British, the Dutch, the English, the French, the Irish, the Spanish and the Welsh.

If Clauses

If clauses are usually used to talk about uncertain events and situations. They often refer to a condition - something which must happen first, so that something else can happen.

If you love me, I will love you. If you study well, you will pass the exam. If you marry me, I will make you my queen. If you don't hurry up, you will be late.

Clauses of this kind are often called conditional clauses. There are four main types of conditional clauses in English. They are:

1. Zero conditional 2. Type 1 conditional3. Type 2 conditional 4. Type 3 conditional

Position of an if clause

An if-clause can come at the beginning or end of a sentence. When an if-clause begins a sentence, we use a comma to separate it from the rest of the sentence.

Compare: I will phone you if I have time. If I have time, I will phone you.

Leaving out If

In a formal or literary style if can be dropped and an auxiliary verb put before the subject. This is common with had, should and were.

Were I you I would accept the offer. (= If I were you I would accept the offer.) Had he not received her help he wouldn't have become a millionaire. (= If he had not received...)

Infinitives

Infinitives are forms like (to) write and (to) read. Infinitives are generally used with the marker to. Note that this to is not a preposition; after the preposition to we use –ing forms.

I would like to meet the manager. Is there anything to eat? The main thing is to stay calm.

Negative forms

Negative Infinitives are normally formed by putting not before the infinitive.

I decided to invite them. (affirmative) I decided not to invite them. (negative ) You were silly not to have locked the car. (NOT You were silly to not have locked the car.)

Participles

A participle is a word which is partly a verb and partly an adjective. English has two participles: the present participle and the past participle.

Forms like running, singing, walking and working are called present participles. Forms like worked, broken, gone, written and walked are called past participles.

Uses

To form verb forms

Participles are used with the auxiliary verbs be and have to make progressive, perfect and passive verb forms.

She was crying. (present progressive) I have written a novel. (present perfect) We have been waiting for ages. (present perfect progressive) They were having dinner when we called. (past progressive) He had left before I called. (past perfect) They were forced to give up their claim. (passive) It was broken in the storm. (passive)

As adjectives

Participles can be used as adjectives before nouns, or after be and other copular verbs.

A rolling stone gathers no moss. Barking dogs seldom bite. A burnt child dreads fire. He looked tired. The village appeared deserted. The children were excited.

Not all participles can be used as adjectives before nouns – for example, we can say a lost dog, but not a found dog. It is not possible to give clear rules.

As adverbs

Sometimes participles are used like adverbs.

She came running into the room. He ran screaming out of the room.

Clauses

Participles can combine with other words into clause-like structures.

Driven by rain, they took shelter under a tree. Stricken with grief, she threw herself on the body. The thief admitted having stolen the money. Deceived by his friends, he lost all hope.

Nouns

Nouns are most often the names of people, places or things. Personal names (e.g. John and Alice) and place-names (e.g. Mumbai and Chennai) are called proper nouns; they are usually used without articles.

Nouns can be divided into several sub classes:

Proper noun (e.g. India, Italy, Alice) Common noun (e.g. boy, girl, child, man, tree)

Collective noun (e.g. class, jury, army, team) Abstract noun (e.g. truth, beauty, honesty, sleep)

Proper noun

A noun denoting a particular person, place or thing is called a proper noun. Proper nouns are normally written with initial capital letters, and most proper nouns do not take an article. Examples: Alice, India, John, Sydney, Mt Everest.

Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of independent India. John is a clever boy. Alice is a journalist.

Note that proper nouns denoting historical periods and events, as well as certain others, often do take the articles.

Examples: The Stone Age, The French Revolution, The United States, The United Nations Organization

Collective noun

A noun which denotes a collection of individual persons or objects is called a collective noun.

Examples are: crowd, mob, team, flock, herd, army, fleet, jury, nation, family, committee, government etc.

In British English, a collective noun may be treated either as singular (if the whole group is being thought of as a unit) or as plural (if the group is being regarded as a collection of individuals).

The jury has announced its verdict. (The jury is regarded as a unit.) The jury are divided on this issue. (The jury is regarded as a group of individuals.)

In American English, a collective noun is always treated as singular, and Americans say The jury is divided on this issue.

