International Labour Office

Design and printing: International Training Centre of the ILO, Turin, ItalyPhotographs: Jaques Maillard, Van Imschoot, The Egyptian Social Fund For Development

ISBN 92-2-112402-9

Employment intensive

Worksin Countries Emerging from Armed Conflicts

INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE

Employment-intensiveReconstruction Works

in Countries Emerging fromArmed Conflicts

GUIDELINES

EMPLOYMENT-INTENSIVE INVESTMENT BRANCHRECOVERY AND RECONSTRUCTION DEPARTMENT

GENEVA, DECEMBER 2000

Copyright © International Labour Organization 2001

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First published 2001

ISBN 92-2-112402-9

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Design and printing: International Training Centre of the ILO, Turin, Italy

Preface

If one looks around the globe today, one finds a largenumber of countries in situations of full-fledged war orarmed conflicts of some kind. And millions of people inthose countries are affected by the crisis caused by sucharmed conflicts which almost invariably lead to a worsen-ing of the situations regarding unemployment, underem-ployment and poverty. The immediate post-conflictsituations are often characterised by such problemsthreatening large scale social exclusion and disintegra-tion of social fabric. Prolonged armed conflicts usuallycause widespread destruction to physical and economicinfrastructure and disruption of economic activities. Suchdamages not only exacerbate poverty but also make re-construction and recovery a difficult task.

Rehabilitation and repairs of damaged infrastructure areoften a basic prerequisite for the overall reconstruction ofan economy emerging from armed conflict. However, re-sources needed for such tasks are often much larger thanwhat is available (even taking into account possible ex-ternal assistance). One realistic solution to the problemof rebuilding infrastructure in such situations is to rely onwhat is readily available at low cost: locally available ma-terial, and unemployed/underemployed labour. In econ-omies with low labour costs and extensiveunemployment/underemployment, labour-intensivemethods represent an attractive and cost-effective op-tion for infrastructure works. Also, employment and in-come opportunities for demobilized soldiers, displacedpersons and refugees can help victims of conflicts adjustto a new life, and reintegrate into the society.

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One of the major objectives of the ILO is to assist itsmember States in their efforts at creating decent employ-ment for men and women. And the use of labour-basedmethods in infrastructure has been demonstrated to be avery useful means of creating such jobs and contributingto the development of low-income economies character-ized by the existence of widespread unemployment andunderemployment.

For more than twenty years the ILO, with the financial as-sistance of a large variety of external donors, hasplanned, implemented and evaluated a large number ofemployment-intensive programmes aiming at invest-ment in rural and urban infrastructure. The ILO is now try-ing to build capacity by compiling and condensing theexperience from this work and by making it available to abroad audience. It also aims to convince governments ofthe validity of relying on more employment-intensivegrowth strategies.

The present guidelines are intended to demonstrate theusefulness of labour-based approaches in infrastructurein the task of reconstruction and rehabilitation of econo-mies emerging from armed conflicts. Although theseguidelines have grown out of the conclusions reached inthree case studies1, they also draw on the experiencegathered in the work of the ILO Employment-intensive In-vestment Programme over the years. They are meant todisseminate those lessons and to provide guidance forplanning, programming and implementing employ-ment-intensive investment programmes in post-conflict

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1 Respectively on Cambodia, Mozambique and Uganda in theframework of the ILO Action Plan for Countries Emerging from ArmedConflict (1996/97).

scenarios where, in addition to the ubiquitous unemploy-ment problem, social warping complicates the transitionto a peaceful society. These guidelines were written byKaj Thorndahl, an ILO consultant who is a specialist onemployment-based and poverty reduction programmes.Gehrard Feistauer and Philippe Garnier, both membersof the Employment-intensive Investment Branch, wereresponsible for the final editing.

Rizwanul IslamDirector, Recovery and Reconstruction Department

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Table of Contents

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Armed conflict 2

1.2 ILO policies and mandate 3

1.3 Objectives, purpose and audienceof these guidelines 5

2 CONFLICTS AND THEIRCONSEQUENCES 7

2.1 Scope and complexity of the problemof conflict-affected countries 8

2.2 Damage caused by conflicts 11

2.3 Conflict-affected groups 12

3 PARTNERSHIP FOR REINTEGRATIONAND REHABILITATION 15

3.1 Partnership and Strategic Framework 16

3.2 ILO and Employment-intensive InvestmentProgrammes (EIIPs) 17

4 EIIPs: A TOOL FOR REHABILITATIONOF WAR-AFFECTED ECONOMIESAND EMPLOYMENT GENERATIONFOR CRISIS-AFFECTED GROUPS 19

4.1 EIIPs: Objectives and rationale 22

4.2 EIIPs: Experiences and potential impact 24

4.3 Examples of EIIPs 27

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5 EIIP PLANNING FOR REINTEGRATIONOF CONFLICT-AFFECTED GROUPSAND REHABILITATION OF DAMAGEDINFRASTRUCTURE 31

5.1 Policy support 34

5.2 Planning criteria 36

5.3 Cooperation and capacity building 42

5.4 Financing EIIP 44

5.5 Remuneration, mode of paymentand incentives 46

5.5.1 Determination of wages 47

5.5.2 Mode of payment 48

5.5.3 Incentives for productivity 51

5.6 Working conditions 51

5.7 Technical standards 53

5.8 Employment potential of an investment 54

5.9 Women’s participation 57

5.10 Environmental concerns 58

5.11 Public- or private-sector implementation 59

6 PROJECT FORMULATION 61

6.1 Process 62

6.2 Methodology 66

6.2.1 Basic surveys 66

6.2.2 Labour availability assessment 68

6.2.3 Target group participation 70

6.2.4 Feasibility 71

6.2.4.1 Technical feasibility 726.2.4.2 Financial feasibility 736.2.4.3 Social feasibility 74

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7 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION 77

7.1 Project organization and staff 80

7.2 Recruitment, wage disbursement andtraining of labour 81

7.3 Participation of local communities 86

7.4 Implementation of works 87

7.5 Monitoring, reviewing and adjustment 88

8 PROJECT EVALUATION 91

ANNEX 1: 97

Annotated Bibliography 97

1. Partnership 97

2. Employment-intensive InvestmentProgramme 97

3. EIIP in conflict-affected countries 98

4. Choice of technology 98

5. Planning and programming 99

6. Employment conditions andremuneration systems 100

7. Community participation 101

8. Design 102

9. Implementation 102

10. Evaluation 103

ANNEX 2: 104

The Emergency, Rehabilitation andDevelopment Phases of EIIPs 104

1. Overview 104

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2. Emergency Phase 104

3. Rehabilitation Phase 106

4. Development Phase 108

ANNEX 3: 111

Checklists for Planning, Programming andImplementation of Reconstruction Works inConflict-affected Countries 111

CHECKLIST 1: 112

Partnership for Reintegration and Rehabilitation:Preparation of National Recovery Efforts

CHECKLIST 2: 113

EIIP Planning for Reintegration and Rehabilitation:Preparation of a National Programme

CHECKLIST 3: 115

Project Formulation: Preparation of EIIP Projects

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1INTRODUCTION

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1.1 Armed conflicts

Armed conflicts cause enormous social and economicdestruction and often lead to the displacement of mil-lions of people. Most of the countries affected have com-paratively low rates of economic growth and highpoverty, unemployment and underemployment rates. Inaddition, they either host refugees from other countriesor can expect massive waves of returnees—nationals liv-ing in neighbouring countries as refugees who wish to re-patriate. As peace is restored, large numbers of refugees,internally displaced persons, and ex-combatants wish toreturn to their communities, thereby placing an addi-tional burden on over-stretched resources.

The reintegration of refugees, displaced persons, demo-bilized soldiers and others into civil life is recognized bygovernments, United Nations agencies, non-governmentalorganizations (NGOs) and donors alike as vital for the es-tablishment and maintenance of peace. It is also com-monly accepted that the methods of reintegrationadopted in the past by both developed and developingcountries emerging from armed conflict should be usedas a general guide. However, they require innovative ad-aptation to meet the needs of a particular situation andare not necessarily applicable in all circumstances.

Reintegration can be a most daunting challenge, and fewgovernments are able to cope with it on their own. In or-der to make reintegration programmes and measures asuccess, assistance to national authorities is usually re-quired. Donors, UN and specialized agencies, NGOs andall levels of local institutions can enhance support for theconflict-affected population through better planning, co-ordination and implementation.

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1.2 ILO policiesand mandate

The ILO has a long history of providing guidance to con-flict-affected countries dating back to its inception at theend of the First World War in 1919. International labourstandards were adopted towards the end of the SecondWorld War, in 1944. Recommendation No. 71, “Employ-ment (Transition from War to Peace)”, highlights, interalia, the need for “special attention” to facilitate there-employment of the demobilized forces and other con-flict-affected groups such as young workers, women andthe disabled. Recommendation No 73, “Public Works(National Planning)”, stresses the importance of publicinvestments as a means to create employment.

For many years the ILO has responded to a growing num-ber of requests from its constituents for assistance in var-ious areas ranging from vocational training, microenterprise development and employment-intensive in-vestments to rehabilitation of physical infrastructure2.Nowadays many ILO member States have been affectedby conflict and urgently require assistance to carry outthe formidable task of reintegration, reconstruction andbuilding of sustainable peace.

In recent years, the ILO has enhanced its strategy andprogrammes for working in conflict-affected situations.In 1994-95 a larger programme, including an expertgroup meeting on the re-integration of ex-combatants,was implemented. A substantial number of specific pro-jects has been or is being undertaken in countries such asAngola, Cambodia, Mozambique and Uganda3. During

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2 See ILO, 1997: ILO and Conflict-affected Peoples and Countries, Geneva.

3 ILO, 1997: ILO’s Technical Assistance Projects in Conflict-AffectedCountries: A Sample. Geneva, provides summaries of projects in 17countries.

the 1996-97 biennium the ILO launched an actionprogramme on skills and entrepreneurship training forcountries emerging from armed conflicts. The objectiveof the Action Programme was to enhance the capacity ofcountries emerging from armed conflict in planning andimplementing programmes for effective re-integration ofall conflict-affected groups and for building sustainablepeace. The ILO assistance package designed for con-flict-affected countries has three main components:

� employment-intensive investment programmes (EIIP),

� skills training, and

� small and micro enterprises development.