Common noun

A common noun refers to a class of things, such as dog, pencil, boy, tree or book. It does not refer to a particular person or thing.

Solomon was a wise king. Alice is a cleaver girl. John is a boy.

In the above examples, Solomon, Alice and John refer to particular persons. These are called proper nouns. While king, boy and girl refer to the class or kind to which these proper nouns belong. These are called common nouns.

Common nouns include what are called collective nouns and abstract nouns.

Abstract noun

An abstract noun denotes something which is not physical and cannot be touched, such as pleasure, happiness, beauty, kindness, honesty, anger and idea. Sometimes the term is extended to include nouns denoting events and actions, such as arrival and explosion.

An abstract noun can be countable or uncountable. Uncountable abstract nouns are followed by singular verbs. We do not use articles or numbers before them.

Death (uncountable) keeps no calendar. Several deaths (countable) have been reported from the city.

pronouns

Prepositions

Prepositions are words that link a noun or a pronoun to another word in the sentence.

Here is a list of some of the most common prepositions: about, between, above, beyond, across, but, after, by, against, despite, along, down, amid, during, around, except, as, for, at, from, before, in, behind, inside, below, into, beneath, like, beside, near, of, since, off, through, on, toward, onto, under, opposite, underneath, out, until, outside, upon, over, with, past, within

A noun always follows a preposition. A prepositional phrase is a preposition and its object. A prepositional phrase can be two or three words long, as these examples show: on the roof, in the door, under the bed.

However, prepositional phrases can be much longer, depending on the length of the preposition and number of words that describe the object of the preposition.

There is a cat on the roof. He is fond of children. She sat by the fire. The lion and the unicorn fought for the crown.

Most English prepositions have several different functions. At the same time, different prepositions can have very similar uses.

When we use verbs after prepositions, we use -ing forms, not infinitives.

We are thinking of visiting them. (NOT We are thinking of to visit them.) He insisted on being paid at once. (NOT He insisted on to be paid at once.) I hate the idea of getting old. I am not very good at cooking.

When to is a preposition, it is followed by an -ing form.

I look forward to seeing you soon. She objected to my entering her room.

Active and Passive Voice

When we say what people and things do, we use active verb forms. When we say what happens to people and things - what is done to them - we often use passive verb forms.

They built this house in 1960. (active) This house was built in 1960. (passive) This book will change your life. (active) Your life will be changed by this book. (passive)

The object of an active verb corresponds to the subject of a passive verb.

They built this house (object) in 1960. This house (subject) was built in 1960.

In most cases, the subject of an active verb is not mentioned in the corresponding passive sentence. If it does have to be mentioned, this usually happens in an expression with by.

This house was built in 1960 by Sir John Elton.

Tenses

The word tense is from the Latin word tempus, which means time. English marks tense in verbs. The tense of a verb shows the time of an action or event.

English has three tenses: the past, the present and the future.

The present tense refers to the moment of speaking. With most English verbs the present tense is marked by the suffix –s in the third person singular but otherwise has no marking at all.

The past tense refers to a time before the moment of speaking. With most English verbs, the past tense is marked by the suffix –ed, though a number of verbs have an irregular past tense.

The future tense correlates with time later than the time of speaking.

Each of these three main tenses has four forms: the simple, the progressive, the perfect and the perfect progressive.

personal pronouns

Exclamations

Exclamations are often constructed with how and what or with so and such. Negative question forms are also common.

Exclamations with how

Form: how + adjective/adverb + subject + verb

How cold it is! (NOT How it is cold!) How beautifully she sings!

The structure how + subject + verb is also possible.

How you have grown!

Exclamations with what

Form: what a/an (+ adjective) + singular countable noun

What a lovely song! (NOT What lovely song!) What a surprise! (NOT What surprise!)

We use what + adjective before an uncountable or plural noun.

What lovely flowers! (NOT What a lovely flowers!) What fools! (NOT What a fools!) What beautiful weather! (NOT What a beautiful weather!)

What + object + subject + verb

What a beautiful smile you have! (NOT What a beautiful smile have you!)

Exclamations with so and such

Different structures are possible.

Form: so + adjective

You are so sweet!