Among others, two main documents were recentlydrawn up on the basis of an assessment of pastprogrammes, the experience of ongoing ILO projects inconflict-affected countries and a number of investiga-tions to identify successful initiatives by national and in-ternational organizations, NGOs and other actors inpost-conflict countries. These papers were presentedand discussed in late 1997 at an interregional seminarcalled “The Reintegration of Conflict-affected Groupsthrough Skill Training and Employment Promotion” atthe ILO International Training Centre in Turin, Italy:

� “A Framework for ILO Policy and Action in the Con-flict-affected Context: Training and Employment Pro-motion for Sustainable Peace"

� “Guidelines for Employment and Skills Training inConflict-affected Countries”.

The present Guidelines provide detailed advice on the re-integration of conflict-affected groups through employ-ment-intensive investments for rehabilitation/reconstruction in the post-conflict context.

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1.3 Objectives, purpose andaudience of these guidelines

The main objective of these guidelines is to provide aplanning and programming tool and advice for the timelyand effective action as regards

� rehabilitation and development of the physical, eco-nomic, social and institutional infrastructure dam-aged during armed conflicts and

� re-integration of conflict-affected groups in this pro-cess through employment creation applying em-ployment-intensive techniques.

Further aims are to share the experience gathered fromEIIPs in post-conflict situations and to give an overview ofthis process, the stages involved and a basic idea of themethodologies required.

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The process mainly consists of four consecutive stages:

� inception,

� planning,

� implementation, and

� evaluation.

The reader will find guidance on:

� collecting and analysing relevant information in linewith the objectives of the programme at the incep-tion and planning stages;

� overall programming at the national level during theinception and planning stages;

� coordinating at both the international and nationallevel during inception, planning, and implementationstages;

� managing and monitoring during the implementa-tion stage; and

� programme/project evaluation during all stages.

These Guidelines are aimed at policy makers and plan-ners at the national level and other key national and inter-national actors and implementers of post-conflictreintegration, rehabilitation and developmentprogrammes. They are also meant to provide informa-tion for interested staff at the ILO and in other interna-tional organizations (i.e., UNHCR).

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2CONFLICTS AND THEIR

CONSEQUENCES

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2.1 Scope and complexity of theproblem of conflict-affectedcountries

Some 25 countries are presently experiencing (or haverecently experienced) crises resulting in massive loss oflife, human suffering, insecurity and deterioration of so-cial, economic, institutional and political structures andsystems. Heading the list of conflict-affected countriesare Afghanistan, Angola, Burundi, Cambodia, Congo,Democratic Republic of Congo, Eritrea, Haiti, Liberia, Mo-zambique, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan andZaire. New areas of concern e.g., are Chechnya and theBalkans.

According to various sources, recent crises have resultedin millions of casualties. At the end of 1996, UNHCR wasassisting 13 million refugees and 4 million returnees, withseveral more millions living in war-like conditions or in-ternally displaced. While conditions continue to improvein many crisis countries, recent trends indicate that theseproblems are likely to persist well into the future.

The situation in post-conflict countries is often volatileand differs from one country to the next. Therefore, spe-cific solutions for each situation need to be found. Insome countries conflicts have continued intermittentlyfor many years, impeding full-scale programmes for de-mobilization and rehabilitation.

In most situations, the end to an armed conflict is broughtabout with external assistance through various stages ofpeace-making operations and negotiations. Typically,these negotiations comprise three parts: military, politi-cal and economic.

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Military measures include an initial cease-fire and cessa-tion of hostilities, disarmament and peacekeeping ar-rangements. Political measures focus on transitionalarrangements for civilian rule, agreements on framing anew constitution with a view to facilitate democratization,national reconciliation measures and demobilization.Economic measures include humanitarian aid coupledwith capital and technical assistance from internal andmainly external sources, in overcoming the conse-quences of the conflict and in rebuilding the economy.

The following three phases are usually observed inpost-conflict situations:

1) Emergency phase:

addresses the immediate elementary needs ofconflict-affected persons, often linked with hu-manitarian assistance;

2) Rehabilitation phase:

focuses on vital reconstruction needs, includingrelocation and resettlement of refugees and dis-placed persons;

3) Development phase:

aims at achieving long-term national develop-ment priorities.

Annex 2 provides a detailed overview of the three phasesand discusses the ILO’s role and the potential of the EIIPin each phase.

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These three phases tend, however, to overlap in the unsta-ble situations characterizing many conflict-affected coun-tries. Often, there are no distinct boundaries or events todetermine the transition from one phase to another. Theprogress from emergency to development is also known as“the continuum”4 which is characterized as follows:

� there is no disruption of activities during the threephases,

� during each phase the ground for the activities of thenext phase is planned and prepared.

Unfortunately, the continuum is not always a smoothone-way sequence of interventions, where life-saving re-lief gradually and more or less automatically moves intolife-sustaining rehabilitation, followed by a process ofsustainable development. However, even in the mostcomplex post-conflict situation, programming for hu-manitarian assistance should be put in a broad perspec-tive of sustainable development, not a narrow focus onimmediate problems.

Development activities should consolidate solutions to ahumanitarian crisis and prevent them from recurring.Ideally, humanitarian and development modes of assis-tance should be mutually supportive and re-enforcing.Their respective roles and complementarity should beclarified at the very outset of a collaborative effort ad-dressing the needs, vulnerabilities and capacities ofconflict-affected countries and societies. In short, a far-sighted policy, preferably developed on a case-by-casebasis, is essential.5 However, the successful implementa-tion will depend on coherent planning with due regard tothe timeliness and complementarity of actions.

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4 See UN Consultative Committee on Programme and OperationalQuestions, 1995: The Relief to Development Continuum, New York.

5 A recent example is provided in the case of Afghanistan.

There is a general consensus that the problems ofconflict-affected countries need to be based on com-mon acceptance of fundamental principles to guide rela-tionships, roles and responsibilities of national andinternational actors and partners in their joint efforts tore-integrate the conflict-affected groups and in the reha-bilitation of damaged infrastructure. There is also a gen-eral recognition that simultaneous and consistent actionis essential during all stages to achieve humanitarian re-lief and development cooperation objectives.6

2.2 Damage caused by conflicts

Civil conflicts and war often destroy human, social, phys-ical and economic capital. The economy is usually se-verely disrupted. Large population groups are unable toprovide for themselves because they have been dis-placed and/or because their means of income have beendestroyed. War is often connected with a rapid decline ineconomic performance. Moreover, the capacity of apost-conflict country to offer employment and income isoften negligible. Production in both industry and agricul-ture declines sharply with adverse effects on economicoutput and exports. Consequently, foreign exchange re-sources shrink, leading to scarcity of essential imports.

In most conflicts, physical infrastructure is a prime targetfor damage and destruction. Opposing forces aim atroads, bridges, railways, energy supplies and communi-cation systems to isolate the enemy and to obstruct sup-plies and reinforcements. Schools, health facilities,drinking water supplies, irrigation systems and otheritems of public or private infrastructures are also dam-aged or destroyed. Markets are affected and investments

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6 See UN/CCPOQ: Post-conflict rehabilitation and reconstruction,Geneva, February 1997.

curtailed while the supply of money dwindles and per ca-pita income drops.

The security situation is generally precarious. In manycases there is a proliferation of landmines in such areashampering local activities in most sectors of the econ-omy. Adding to the insecurity is the rootlessness of for-mer combatants, who have not settled, have no incomeand who may remain involved in banditry. Easy availabil-ity of arms, widespread unemployment and food short-ages often contribute to increased banditry and crime inan unstable society.

The collapse of the economy is a major problem for there-integration of conflict-affected people into normal ci-vilian life. The fragility of the economy impairs economicgrowth and generation of employment outside subsis-tence agriculture.

2.3 Conflict-affected groups

Although residents in a conflict-affected area will haveexperienced adverse effects on their lives, not all willhave suffered to the same degree and therefore cannotbe accorded equal priority.

Refugees, internally displaced persons, female-headedhouseholds, disabled persons and orphan children are allvulnerable groups who need special, immediate atten-tion. Demobilized soldiers/combatants form a specialgroup whose needs must be catered for in order to guar-antee the peace process.

Large numbers of people are displaced internally or arerefugees in another country. In Africa and Asia alone sta-tistics compiled over the last ten years indicate that some50 million people have been displaced. All displaced per-

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sons need to be reintegrated after the cessation ofhostilities. Most of them usually originate from rural com-munities and want to return to their area of origin oncehostilities have ended, except demobilized soldiers whoon the whole prefer to relocate to urban areas. However,the basic infrastructure may have been destroyed andlandmines may make the use of cultivable lands impossible.

Combatants and civilians alike may have suffered physi-cal disabilities and psychological trauma arising fromarmed conflict. The large numbers of disabled personsand the destruction of health infrastructure increases thesocial burdens on individuals, mainly on women.

Conflicts bring about important demographic changes.Often, an unbalanced sex ratio is one of the consequencesof war, with women outnumbering men. It is importantthat this fact be reflected in policies, strategies andprogrammes. Women and children are reported to consti-tute more than 80 percent of the worlds refugees andthere are indications that they constitute a similar propor-tion among the internally displaced. A high dependencyratio is thus formed with many children, including or-phans, but also the aged and disabled, all depending onthe women. The incidence of female-headed householdsnormally soars and with it the extent of poverty.

A key question in many conflict-affected countries relatesto the efforts that should be made to target the demobi-lized for special assistance. In cases, such as Mozam-bique, where the demobilized already have beenaccorded substantial privileges, preferential treatmentmay have a potential for creating antagonistic feelingsamongst the other conflict-affected groups towards thedemobilized. In rural communities, exclusive preferenceshould in principle not be accorded to the demobilized. Itwould be better if all conflict-affected groups were con-sidered beneficiaries in reintegration programmes.

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3PARTNERSHIP

FOR REINTEGRATIONAND REHABILITATION

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3.1 Partnership andStrategic Framework

The government should have “ownership” of and take re-sponsibility for the recovery process. However, expecta-tions and needs are at their highest at a time whennational capacity is at its lowest. The basic employmentand rehabilitation needs of a country emerging fromarmed conflict can best be met by a partnership includingthe national authorities and other relevant internationalorganizations. International partners should support theefforts of national authorities in the reintegration and re-habilitation process. However, in view of inadequate eco-nomic, social and political structures and systems inpost-conflict countries, the international community can-not limit its activities to supporting the authorities. It mustalso take practical aspects of the situation into consider-ation and give priority to the concerns and needs of peo-ple at the local level.

UN organizations can play an essential role by assistingin the creation of the best possible conditions for recov-ery. The effective implementation of a comprehensive re-covery programme requires the closest possiblealliances between these agencies and organizations.Moreover, close cooperation with other key partnerssuch as international and national NGOs, bilateral donorsand the Bretton Woods institutions, is a prerequisite fordeveloping adequate crisis responses and approaches. Ifpossible, contingency plans should be agreed upon bythe agencies concerned well before the cessation of hos-tilities. The respective roles and responsibilities of pivotalUN agencies should be clearly spelled out so as to avoidthe unnecessary duplication of efforts or waste of re-sources when the time comes for them to provide a com-prehensive support programme to a country affected byconflict.

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Preparation for recovery is needed early on and it is gen-erally recognized that the establishment of a so-calledstrategic framework for recovery is essential. The strate-gic framework should provide for a process in which theconcerns of national authorities and special concerns ofdonors, the UN system, international NGOs, BrettonWood institutions and others lead to more effective plan-ning, programming and financing of all recovery efforts7.Employment-intensive investment programmes should,whenever possible, be planned and implemented withinsuch a strategic framework.

3.2 ILO and Employment-intensive InvestmentProgrammes

The ILO has developed employment-intensive invest-ment programmes over the past two decades and has as-sisted some 40 countries with their implementation, thuscreating ample knowledge on the subject. Based on itslong experience and expertise in setting up integratedprogrammes for employment creation, the ILO has de-veloped a standard programme package, which ensuresthat employment is created in the short and long termscoupled with an increase in labour force capacities. Thispackage consist of three complementary components:the EIIP, vocational training for employment, and smalland micro enterprise promotion. This type of integratedemployment programme covers a wide spectrum of con-flict-affected persons: from unskilled workers who havenothing more than their labour to offer, to semi-skilledworkers wishing to upgrade their skills for quality employ-ment and small entrepreneurs wishing to establish or ex-pand small businesses in the informal or formal sector.

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7 See UN/CCPOQ 1997 op cit.

At the international level the ILO actively participates inthe key UN inter-agency committees planning reintegra-tion and rehabilitation programmes for countries emerg-ing from armed conflict. The capabilities and theexpertise of the ILO has been recognized in a surveymade by the UN8. The ILO works closely with UN bodies,funding partners, NGOs and other international agenciesin order to complement certain inputs for itsprogrammes which are needed for social and economicreintegration.

In a strategic framework, the ILO is generally assigned toset up, coordinate and manage, as necessary, an em-ployment promotion programme. This programmewould comprise, as appropriate, components for em-ployment-intensive infrastructure rehabilitation, voca-tional skills training, and small and micro enterprisedevelopment.

For EIIPs the starting point is during the relief and human-itarian operations, which are established perhaps evenprior to the cessation of hostilities. The ILO will workclosely with relief organizations such as UNHCR, UNICEF,ICRC and the WFP. An ongoing working relationship be-tween these organizations is important in order to pre-pare for early action. A special inter-agency workinggroup may be formed to co-ordinate the EIIP and to shareall available and relevant information.

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8 UN/CCPOQ 1996: Survey of the United Nations System’s Capabilitiesin Post-Conflict Reconstruction, UN Vienna. Sections H. on Transportand Section O. on Employment are especially relevant.

4EIIPs

A TOOL FOR REHABILITATION

OF WAR-AFFECTED ECONOMIES

AND EMPLOYMENT GENERATION

FOR CRISIS-AFFECTED GROUPS

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War-affected economies are usually faced with two ma-jor challenges: the huge gap between available re-sources and omnipresent needs, and economicrecovery, thwarted by the loss of job opportunities anddamage to the infrastructure. Rapid economic recoveryis hindered greatly by these problems.

The symptoms of such a scenario are high unemploy-ment among the unskilled on one side and lack of re-sources for infrastructure investments and production onthe other. One proven way out of this scenario is to

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THE EXPERIENCE OF THE

WORK PROGRAMME

ADMINISTRATION IN THE

UNITED STATES

(1933-1940)

Before the First World War, in-dustrialized countries had setup relief and public worksprogrammes aimed at helpingpeople without work or on wel-fare. At that time, governments’concerns were mainly sociallyoriented, almost with a philan-thropic bent. Limited financialresources resulted in subsis-tence wages, shift work and achoice of works requiring aminimum dependence on ma-terials and equipment. As earlyas 1909, “ready-to-implement”schemes were being consid-ered as a swift response towidespread unemployment.

In the post-war period, thetrend shifted towards more

economic-oriented concerns.The objective was no longer toemploy as many people aspossible, but to maintain fullemployment in the construc-tion sector by means ofanti-cyclical policies. In prac-tice, classical monetary mea-sures were preferred tobudgetary policies in order tomaintain prosperity.

In 1929, the collapse of thestock market in the UnitedStates triggered an unprece-dented crisis leaving 25 to 30per cent of the working popula-tion unemployed. The Roose-velt administration, set up in1933, rapidly implemented aseries of programmes de-signed to provide employmentto male workers who had losttheir jobs, at least to those ca-pable of performing manual la-bour. The main programmesare listed below:

launch programmes which minimize scarce capital inputand make use of what is available: unemployed or under-employed labour and local materials.

There are examples in recent history and in developedcountries where, in periods of acute unemployment, em-ployment-intensive investment programmes to rehabili-tate the infrastructure have provided the necessary boostfor the economy and, at the same time, employment forcrisis-affected groups.

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� the Civilian ConservationCorps, which put youngmen to work in forests andnational parks;

� the National Youth Admin-istration, which employedyoung men in communitymaintenance works;

� the Work Progress Admin-istration (WPA), the mostimportant and well knownof these programmes, fo-cused on road construc-tion and all kind of publicworks. These infrastruc-ture and constructionworks were carried out byforce accounts (govern-ment- run) and did notcontract activities to pri-vate sector enterprises.

Interestingly, recipients werepaid the minimum hourly wagefor these types of works. How-ever, employment was limited

to a maximum number ofhours per month depending onfamily needs. Labour costswere paid by the federal gov-ernment, while other costswere defrayed by NGO’s, stategovernments and communi-ties, who also were in charge ofsupervision. The WPA created13.7 million work years duringthe seven years thisprogramme was in effect.Thanks to these schemes, mil-lions of families managed tosurvive with dignity during thisperiod. In addition, countlesspublic infrastructures were es-tablished which were to have adirect impact on the future de-velopment of the UnitedStates’ economy.

Once operational, EIIPs immediately generate employ-ment and income for large numbers of individuals.Logically, they stimulate long-term employment as theycontribute to the rehabilitation of the infrastructure byconstructing, rehabilitating or maintaining roads, canals,water supply and sanitation systems, housing, schools,health facilities, etc., which in turn are a prerequisite forthe development of the national economy.

Historically, EIIPs have been implemented in normal,non-conflict situations; programmes in conflict-affectedcountries being the exception. However, guidelines,manuals and training materials which have been devel-oped for planning, implementation and evaluation ofEIIPs may, especially in regard to technical aspects,prove valuable in post-conflict situations as well.9 How-ever, the need for more detailed advice on planning, im-plementation and evaluation of EIIPs in conflict-affectedcountries has been expressed by concerned countries.The purpose of these Guidelines is to share the experi-ence gained from EIIPs in post-conflict situations.

4.1 EIIPs: Objectivesand rationale

The general objective of EIIPs is to alleviate poverty byspeeding up local economic development. Local eco-nomic development is fostered through productive in-vestments in physical infrastructure, e.g., transportation,communication, irrigation, etc., as well as investments insocial infrastructure such as housing, schools, healthclinics or drinking water.

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9 Annex I contains an annotated bibliography, including references tosome of the existing guidelines and manuals.

The more specific goal of EIIPs is employment and in-come generation. The principal advantages of EIIPs isthat they provide scope and flexibility to generate bothshort-term, immediate employment through construc-tion, rehabilitation, and maintenance of the infrastruc-ture, and long-term sustainable employment through theproductive use of the same infrastructure.

Moreover, there are spin-offs through the injection ofcash for wages and local procurement into the local, con-flict-affected economy. By investing in locally availableresources rather than in imported machinery and man-power from non-local sources, a market is created for thegoods and services provided by the local economy.

The rationale of employment-intensive investmentprogrammes is to give, during the design phase when-

23

Investments in

physical infrastructure

Local economicdevelopment

Transportation

Irrigation

Irrigation

Housing

Health clinics

Schools

Investments in

social infrastructure

Drinking water

ever possible, priority to the input of labour over the in-put of equipment. Occasionally such programmes arealso termed labour-intensive.

However, some operations require the use of certainequipment. If employment-intensive methods cannotprovide outputs or products of adequate quality or ifthese methods are not cost-effective, the investmentshould be undertaken by an appropriate mix of labourand equipment.

4.2 EIIPs: Experiencesand potential impact

A large number of employment-intensive investmentprogrammes have been planned, implemented and eval-uated, so their impacts and effects are well documented.The programmes have been well monitored and manyprojects have undergone external evaluations.

Infrastructure is one of the main economic sectors in de-veloping countries. Construction, rehabilitation andmaintenance of infrastructures account for almost half ofdomestic capital formation and absorb up to 70 per centof public investment funds and some 40 per cent of inter-national development assistance.10 At the same time,lack of efficiently functioning infrastructures remains amajor obstacle to development and economic growth.Moreover, post-conflict countries are usually burdenedwith very high foreign exchange debt obligations andlow export levels due to war damage. In the post-conflictsituation the opportunity cost of foreign exchange is at itshighest. Therefore, technologies which promote for-

24

10 ILO, 1994: Towards full employment, contribution of the InternationalLabour Organization to the second session of the PreparatoryCommittee for the World Summit for Social Development, New York,22 August-2 September 1994, (ILO, WSSD/1994), Geneva, p.20.

eign-exchange savings are crucial for speeding up acountry’s economic recovery.