Form: such a/an (+ adjective) + singular countable noun

He is such a nice boy!

Form: such (+ adjective) + uncountable/plural noun

They are such kind people! They talk such rubbish!

Direct and indirect speech

There are two main ways of reporting people’s thoughts, words, beliefs etc.

Direct speech

We can repeat or quote the exact words spoken. This kind of reporting is called direct speech.

She said, “I am going.” “The soup is too hot!” cried little Einstein. He said, “I want to go home.”

Indirect (reported) speech

We can make a speaker's words or thoughts part of our sentence, using conjunctions (e.g. that) and changing pronouns, tenses and other words when necessary. This kind of reporting is called indirect speech or reported speech.

Compare:

She said, “I might bring a friend to the party.” (Direct speech) She said that she might bring a friend to the party. (Indirect speech) Bill said, “I don’t like this party.” (Direct speech) Bill said that he didn’t like the party. (Indirect speech)

Rules for indirect speech

There are some grammatical differences between direct and indirect speech. These changes are mostly natural and logical, and it is not necessary to learn complicated rules about indirect speech in English.

Compare:

John (on Saturday evening): I don’t like this party. I want to go home now. Peter (on Sunday morning): John said that he didn’t like the party, and he wanted to go home

right away.

Dropping that

The conjunction that is often dropped, especially after common reporting verbs (e.g. say, think) in informal speech.

She said (that) she has had enough. I think (that) you are probably right.

That cannot be dropped after certain verbs (e.g. reply, telegraph, shout).

She shouted that she was busy. (NOT She shouted she was busy.) I replied that I was not coming. (NOT I replied I was not coming.)

English Sentences

A sentence is a group of words that express a complete thought. It has two main parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject includes the noun or pronoun that tells what the subject is about. The predicate includes the verb that describes what the subject is doing. Here are some examples of complete sentences.

You stop! New York City is called the ‘Big Apple'. Alice is my friend. She is a doctor. The milk turned sour.

To be a sentence, a group of words must have a subject and a predicate. It must also express a complete thought.

Being able to recognize the subject and the verb in a sentence will help you make sure that your sentences are complete and clear. Remember that in most sentences, the subject will come before the verb. Not so with questions. In a question, the verb often comes before the subject. Here are some examples.

Is the cat on the roof? (The subject of the sentence is ‘cat.’) Are you coming with us? (The subject of the sentence is ‘you.’

It can be tricky to find the subject in sentences that start with here or there. Remember that here or there never function as the subject of a sentence.

For example:

Here is your cat. (The subject of the sentence is ‘cat.’)

Verb patterns and structuresSubject + intransitive verb

Some sentences have just two words – a noun and an intransitive verb.

Birds fly. Dogs bark. Fire burns. Time flies.

Subject + transitive verb + direct object

A transitive verb must have an object. The normal order of words in an English sentence is subject + verb + object.

John likes milk. The principal punished the boy. The unruly demonstrators invaded the platform. The scoundrels should be given a good thrashing. The government should ban all military organizations.

‘John likes’ …what? Milk.‘The principal punished’ … whom?’ The boy.The direct object is the answer to the question whom or what.

Subject + verb + object + adverb particle

Some verbs are followed by particles (e.g. put on, take off, give away, bring up, call in). Sometimes the particle is detached from the verb and put after the object.

John put his hat on. They called the doctor in. He threw it away. You must send them back.

The particle is put after the object, when the object is a personal pronoun (e.g. him, them, me, us, it) or when it is comparatively short.

When the object is long or has to be made prominent or when it is qualified by an adjectival phrase or clause, the particle comes before the object.

The principal gave away the prices. He put on an air of innocence. We will not throw away anything useful. The poor widow had to bring up all three children. The sailors put out the fire in the hold of the ship. They called in Dr Smith, a famous specialist.

Subject + verb + indirect object + direct object

This order is preferred when the indirect object is shorter than the direct object or when the direct object has to be made prominent.

The president awarded him a gold medal. He told us an interesting story.

The robber dealt the traveller a heavy blow. We promised our guide a handsome reward. The teacher wished the boys all success.

Subject + verb + direct object + preposition + indirect object

This order is preferred when the direct object is shorter than the indirect object, or when the indirect object has to be stressed.