In many developing countries there has been a bias in fa-vour of equipment-intensive construction methods withdependence on expensive imports of both machineryand services. However, recent experience has shownthat labour-intensive methods are often morecost-effective: they are 10 to 30 per cent less costly, in-curring only half the imports and creating two to threetimes more employment to produce infrastructure ofcomparable quality and standards.11 In a post-conflict sit-uation the financial situation is generally dire and a pre-cise comparison of the costs involved in choosing atechnology should receive special attention. Sometimes,there is unqualified or hasty decision-making in this fieldbased on habits and unrealistic expectations or “ap-proved” departmental norms. Alternative constructionmethods and, therefore, the extent to which labour cansubstitute for equipment, are often not considered at thedesign stage. This leads to the automatic use of projectdesigns, which are generally biased against la-bour-based methods. EIIPs are particularly relevant in sit-uations where there is a labour surplus, which isgenerally the case in a post-conflict situation.

The cost of EIIPs is relatively low, because they dependon the most commonly available local resource, i.e., un-skilled labour. Other input factors such as supervisors,skilled labour and machinery are kept to a minimum. Bymaximizing the most abundant and cheapest resource,and minimizing the scarcest and more expensive inputs,the costs of EIIPs are comparatively lower than other ap-

25

11 In part from B. Martens, 1990: Etude comparée de l’éfficacitééconomique des techniques à haute intensité de main-d’oeuvre et àhaute intensité d’équipement pour la construction de routessecondaires au Rwanda, BIT/ILO, Geneva. See also P.H. Bentall, 1990:Ghana feeder roads project: Labour-based rehabilitation andmaintenance, WEP-CTP 116, ILO, Geneva.

proaches. Unskilled labour is normally paid at currentminimum wage rates, often supplemented with food ra-tions at subsidized prices and sometimes paid entirelywith food (food for work) during times of emergency. La-bour wages are generally set at a level comparable withalternative agricultural earnings, but at the same timekeeping the labour demand at a level which would not, toany significant extent, divert labour from alternative pro-ductive agricultural activities. Labour wages paid in re-cent years under investment programmes havegenerally corresponded to the equivalent of US$1 toUS$2.5 per day for unskilled workers, with wages forskilled workers from 50 to 100 per cent higher. It is, how-ever, generally acknowledged that the use of la-bour-intensive methods is effective when the cost ofunskilled labour does not exceed US$4 per day.

A well-planned EIIP may directly raise the socio-economiccapacities of conflict-affected populations. It will alsostrengthen the vocational skills of many workers, encour-age social cohesion between local residents and peopledisplaced by conflict, and bring about greater social sta-bility in the post-conflict environment. This is especiallyrelevant where large population movements have takenplace. For example, during the reconstruction of a ruralroad, individuals from each community along the roadmay be given technical training. Once the project is com-pleted, some of these individuals will form local mainte-nance crews. Training workers for future maintenance orfor continued infrastructure rehabilitation and develop-ment should be part of most EIIPs.

EIIPs are ideally suited to the active participation of the af-fected communities, because they neither require heavyequipment nor advanced engineering know-how. Thepost-project maintenance of the rehabilitated infrastruc-ture will be labour-intensive as well and create long-termemployment for some maintenance teams. After some

26

training during the life of the project, local leaders shouldbe able to manage the operation and maintenance of theinfrastructure.

Post-conflict situations are often characterized by a fairlylengthy period of reintegration of vulnerable groups suchas internally displaced, refugees and demobilized sol-diers. Acquiring land, preparing it, building houses, etc.,usually take considerable time, during which little in-come may be earned to meet basic needs. These needsmay be partly or fully satisfied through special assistanceprogrammes for certain groups. However, for those with-out such support, EIIPs provide an income-earning op-portunity to carry them from the preparatory phase ofresettlement to economic reintegration.

Countries suffering from emergencies caused by conflictor natural disasters such as drought or floods often at-tempt to fulfil the basic needs of the affected populationsthrough free distribution of food and other commodities.However, free distributions often have negative psycho-logical effects and create a dependency of vulnerablegroups on the donor community. EIIPs allow the affectedpopulations to become actively involved in a project,which is not only of significant benefit to the communityin the long term, but also provides employment on a re-munerative basis in the short term.

4.3 Examples of EIIPs12

In Cambodia, an ILO project launched in October 1992 in-cluded components for labour-based infrastructure reha-bilitation (mainly rural roads and irrigation schemes),

27

12 For an indication of the assistance provided by the ILO, see forexample: International Labour Review, Vol. 131, No.1, 1992, whichcontains a number of articles on and bibliographic references to thesubject.

capacity building for decision makers and techniciansand vocational training. The programme concentrated itsattention on demonstration, replicability, and the accep-tance of the EIIP approach by national authorities andfunding agencies. Several projects were implemented inthe four provinces which had the highest concentrationof demobilized combatants (30,000), returnees from refu-gee camps in Thailand (20,000) and internally displacedpersons (about 90,000). By the end of 1994, the projecthad constructed or rehabilitated 220 km of tertiary roadsand 56 km of canals for irrigation systems, while employ-ing up to 6,000 workers per day. The programmeprovided training to more than 150 road and irrigation en-gineers. Ten small contractors were given special train-ing for future long-term rehabilitation/maintenance work.Nearly 60 per cent of the workers were women. The pro-ject was not targeted solely at demobilized soldiers, butat returnees and internally displaced persons as well.

In Mozambique, ILO projects assisted the government inintroducing labour-based road improvement and mainte-nance systems, which eventually developed into theFeeder Roads Programme. This programme sought toremove one of the principal constraints, that of limitedaccess to agricultural and rural areas in the country.13 Theprogramme entailed the organization of district-level la-bour brigades and started with two, each involvingaround 300 workers in 1989. It developed into 23 bri-gades of 150 to 250 workers each in 23 districts in 1994. Agradual expansion of the programme to the entire coun-try is planned by the government. The programme isopen to all conflict-affected groups, with women’s partic-ipation averaging at ten per cent.

28

13 UNDP: Mozambique feeder roads programme, Report of the JointUNDP/SIDA/ILO/MOZ evaluation mission, 29 April 1994; UNDP/ILO:Management assistance to labour-based feeder roads rehabilitationand maintenance programme (FRP), Phase II, Draft Project Document,October 1994.

In Uganda, an employment-intensive approach has beenapplied to rural roads construction, rehabilitation andmaintenance for a long time. The earliest ILO-supportedprojects started in 1981 on a pilot basis. A total of six havecontributed to the development of a comprehensive EIIPcoordinated by a labour-intensive investment unit in theMinistry of Planning and Economic Development. Oneprogramme was an emergency relief action designed tohelp people resettle. It entailed a wide variety of invest-ments, ranging from schools to roads and agro-forestry.Another project focused on roads and involved the reha-bilitation of more than 600 km of rural feeder roads. Ur-ban investments were also made with an emphasis onthe rehabilitation of primary drains and construction ofsecondary drains in an informal settlement.

29

5EIIP PLANNING

FOR REINTEGRATION OF

CONFLICT-AFFECTED GROUPS

AND REHABILITATION OF

CONFLICT-DAMAGED

INFRASTRUCTURE

31

Ph

oto

:V

an

Imsch

oo

t

Experience suggests that the following areas should beconsidered in the planning and design of future supportprogrammes for countries emerging from armed con-flict:

� identification of international partners in employ-ment programmes, in particular within theUN-agencies, international organizations and NGOs;

� definition of the role and responsibilities of the part-ners;

� identification of target groups;

� identification of types and scope of infrastructure tobe improved;

� preparation of the scope of EIIPs;

� exploration of the potential for donor funding;

� preparation of agreements on specific interventions;and

� coordination of specific interventions.

Planning of employment-intensive investmentprogrammes should be based on answers to the follow-ing questions of priority: Should priority be given to therehabilitation of the conflict-damaged infrastructure, tothe reintegration of the conflict-affected people, to eco-nomic growth or to a combination of the three?

The selection of priorities may be difficult. In most coun-tries, different interests and values lead to diverse per-ceptions of priorities. Depending on the source offunding and its allocation, government priorities for EIIPand decisions by the donors may differ. Moreover,political interests have often clashed in the past with localsocio-economic needs; careful planning andinter-agency coordination can help to avoid inadequatedecisions. It is therefore necessary to establish an en-

32

abling environment for consensus on the most funda-mental issues.

National policies for adoption of the EIIP approach is es-sential. Often there is a need for widely based policy sup-port. In a situation where the national government is in astate of reorganization and re-establishment, the strate-gic framework may be an adequate forum for settingsuch policies. Priorities may be set according to policy di-rectives. Once priorities are established, a rough outlineof the EIIP in terms of local infrastructure rehabilitationand employment generation can be defined in accor-dance with available funding.

In a situation featuring multiple projects, certain basicprovisions, conditions and parameters should be agreedupon in the interest of consistency. They are as follows:

� determining remuneration systems and workingconditions,

� setting technical standards and

� taking environmental precautions.

Such basic provisions and parameters do not imply uni-formity, rather they provide broad guidelines for the de-sign and implementation of individual projects. It isevident that conditions may vary from one region to an-other and from one type of scheme to the next. Adjust-ments will need to be made in each project as required bythe local situation. The situation will vary widely particu-larly in a post-conflict situation, not only geographicallybut also over time. Planning, designing and implement-ing EIIPs and its projects need to be developed and up-dated continuously.

33

5.1 Policy support

The preparation and adoption of national policies for em-ployment-intensive investment is an important prerequi-site for post-conflict reconstruction. These policies willform the basis for EIIP planning and programming, andshould include the following parameters:

� approval by technical ministries and adoption byhigh-level decision-making bodies of labour-basedtechnologies for rehabilitation as a preferred meansto reconstruct the conflict-damaged social and eco-nomic infrastructure and as an important means toassist in the reintegration of conflict-affected groupsthrough the creation of immediate employment;

� support for sustainable labour-intensive construc-tion and maintenance of the essential infrastructurein the longer term;

� by carefully selecting the infrastructure works to beconducted, a clear indication of who should consti-tute the intended target group(s): demobilized com-batants, returnees, internally displaced personsand/or local residents;

� commitment and priority to employ local workersand utilize locally available resources for invest-ments;

� decentralization of responsibility for implementa-tion; and

� participation of rural and urban communities in theinvestments and their future maintenance.