He distributed sweets to all the boys in the class. I don’t lend books to anybody. She bought a present for her mother. She ordered a new dress for herself. He made coffee for all of us.

Transformation of sentences

Changing an exclamatory sentence into an assertive sentence

The transformation of a sentence means changing its form without altering its sense.

What a wonderful opportunity! (exclamatory) It is a wonderful opportunity. (assertive) O that I were young again! (exclamatory) I wish I were young again. (assertive) How kind of you to help him like that! (exclamatory) It is very kind of you to help him like that. (assertive) How noble he is! (exclamatory) He is truly noble. (assertive) What a great pleasure it is! (exclamatory) This is indeed a great pleasure. (assertive)

Changing an interrogative sentence into an assertive sentence Is not wisdom better than riches? (interrogative) Wisdom is better than riches. (assertive) Why worry about what people say? (interrogative) It is foolish to worry about what people say. (assertive) Did I ever ask you to do it? (interrogative) I never asked you to do it. (assertive) Is there any sense in doing that? (interrogative) There is no sense in doing that. (assertive) What does it matter whether we win or lose? (interrogative) It matters little whether we win or lose. (assertive)

Changing an imperative sentence into an interrogative sentence Stop talking. (imperative) Will you stop talking? (interrogative) Shut the door. (imperative) Will you shut the door? (interrogative) Please, get me a glass of water. (imperative) Will you, please, get me a glass of water? (interrogative) Get out of here. (imperative) Will you get out of here or not? (interrogative)

The interrogative is a milder or more polite form of the imperative. However, the addition of or not (see the last example) adds a touch of threat to the command.

Synthesis of sentences

Synthesis means the combination of two or more simple sentences into one new sentence – simple, compound or complex.

 English GrammarSynthesis of sentencesSynthesis means the combination of two or more simple sentences into one new sentence – simple, compound or complex.

Ways of combining two or more simple sentences into one simple sentence.

By using a participle

This is possible only when the sentences have a common subject.

I read the book. I returned it to the library. Having read the book I returned it to the library. The farmer jumped on his horse. He rode to the market. Jumping on his horse the farmer rode to the market. He opened the gate. He took the dog out for a run. Opening the gate he took the dog out for a run. Henry planted a rose. He watered it. He manured it. He was delighted to see it beginning to

flower. Having planted a rose, and watered and manured it, Henry was delighted to see it beginning to

flower.

By using the absolute construction

This is done when the sentences have different subjects.

Read the sentences given below.

The dog bit the post man. The farmer decided to shoot it.

These two sentences can be combined into one by using the absolute construction.

The dog having bitten the post man, the farmer decided to shoot it. (‘Having bitten the postman, the farmer decided to shoot the dog’ is wrong. Because it would mean that it was the farmer who bit the postman and not the dog. )

It was a rainy day. We had to cancel the match. It being a rainy day, we had to cancel the match. (NOT Being a rainy day we had to cancel the

match.) It was a small cot. He could not sleep on it. It being a small cot, he could not sleep on it. The president took his seat on the dais. The meeting began. The president having taken his seat on the dais, the meeting began. The storm subsided. We began our march again. The storm having subsided, we began our march again. The monsoon started. The village roads became muddy. The monsoon having started, the village roads became muddy. The examination was over. The college was closed. The students left for their homes. The

campus looked deserted. The examination being over, the college being closed and the students having left for their

homes, the campus looked deserted.

Order of Words in a Sentence

To make meaningful sentences we need to arrange words in a particular order. The usual order of words in an English sentence is as follows:

Subject

In an affirmative sentence, the subject usually comes before the verb.

She is my friend. (Subject – she, verb – is) It is my bag. (Subject – it, verb – is) The dog barked. (Subject – dog, verb – barked)

Interrogative sentences usually begin with an auxiliary verb followed by the subject.

Is she your friend? (Auxiliary verb – is, subject – she) Is it your bag? (Auxiliary verb – is, subject – it) Did the dog bark? (Auxiliary verb – did, subject – dog)

Object

The object usually comes after the verb.