Once a consensus regarding the main policy is reached,the following criteria should be considered for its devel-opment:

34

Conflict specificity: Conflict-affected populations needimmediate assistance in the emergency period. As manypeople as possible should benefit from decisions on in-vestments as soon as possible. The criteria for creatingimmediate employment should also address securityproblems, the danger of landmines and related aspects,the resettlement of conflict-affected displaced popula-tions and infrastructure rehabilitation.

Clear objectives: The policies should emphasize threemutually re-enforcing goals: employment creation, infra-structure construction, and capacity building; it shouldlead to the improvement of social and economic condi-tions.

Targeting: Employment generation and the improve-ment of economic conditions of conflict-affected groupsthrough reintegration must head post-conflict govern-ment priorities. The direct beneficiaries (demobilizedcombatants and their dependants, returnees, internallydisplaced persons, etc.) should be identified in the policystatement.

Linkages and synergy effects: EIIPs should be included ingeneral development planning and complement and re-inforce other ongoing development activities. A policystatement should provide a recommendation forinter-agency cooperation.

35

5.2 Planning criteria

In a war-torn region, identification of target groups andinfrastructures to be reconstructed or rehabilitated arethe first steps of planning. There are some basic choicesthat need to be made: 1) what area(s) should be selectedfor intervention; 2) in what order of priority should the in-terventions be programmed: and, 3) how should the in-terventions be timed. The selection of target areas maybe evident and in an emergency situation exclusivelybased on a positive assessment of the security situationcombined with accessibility. However some general cri-teria for rational decision-making is suggested below.

Selecting geographical areas of operation depends uponseveral factors:

� insecurity, landmines, and inaccessibility may makeit impossible to work in a given area;

� large numbers of conflict-affected people shoulddraw assistance;

� if the infrastructure is in good condition and offers anadequate base for economic growth, there would beless need for an EIIP;

� labour in sufficient numbers must be available closeto the tentative sites:

� the capacity of local government institutions to orga-nize and implement employment-intensive invest-ment programmes.

36

In some cases, the initial assumptions relating to theavailability of administrative and logistical capacity aswell as availability of sufficient labour have beenover-optimistic.14 To avoid unpleasant surprises and lo-gistical constraints, the launching of small-scale pilot pro-jects may be recommended. Pilot projects would alsoallow for gradual logistical and institutional capacitybuilding.

The next crucial issue is to decide which individual pro-jects should be given priority , assuming that several pro-jects have been formulated. It is advisable that thefollowing five criteria be used as the basis for sound deci-sion-making:

Targeting:

� focusing on areas and projects where employment(and income) can be generated for very poor, con-flict-affected, or vulnerable groups, e.g., demobilizedcombatants, internally displaced persons, refugees,etc.

Short-term employment:

� the cost per workday (with due consideration to theestablished remuneration system for workers); a lowcost per workday will normally be a strong argumentin favour of labour-intensive methods;

� the number of workdays of short-term employmentwhich can be generated for conflict-affected groupsduring the investment period.

37

14 J. von Braun, T. Teklu and P. Webb: “Labour-intensive public works forfood security in Africa: Past experience and future potential”,International Labour Review, 1992, Vol. 131, No. 1., p. 31.

Long-term employment:

� the number of jobs generated through the produc-tive use of the investments (e.g., additional jobs inthe agriculture sector owing to a large area of irri-gated land)

� the number of jobs produced through increased eco-nomic activities as a result of upgraded infrastructure(e.g., additional employment in the transport sector,small workshops)

Technical feasibility:

� the extent of damage to the infrastructure;

� secure access to the areas where reconstruction ac-tivities can safely take place;

� dependence on parallel programmes for the elimina-tion of dangers, i.e., clearance of landmines.

Economic feasibility:

� cost/benefit projection (the economic return, i.e., thebenefits of the investments in comparison to thecosts) also taking into account complementarity withother programmes/projects, e.g., the potential for lo-cal agricultural and small industry development, etc.

� effects in parallel programmes, e.g., opening up ofareas hitherto isolated

The weight and importance of each criterion may vary,according to political considerations, the region involvedand the phase itself, whether the emergency, rehabilita-tion or development phase.

38

Table 5.2 gives an example of a possible use of the crite-ria for prioritizing specific projects by phases.15 The prior-ity weights given in this example range from 1 (highest)to 5 (lowest). They relate to a particular situation andshould be applied to different situations with properjudgement.

Table 5.2 : Criteria for the planning of EIIPprojects and their priority by phases(1 = highest priority, 5 = lowest priority)

CriteriaEmergency

Phase

Rehabilitation

Phase

Development

Phase

Targeting 1 2 3

Short-termemployment

1 2 3

Long-termemployment

5 4 2

Technicalfeasibility

2 2 2

Economicfeasibility

4 3 2

The above table indicates that in the emergency phasethe highest priorities relate to people-oriented activities,i.e., short-term employment and targeting. In the rehabil-itation phase the other criteria, including economic feasi-bility, also gain weight. In the development phasetechnical and economic feasibility gain ground alongwith long-term employment creation; EIIPs, however,continue to have important social dimensions.

39

15 ILO 1979: Guidelines for the Organization of Special Labour-intensiveWorks Programmes, Geneva, gives a detailed explanation of selectioncriteria in Section I, B.

A few lessons can be learned from planning and imple-menting programmes in post-conflict situations:

� keep the programme simple with a focus on con-flict-affected persons;

� rely on well-tested approaches but make adjust-ments when necessary; and

� make accessibility a prerequisite for future develop-ment. For instance, investing in road construction, inparticular gravel and earth roads, offers excellentemployment generation opportunities.

Experience from recent reconstruction efforts shows thatit is difficult and perhaps counter-productive to aim anEIIP exclusively at demobilized combatants. In general,infrastructure rehabilitation is carried out in communitiesconsisting of several needy groups and it is advisable toinclude all disadvantaged people in the same employ-ment programme. In areas with large concentrations ofdemobilized combatants, an employment quota may beestablished for this target group, e.g., a minimum of 20percent of all unskilled workers should be recruitedamongst the demobilized.

Timing of the programme and its individual projects isthe last decision to take. Drawing from experience, onecan conclude that governments and their external part-ners are under time pressure in most post-conflict areas.Consequently, planners sometimes allow for an unrealis-tically short time frame of a few years, while, in reality, re-construction and reintegration may be a question of adecade or more. An initial project may only become op-erational after one year owing to all kinds of obstaclessuch as delays in senior staff recruitment and procure-ment.

40

Furthermore, the technical planning involved in imple-mentation may also be time-consuming. Realistic timeframes should therefore be established.

Planning an EIIP calls for the collection of substantial datathrough traditional research and interviews and surveys.In an emergency situation, it may not be possible togather and analyse in an orderly fashion all the informa-tion and data required. This should not stop the planningprocess, however. Systematic attempts should be madeto fill the gaps whenever an opportunity arises. In emer-gency situations consultations with key informants andknowledgeable individuals are always useful. Rapid re-connaissance and appraisal techniques may be utilizedto obtain qualitative and quantitative assessment of thesituation. Direct consultations with the different targetgroups is a must. This line of communication should stayopen during the entire planning and implementation pro-cess.

In near-emergency conditions immediately following aconflict, i.e., particularly during the starting phase of anEIIP, a lack of information necessary for establishing ba-sic conditions and parameters may be a problem. There-fore, EIIPs must sometimes be planned based onassumptions and data from the pre-conflict situation orexperience of other countries, but always with thepost-conflict situation and its limitations clearly in mind.Because of gaps in the planning process, the programmedesign must remain flexible and capable of beingadapted and/or modified as the situation develops.

41

5.3 Cooperation andcapacity building

In a post-conflict situation governmental structures areoften weak and unable to take responsibility for the plan-ning and implementation of a large-scale EIIP. If so, itmay be necessary to establish a supportive partnershipstructure between the national authorities, the UN sys-tem, humanitarian organizations and other relevant part-ners. In any case, a coordinating agency responsible forthe overall planning and coordination needs to be identi-fied or set up. Depending on the size of the programmeand the timing, that structure may require additionalstaffing or may assign the responsibility to a focal personof existing staff and/or a coordination committee.

Many programmes are launched by the UN system andthe donor community with a coordinator responsible forseveral programmes within a UN organization. Some im-portant tasks of the coordinating agency require particu-lar technical and social expertise. Expertise for the designof EIIPs (programme formulation, outlining the mainpoints of an EIIP (definition of objectives, identification oftarget areas and groups, planning criteria, etc.) and forprogramme evaluation is available from ILO EIIP special-ists. Cooperation with other sector specialists to supportnational experts may be envisaged if necessary. Exper-tise for specific project formulation missions is also avail-able at an earlier stage in order to draw up projectdocuments for submission to donors interested in financ-ing EIIPs.

In situations exacerbated by war or prolonged regionalconflict, the shortage of skilled, experienced workers, en-gineers and administrative staff is felt most acutely. Theinstitutional capacity of all levels of government to pro-vide technical, social and financial support becomes very

42

low.16 Further, availability of qualified staff is a key factorof institutional capacity and competence. Managerialpersonnel, engineers, technicians, supervisors, foremen,surveyors and accountants are as necessary as a largepopulation of workers. As it may be difficult to find quali-fied personnel at local or national level, many posts inEIIPs may remain vacant, resulting in the need to bring ininternational experts to fill project posts, as well as otherreintegration and rehabilitation positions. However, for-eign-dominated programmes face a long-term problem iflocal capacity building needs are underestimated or ne-glected. The risk is that, once the international expertshave left, the national authorities are not in a position tomanage EIIPs or maintain the investments. Hence, a cru-cial factor in many EIIP is building capacity at all levels:capacity of the national authorities responsible for takinghigh-level decisions on investments, planning and moni-toring capacity at central and local levels, capacity in im-plementing units at local levels, be they organized as partof government structures or as contractors in the privatesector.

However, capacity building at various levels is a lengthyprocess which requires different types of training: class-room training, site training, training in learning institu-tions, and on-the job-training in subjects such aseconomics, engineering, management, administration,procurement, maintenance, etc. Projects implementedduring the emergency phase usually focus on immediateoutputs for war-affected target groups, as time may betoo short to deal with capacity building. Therefore, train-ing and capacity building will become a priority at thelater stages of rehabilitation and during the developmentphase.

43

16 M. van Imschoot: Employment generation for poverty reduction inAfrica: Infrastructure sector, working document, POL/DEV Branch,ILO, Geneva, August 1995, p.7.

Training opportunities will attract semi-skilled nationalstaff as well as unskilled workers. Most EIIP schemes willrequire certain skills of the labour force and certain taskswill require specific qualifications. Therefore, an EIIP pro-ject will normally include a training component. Inter-ested and skilled individuals should be encouraged andrewarded for undergoing skills training. Even if the train-ing results will serve only part of the project, training willpay off at some point in the future.

5.4 Financing EIIPs

Financial constraints are decisive factors in investmentprogrammes, especially in a post-conflict situation. Notsurprisingly, the mobilization of internal resources is notvery effective, hence a general dependence on externalfunding. From the very beginning of national reconstruc-tion and reintegration programmes, decision -makerswill have to bear in mind that available funding will be in-sufficient to meet the basic needs of investment into theinfrastructure. All sectors of the war-affected country, notjust infrastructure, will compete for the funds. Therefore,infrastructure investments must be as cost-effective aspossible and justified from an economic and social stand-point. Since interest in external funding of investmentsfor infrastructure reconstruction and rehabilitation tendsto wane once initial post-conflict assistance projects arecompleted, careful priority setting by national authoritiesfor infrastructure investments is indispensable.

There are different types of external assistance, severalof which are relevant to EIIPs:

� Technical assistance comes in the form of profes-sional advice and cooperation in programme formu-lation and implementation. The ILO may proveinstrumental in this respect.

44

� Tied aid normally comes in the form of free supply ofequipment, tools and processed materials. Suchsupport may be used extensively in EIIPs as long aspriority needs exist. However there is a risk that suchaid may result in sustained dependence and maylead to a choice of technology which is too expensivefor a particular economic scenario. Such aid mayalso prompt investments which, from the recipientcountry’s point of view, are of low priority, but whichbind certain national resources. This may happenwhen, for example, construction equipment is sup-plied free of charge but the recipient country ischarged for the operating costs. The employmentgenerating aspect may be neglected and the technol-ogy may be inappropriate vis-à-vis locally availableresources.

� Financial aid generally comes in the form of grantsduring the emergency and rehabilitation phases. Inthe initial phases such aid is given without manystrings attached. It often originates from humanitar-ian organizations/sources, developmental agenciesor donors, seeking primarily to alleviate the effects ofthe conflict on the affected population.

� Food aid is a special type of assistance, which maybe abundant in a post-conflict situation. Food aidagencies, including the World Food Programme(WFP), have special sub-programmes known asFood for Work (FFW). Labour costs are normally thelargest single cost item in an EIIP budget. FFW maybe particularly appropriate for meeting some EIIP ob-jectives, especially if casual workers accept food aspart of their income. However, FFW should bephased out once the local food production in an areareaches self-sufficiency. Otherwise, external food aidmay turn into an obstacle to the development of localfood production.

45

5.5 Remuneration, modeof payment and incentives

An EIIP project will employ a substantial number of un-skilled workers. It is essential that they be treated in a fairand decent manner. Emergency conditions must not beused as an excuse for unfair treatment of workers. Basicemployment conditions will therefore need to be estab-lished, including wage level, mode of payment and in-centives.

A distinction in the remuneration package is often justi-fied according to the purpose and beneficiaries of the in-vestment. The wage level may be lowered for thoseworkers who benefit directly from the investment, e.g., iftheir own land is part of an irrigation rehabilitationscheme or if they own a plot of land in an area wherebush clearing is being planned. Similar arrangements arejustified if a group of people benefits from the invest-ment, e.g., public wells, sewers, community roads,schools, etc. Such schemes can be viewed as commu-nity investments.

When the workers derive no direct benefits from an in-vestment, e.g., from a roads project, the full minimumwage should be paid. These schemes are known as pub-lic works.

In an emergency situation this distinction may not be rel-evant or applicable, because the EIIP may be aimed at re-settlement, and local communities are yet to beestablished. But in the later stages of the process a dis-tinction needs to be made.

46

5.5.1 Determination of wages

Employment-intensive investments should provide em-ployment and income for unemployed or substantiallyunderemployed workers from poorer population groupsclose to the work sites without diverting them from othergainful employment. This implies that wages have to befixed in relation to the opportunity cost of labour in agri-culture in the lean agricultural season. The demand for la-bour in farming varies with the agricultural calendar:during peak agricultural seasons most workers are gen-erally fully occupied, while in slack seasons unemploy-ment and, in particular, underemployment are high. It isnot too difficult to schedule EIIPs as a complementary op-portunity to provide jobs and to generate income. Fortechnical reasons, public works often come to a halt dur-ing the rainy season, when many agricultural activitiesalso take place.

The wage level should be set in accordance with nationallegislation and the Minimum Wage Fixing Convention of1970 (No. 131) requiring minimum wages to be estab-lished where appropriate.

However, in the aftermath of a conflict, agricultural in-comes/wages are either very low or do not exist, i.e.,there is no real competition for labour and no real oppor-tunity cost. Therefore, wages should be set by assessingwhat is reasonable.17

Four main points should be considered in the determina-tion of wages, as outlined below:

� Wages need to be attractive in order to recruit a suffi-cient number of workers, who will operate at adequateproductivity levels and at low absenteeism rates.

47

17 See Vaidya, K.G 1988: Supplement to the Labour Supply Guide, CTP93, Geneva, for a detailed guide to the establishment of wage rates,especially in inflationary situations.

� Wages should be related to the cost of living andshould suffice to cover the basic needs of workersand their families.

� Wages should allow for some savings for future in-vestments in housing or economic activities such asagriculture. In a post-conflict situation, these multi-plier effects may be an objective in itself.

� Wages should result in reasonable and competitiveconstruction costs. Wage payments represent a highproportion of EIIP costs and vary from 45 to 65 percent of total costs.

The wage level will therefore need to be determined byan analysis of the following factors: the best availablesources of income, cost of living, socio-economic char-acteristics of the targeted groups, and financial and eco-nomic feasibility.

5.5.2 Mode of payment

Wages may be paid in cash, in kind (normally as foodpackages) or in a combination of both.

Cash

Under normal circumstances payment in cash is the bestand most convenient mode of payment. It gives workersfull flexibility to spend their wages in accordance withtheir needs. Cash is also easy to handle and payment isproblem-free. However, in a post-conflict situation com-modities may be scarce or high inflation rates may affectthe supply and value of money.

48

Kind

Free food is sometimes distributed in emergency reliefoperations, but only for a limited period, because freefood does not stimulate the economic recovery of a con-flict-affected region. EIIPs have been used as a vehicle forassisting in the process of phasing-out of food aidthrough the substitution of free food distribution withFood for Work.

There is also a well-established tradition for payment inkind (food) under EIIPs if the external resources are pro-vided in the form of food aid. In the emergency period,particularly in situations of severe food shortages, pay-ment in kind may be the workers’ preferred mode of pay-ment, because it makes possible the maintenance of thewage value under inflationary pressures. However, theprogramme should correct its policies once the situationreturns to normal.

There are specific disadvantages related to payment inkind:

� The composition of the food basket should be basedon the workers’ preference, but it is often predeter-mined by the food supplier on an availability basis.

� The storage, transportation and distribution ofwages in kind often becomes a major operation in it-self which is both costly and cumbersome. Oftenfood aid is associated with delivery problems and itsfree and frequent flow is never guaranteed. Workersare often not paid on time and or are not paid the ex-act package, because a food item may be missing.Late, insufficient payment is a disincentive and pro-ductivity may decline, while absenteeism may rise.

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The general problems related to food aid cannot be dis-cussed here; however, once agricultural production inthe project area has been re-established at a sufficientlevel to cover local needs, payment in food should bephased out. Otherwise there will be a negative effect onlocal food production.

Cash and Kind

Funds for investments (and wages) are always limited.Supplementary resources in the form of food may oftenbe mobilized from several food aid programmes. Ifwages, the largest item in an EIIP budget, may be paid inkind and such payment is acceptable to the workers, thescope of an EIIP may be expanded substantially.

However, once the emergency is over, workers shouldbe paid a part of their wages in cash. The Protection ofWages Convention, adopted by the International LabourConference in 1949, provides for partial payment in kindin certain cases. In programmes and projects assisted bythe World Food Programme the agreement is that theshare of the wages in kind should not exceed 50 percentof the total value. Therefore, a fifty/fifty ratio of cash tokind may be recommended for the rehabilitation phase.Payment in food should generally be phased out whenthe development phase is reached.

Banking

A special mode of payment covering the terms of pay-ment in kind and cash is the so-called banking arrange-ment. The food component will keep the workers andtheir families fed, while the cash is saved during one ormore construction seasons. The cash part of the wage (ora part of it) is kept on a dedicated account and bears inter-est at market rates, the purpose being to ensure that theworker will have accrued some savings at the end of his

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employment, which may be invested or will sustain thefamily for some time once the scheme is closed.

“Banking” should be based on the voluntary agreementof the worker. This option is not advisable if the bankingsystem is weak or if a high inflation rate would entaillosses for the workers.

5.5.3 Incentives for productivity

Labour productivity is a key parameter in determiningEIIP costs and payment based on performance is neces-sary to keep those costs under control. Piece work andtask work are acceptable, proven methods of ensuringadequate productivity.

5.6 Working conditions

General working conditions should meet standards re-quired by national law and international labour conven-tions.

Working hours

Working hours should be fixed and in principle limited to40 hours a week and one shift. As many conflict-affectedcountries are located in the tropics, it is generally agreedthere is that the working day should start soon after dawnand that there should be a break during the very hot mid-day hours. Short breaks during intensive physical works,as well as a weekend break, should be guaranteed. Na-tional and religious holidays should be respected. Wherethe labour supply is substantially greater than the em-ployment opportunities, shift arrangements may beagreed upon locally.

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Wage payment intervals

Wages should be paid regularly and promptly at prede-termined intervals—weekly, or if acceptable to the work-ers, bi-weekly.