He killed the snake. (Subject – he, verb – killed, object – snake) I love my mother. (Subject – I, verb – love, object – mother)

When there are two objects, the indirect object (which usually denotes a person) usually comes before the direct object (thing).

She brought me a cup of coffee. (Indirect object – me, direct object – cup of coffee) I told them a story. (Indirect – them, direct – story)

Adjective

When an adjective is used attributively, it comes before the noun it qualifies.

Few children came. She is a beautiful girl. He is a lazy boy.

When an adjective is used predicatively, it comes after the verb.

She is beautiful. He is lazy.

Adverb

An adverb is usually placed close to the word it modifies.

He is a rather lazy boy. (Here the adverb rather modifies the adjective lazy.) I was pleasantly surprised. (Here the adverb pleasantly modifies the verb surprised.)

Agreement of the verb with the subject

Singular subjects take singular verbs

A verb must agree with its subject in number and person.

He is my friend. (Here the singular verb is agrees with the singular subject he.) We are waiting to hear from you. (Here the plural verb are agrees with the plural subject we.)

Sometimes due to what is called ‘the error of proximity’ a verb is made to agree with the nearest noun, and not its proper subject. This practice should be avoided.

Consider the examples given below:

The quality of the apples wasn’t very good. (NOT The quality of the apples weren’t very good. Here the proper subject is the abstract noun ‘quality’ and not ‘apples’.)

His proficiency in Indian languages is remarkable. (Here the proper subject is the singular abstract noun ‘proficiency’ and not ‘languages’.)

as well as

We use singular verbs with a singular subject followed by ‘with’ or ‘as well as’.

The manager, with his subordinates, is to be present at the venue. (NOT The manager with his subordinates are …)

Alice, as well as her sisters, has been invited. (NOT Alice as well as her sisters have been invited.)

Sanskrit, as well as Arabic, is taught here.

When one of the subjects joined by or or nor is plural, the verb must be plural in number, and the plural subject should be placed nearest to the verb.

Neither the officer nor his subordinates were present at the meeting.

When the subjects joined by or or nor are of different persons, the verb agrees with the nearest noun.

Either he or you are mistaken. (Here the verb are agrees with the nearest pronoun you.) Neither he nor I am interested. (Here the verb am agrees with the nearest pronoun I.)

It is better to avoid these constructions and to write:

He is mistaken, or else you are. He is not interested, nor am I.

Either, neither etc.

Either, neither, each, everyone and many a must be followed by a singular verb.

Neither of the applicants is suitable for the job. Many a man has succumbed to this temptation. Everyone of us loves riding.

Collective nouns

A collective noun can take either a singular or a plural verb. Note that collective nouns are always singular in American English.

The committee has submitted its report. The committee are still discussing the matter.

Is It Wrong to Ever Split an Infinitive?An infinitive is a particular verb form which expresses the verbal idea in its simplest form. It has no marking for tense, person or mood. In English, the infinitive is the verb form which can immediately follow a modal auxiliary verb like should or must.

I should go now. We will wait.

An infinitive can also follow the particle to.

I want to go. We will have to wait.

Many people have, however, gained the false impression that infinitives are forms like to write and to go. This view is mistaken and learners should realize that that to does not form part of the infinitive at all. In fact, it is possible to separate the to from the following infinitive by a phrase. For example in the sentence ‘The teacher asked the student to carefully read the lesson’, the adverb carefully separates the particle to from the following infinitive read. Similarly in the sentence ‘She decided to never touch another beer can’, the adverb never separates the particle to from the infinitive touch. Here the sequences ‘to carefully read’ and ‘to never touch’ are examples of the split infinitive. Many grammarians still feel that it is wrong to separate the particle from the following infinitive. They are of the opinion that the adverb should be used either before to after the infinitive as in the following example: The teacher asked the student to read the lesson carefully.

In some sentences, however, the intervening adverb cannot be shifted to another position without changing the meaning of the sentence.

For example consider the sentence ‘She wishes to really understand his motives’. Now try changing the position of the adverb really:

She really wishes to understand his motives. She wishes really to understand his motives. She wishes to understand really his motives.

None of these sentences means the same thing as: She wishes to really understand his motives.

The use of split infinitives in such cases has been justified by modern grammarians.