Facilities

Facilities on site should be adapted to local conditions.Ideally, workers should be recruited locally, within walk-ing distance from the job site. Recruitment far from thesites and the establishment of camps should only be anexception. Provision of meals would consequently notbe necessary as meals may be provided by the commu-nities. Free supply of drinking water should, however, al-ways be available on site.

Special facilities may be supplied to cater for exceptionalneeds, e.g., a day-care arrangement for women withchild-caring responsibilities, that cannot otherwise be re-solved. Special jobs may also be found for the disabled,the weak or the elderly.

Safety and health

The safety and health of the workers should be an ongo-ing concern. Protective clothing should be suppliedwhen needed in activities such as stone crushing. A firstaid kit should always be available on site. Awareness ofsafety-on-site needs should be raised among engineers,technicians, supervisors and gang leaders who are re-sponsible for overseeing proper planning and opera-tions. For example, construction work in post-conflictregions may occasionally call for the services of an am-munition-clearing team (bomb diffusion squad) and alandmine clearance programme, as well as fire and medi-cal provisions linked to a safety-at-work assistance policy.

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5.7 Technical standards

Investments using employment-intensive methods cancompare in technical quality to those employing conven-tional equipment-intensive methods. Newly constructedor rehabilitated facilities are generally easier to maintain(and operate) by drawing mainly from the local resourcebase, i.e., using labour-intensive methods.

Experience shows that various types of infrastructurework can be carried out using labour-intensive methods.All types of earth works generally lend themselves tothese methods, including:

� laterite/gravel and earth roads,

� small and medium-scale irrigation schemes,

� soil and water conservation works, including smalldams,

� afforestation projects,

� water supply schemes.

Certain operations cannot be performed effectively byemploying labour-intensive methods alone, such ascompaction of earth layers in dams and roads or trans-port of materials over long distances. However, there arealternatives to heavy and expensive equipment such asanimal-powered tillers or tractor-drawn rollers, whichcan be used effectively and competitively for the com-paction of gravel roads. For materials transport (gravel)over long distances, tractor trailers are a commonchoice, but animal-drawn carts can also be used effec-tively over distances up to 2.5 km. The efficient use of ani-mal-drawn carts depends to a large extent on localconditions such as terrain, practice and climate.

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5.8 Employment potentialof an investment

In view of the limited budget of a project, its employmentpotential primarily depends on what share of the budgetcan be allocated to labour and what share has to be spenton material, equipment, etc. Therefore, the employmentpotential of an investment depends on the choice of tech-nology. In general, a whole spectrum of methods can beused to implement a project without affecting the qualityof its outputs, from highly labour-based to ma-chine-based methods. The costs of all inputs—labour,material, and equipment—determine how many jobs canbe created. Unfortunately, costs of labour, material, andequipment differ from scheme to scheme, varying fromsite to site of the same scheme and, of course, with time.Therefore, it is difficult to quantify the employment po-tential of a project without knowing the local unit costscenario or performing a comprehensive cost analysis.

For reasons of simplicity a project’s “labour intensity” issometimes defined, measured and reported as labourcosts expressed as a percentage of the total project cost.The following table provides examples of “labour intensi-ties” of certain types of projects according to this defini-tion,

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Table 5.8 Examples of “Labour Intensities”(share of cost of unskilled labour,expressed as a percentage of thetotal cost)

Land improvement Road construction

Clearing: 80 % Secondary road 50 %

Terracing 70 % Access road 70 %

Reafforestation 90 % Culverts/bridges 15 %

Irrigation Building construction

Earthen dam,minor

60 % Brick, single storey 50 %

Main canal 60 %Mud wall, singlestorey

70 %

While these figures are useful for macroeconomic andacademic considerations, they are not reliable indicatorsfor predicting the employment potential of a particular in-vestment, because it depends greatly on the local unitcost scenario.

In the following example a specific technology has beenchosen for a scheme which creates 10,000 workdays ofemployment per km of irrigation canal rehabilitated.Three different cost scenarios show how the employ-ment potential and the share of the labour cost (“labourintensity”) change:

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Scenario

A

Scenario

B

Scenario

C

Labour input perunit of output

workdays/km

10,000 10,000 10,000

Unit cost oflabour

US$/workday

1 4 1

Labour costs US$/km 10,000 40,000 10,000

Other costs US$/km 10,000 10,000 40,000

Total costs US$/km 20,000 50,000 50,000

share of labourcost % (“labourintensity”)

50 80 20

Funds available US$ 200,000 200,000 200,000

Employmentpotential,workdays

100,000 40,000 40,000

Owing to a change in the unit cost of labour fromUS$1/workday in scenario A to US$4/workday in sce-nario B, its employment potential drops to 40% of that ofscenario A. The change in “Other costs” from US$10,000in scenario A to US$40,000 in scenario C, perhaps owingto long hauling distances, results in the same reductionof its employment potential.

As shown, the figure relating to the share of labour cost(“labour intensity”) fluctuates widely and does not indi-cate a high or low employment potential. Calculating thelabour cost percentage of a scheme with a particular unitcost scenario and using it for planning and deci-sion-making in similar types of schemes, but in a differentunit cost scenario, may lead to faulty decision-making.

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Whether a technology has a cost advantage over othertechnologies depends on the local unit cost scenario andon the quantities of necessary inputs. Whether or not aparticular technology should be considered for imple-mentation depends on cost, on the availability of re-sources and on social needs, e.g., the degree of urgencyto generate employment and income.

5.9 Women’s participation

Conflicts bring about important demographic changes.An unbalanced gender ratio is often created with womenoutnumbering men. It is important that this be reflectedin policies, strategies and programmes. It is estimatedthat women and children account for more than 80 per-cent of the world’s refugees and there are indications thatthey represent a similar proportion among the internallydisplaced. A high dependency ratio is thus formed, in-cluding many children, orphans elderly and disabled per-sons, all of whom are dependent on women. Therefore,EIIPs will need to consider women as a target group in sit-uations where the majority of the community membersare women with a substantial number of dependants.

As there are many women among conflict-affected per-sons, they will form an important EIIP target group. Con-sultations with women during investment planning andimplementation is therefore essential in order to ensurethat the project design is adapted to the situation.Working hours, shift arrangements and the need to es-tablish day-care facilities are all issues that will need to beaddressed.

Labour-based work has proven suitable for women’s par-ticipation. Under different programmes the share ofwomen in the workforce varies from 10 to 60 percent, de-pending on the country and the culture. As a rule, special

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efforts are needed to reach and motivate women18. Dis-semination of information concerning the possibility ofobtaining employment and participation in project activi-ties in general is a must, but should be combined withseparate consultations with women’s representativesconcerning the aims and set-up of an investment.

Women should have equal access to all types of work ac-tivities, except those which require a great deal of physi-cal strength. There must be equal pay for comparablework.

5.10 Environmental concerns

Conflicts are often accompanied by an extreme exploita-tion of natural resources and a neglect of valuable com-munity assets (food storage facilities, water wells,wooded areas, etc.). Prolonged conflicts cause a greatdeal of damage to the natural environment, includingcontamination of drinking water sources.

Changes to the infrastructure must not be detrimental tothe environment, either at the construction stage orthereafter because of neglected maintenance. Rather, in-vestments in the infrastructure should help to preserveand protect the environment.

Overall, the use of employment-intensive constructionmethods leads to less destruction and they are more en-vironmentally friendly than equipment-intensive meth-ods. The design of a road to be built usingemployment-intensive methods is based on an align-ment that follows the natural terrain as closely as possi-ble19, thereby avoiding large cuts and fills as with any

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18 See Dejardin, A.K., 1996: Public Works Programmes, a Strategy forPoverty Alleviation: The Gender Dimension. Issues in Development:Discussion Paper 10, ILO, Geneva.

major interference with the natural drainage pattern. Inequipment-intensive construction, the design is differ-ent: cuts and fills are made considerably larger with onlya few larger drainage structures.

However, environmental assessments should be carriedout rigorously prior to the finalization of project designs,as well as environmental monitoring during implementa-tion and environmental impact studies after the construc-tion stage. These steps enable rational modifications tobe made to the design, implementation methods andsubsequent maintenance and operation with the aim ofoptimizing the overall environmental impact while bear-ing in mind other legitimate project objectives. It is a pro-gram leader’s responsibility to ensure that technicalstandards are respectful of the environment and thatsound environmental assessments are performed.

5.11 Public- or private-sectorimplementation

In many countries the role of government is presently be-ing redefined. Nowadays, public investments are in-creasingly left to the private sector. The new role ofgovernment centres on policy formulation, the creationof a framework within which the private sector can de-velop, and, through its local technical authorities, on itsrole of “employer” in the contractual sense.

In a post-conflict situation neither the public nor the pri-vate sector function properly. Therefore, during theemergency phase and well into the rehabilitation phase,EIIPs are likely to be carried out on a project basis by spe-cially assigned project staff. However, one should keep in

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19 See Hertel, S., 1990: Public Works in Sub-Saharan Africa, unpublishedpaper. ILO, Geneva.

mind that both the public and the private sector will havea role to play in the future. This implies that during the de-velopment of an EIIP, consideration should be given tobuild the capacity of both the private and the public sec-tor. An EIIP may make a substantial contribution to boost-ing economic development by:

� introducing cost-effective labour-based methods,

� providing training in these methods to private- andpublic-sector personnel, and

� developing systems and procedures which enhancethe effectiveness of labour-based methods and pro-mote private sector participation. (See Annex 2.)

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6PROJECT

FORMULATION

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6.1 Process

Project formulation is a multi-step and sometimes itera-tive process, often in a competitive environment, if sev-eral implementing agencies submit proposals for projectimplementation.

Generally, project formulation starts with a project idea,i.e., a certain area has been identified at the national levelas the future project area with broad ideas as to problemsthe project should tackle. The target group(s) will alsohave been identified roughly based on general criteria.Further, broad definitions of types of infrastructure to berehabilitated, indications of the range of wage levels, la-bour conditions and other special issues might havebeen established. The crucial issue of funding (volumeand timing) would also have been indicated. Normally,these parameters are laid down in a Short ProgrammeOutline (SPROUT) for written submission to a number offinancial institutions/donors. However, in emergency sit-uations and under other special circumstances the sub-mission of project ideas or SPROUTS may be organizedin the form of pledging or round-table conferences withyet unidentified but interested donors.

The outcome of these submissions may be an expres-sion of interest to finance the project. Sometimes, poten-tial donors express concerns and give hints about whatissues they wish to be addressed in addition to what waspresented in the SPROUT.

Before deciding on important commitments of financialand other resources, most international implementing orfunding agencies, be it within the UN system or outside,will require a project document in a particular format,which contains a detailed analysis of the problems in-volved and possible solutions.

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Based on the SPROUT and, if applicable, on input frominterested donors and other stakeholders, the agency in-terested in implementing the project will prepare a de-tailed draft project document for submission andapproval by the funding agency.

Writing a project document means analysing the situa-tion and planning the project in detail, a serious and de-manding task for a team of experts. The team will consistof specialists with organizational, economic and techni-cal expertise. The size of the team and its compositionwill depend on the areas of specialization required and onthe size and specific features of the envisaged project. Aformulation mission to the area of operation will be indis-pensable and may last one to two months.

The next step is to appoint or recruit a project formulationteam and draw up its terms of reference (TOR). The teamwill travel to the area of operation, and conduct as manyinterviews as possible of the representatives of targetgroups, of the local population, the development com-munity, and of local and central authorities. The team willanalyse the situation in depth and carefully plan all pro-ject activities. Based on its findings and conclusions, theteam will compile the draft project document, includingdetailed budgets and a work plan, in accordance with theformat requirements of the available or potential inves-tors/donors, be it the government or international agen-cies.

An outline of a model project document is provided be-low20:

� BACKGROUND: describes the situation and theproblems.

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20 See ILO, 1996: Design, Monitoring and Evaluation of TechnicalCooperation Programmes and Projects, Geneva, for a more elaborateexplanation.

� STRATEGY: discusses alternative options for solvingthe problems; selects the most appropriate strategy.

� OBJECTIVES: purposes and aims of an activity, rep-resenting the desired results which the activities areexpected to achieve. Examples: basic social and pro-ductive infrastructure operating at the same levels at-tained before the conflict, conflict-affected personsprovided with employment and income for threeyears.

� OUTPUTS: specific end products generated by theprogramme/project activities in order to attain theobjectives. Examples: 100 km of access road graveled,20 supervisors trained, 1 million workdays generated.

� ACTIVITIES: actions carried out in a project to pro-duce planned outputs. Examples: recruitment ofworkers, spreading and compaction of gravel, devel-opment of training material.

� INPUTS: goods, services, personnel, funds andother resources necessary to carry out all the projectactivities with the expectation of producing outputsand achieving project objectives. Examples: funds,staff, labour, equipment, hand tools, materials, etc.

� INDICATORS: objective, measurable changes or re-sults expected from a project. They are designed toprovide a scale allowing one to measure the progressof a project in producing outputs and achieving objec-tives. They can also be stated as specific targets to beachieved at specific points in time during project im-plementation or they can be categorized by type, suchas output indicators or impact indicators. Examples:

� the target group of internally displaced personswill experience an increase in their annual in-comes with $ X as a result of short-term employ-ment;

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� at least 1,000 former refugees will be employedfor 100 working days each on an annual basis asfrom year 2 of the project;

� the transportation time between X and Y will be re-duced by 50 percent and transportation costs willbe reduced by 40 percent (road project);

� the production value will increase by 30 percent(irrigation project); and

� government department Z will plan and imple-ment road maintenance on the basis of la-bour-based technologies in the last year of theproject.

� BUDGET

� WORK PLANWhilst the preparation of a project document is acomplex task, several circumstances require a quickresponse:

� the urgency to start operations,

� the potential change in donor interest or priorities,

� deadlines in the programming cycles of imple-menting and funding agencies, and

� the competitive environment of project imple-mentation.

Joint formulation missions with a representative of thefunding agency may facilitate and speed up developmentof the project document and its approval.

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6.2 Methodology

6.2.1 Basic surveys

The basis for formulating a sound project document isproblem identification and analysis.

A first step towards identifying the problems will be toobtain an overview of the project area in terms of compo-sition and number of conflict-affected persons and theirlocation, the condition of the basic infrastructure and thesecurity situation. Information for the overview maycome from several sources, such as surveys, data col-lected by humanitarian agencies, rapid appraisals in con-nection with field visits, discussions with futurebeneficiaries and interviews with key informants. Infor-mation gathering is the cornerstone of the overview andshould take place prior to the actual design work.

Potential sources

of data:

Government, UNHCR, WFP, otherrelief/humanitarian organizations.

Once the overview completed, more specific informationwill need to be gathered by means of:

� visits to and discussions with as many potential ben-eficiary communities as possible in order to providedetails of:

� the characteristics of the conflicted-affectedgroups: numbers, age and gender distribution,means of livelihood/ coping strategies, family timebudgets;

� the state of community infrastructure: type, extentof damages, rough estimate of size of reconstruc-

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tion work in cubic metres, square metres, kilo-metres, etc.;

� their needs and priorities with respect to employ-ment/income as well economic, social and institu-tional infrastructures. The prospects of targetgroups participating formally in project activities,including their interest in being employed as ca-sual workers, should also be assessed; and

� examination of the legal status and ownership ofthe lands and infrastructures. The purpose is toavoid giving advantages to individual owners andcutting into the legitimate rights of land owners.

� elementary technical and economic surveys/assess-ments: identification of and consistent informationgathering in locations with potential for individualschemes—main roads, feeder roads, paths, irriga-tion, soil conservation, water supply, schools, clinics,etc. The security situation will also need to be as-sessed, especially with regard to landmines.

� stock-taking in the development community: identifi-cation of other similar activities ongoing in the areato establish potential and need for coordination andcomplementarity with other programme activities,and to avoid duplication of efforts.

Potential sources

of data:

government, UNHCR, WFP, UNDP,other projects in the area and di-rect contacts in the field.

� discussions with potential counterparts and part-ners: the availability of human resources and institu-tional capacity need to be established. In mostpost-conflict situations, organizations in both the pri-vate and the public sector are seriously affected.

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Their infrastructures—offices, godowns, equipmentand materials—are often targets which have sufferedsevere damage. Professional staff is either not avail-able or extremely reduced. It is important to have agood grasp of the situation because it will have abearing on the organizational set-up of the projectand on the need for the recruitment of technicians,administrators and managers. This exercise will alsoprovide the first step in a human resources assess-ment, which will become a starting point for a projectcomponent addressing the training needs of localstaff.

6.2.2 Labour availability assessment

In normal circumstances EIIPs are aimed at absorbingsurplus labour and/or increasing the incomes of pov-erty-affected groups. Therefore, a thorough survey fol-lowed by a detailed labour availability assessment is ofkey importance. However, in post-conflict situations thismay be difficult to accomplish. First of all, there is adearth of reliable statistics. Secondly, it may be clear thatthe majority of the conflict-affected people is in need ofemployment and additional income. Thirdly, it may beevident that with the limited financial resources availableonly a fraction of the conflict-affected population will ac-tually become involved.

A rough estimate of the number of workdays to be cre-ated on project works may be made based on:

� the labour cost ratio for a particular investment, and

� a wage rate applicable in the project area.

Multiplying the labour cost ratio and the total funds avail-able will result in the labour budget; dividing the labourbudget by the wage rate will provide the estimated num-ber of workdays.

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To assess the labour availability of a target group (e.g., in-ternally displaced persons, refugees, demobilized com-batants), one begins by establishing the number of adultsin the 15 to 60 age group. The next step is to assess theirpotential participation rate, i.e., how many adults andhow long will they want to be employed as workers onproject works. This may be done by estimating the num-ber of people who are unavailable for the works, for anyof the following reasons:

� otherwise engaged in productive activities,

� unable or unsuited to the work , or -

� unwilling to work.

Table 6.2.2 provides an example of a rough labour avail-ability assessment.

Table 6.2.2 Labour Availability Assessment

1. Employment potential estimate

Example:

Funds available: US$1 million

Labour cost ratio: 50 %

Daily wage rate: US$1.5/workday

Potential number of workdays:1,000,000 x 0.5 / 1.5 =333,333 work days

The average number of work days ina work year is assumed to be 220.

Potential number of work years:333,333 workdays /220 workdays =1,515 work years

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2. Labour availability assessment

Example:

Number of adults aged 15-60 intarget group:

10,000

Unavailable for works: 4,000

Available for works: 6,000

A comparison of the employment potential of 1,515 workyears with the estimated 6,000 adults available for workindicates that the labour supply is greater than the pro-ject’s employment potential. Consequently, it may be as-sumed that sufficient labour will be available. However,these figures are average figures based on informationrelating to a large project area. This assessment shouldbe supplemented with specific considerations on the vi-cinity of specific schemes, because wide variations mayoccur from one location to the next. Labour availability isalso subject to seasonal change. Particular attentionshould be paid to the agricultural demand for labour.

It is generally advisable to start EIIP projects on a smallerscale to test the availability of labour and then expand it,if there is a significant demand for employment.

6.2.3 Target group participation

Project feasibility and sustainability are furthered by theactive participation of the target groups and communitiesin planning and implementing an investment project.This includes taking part in the identification, selectionand prioritization of investments, mobilization of re-sources, including labour, and in the actual performanceof the works. Lack of consultation with local communitiesand potential beneficiaries may result in inadequatemaintenance and operation/utilization of the created as-

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sets. This would result in unsustainable infrastructuresand a failure to generate expected benefits.

The socio-economic needs of conflict-affected communi-ties must be reflected in the planning and targeting ofEIIPs. A realistic design requires an understanding of theneeds and capacities of the targeted community to coop-erate and to provide labour. Many difficulties in targetingspecific groups can be anticipated and dealt with througha flexible, realistic assistance plan.

In communities with a high proportion of householdsheaded by women, special steps need to be taken to en-courage their participation in the works, and special con-ditions may need to be established, such as provision forchild care and schooling. Where there is a high propor-tion of conflict-disabled ex-combatants or civilians, ar-rangements should be made to facilitate and evenpromote their involvement in employment and public in-vestment projects. The ILO, for example, has preparedspecial tools and guidelines for Cambodian landmine vic-tims—civilians and ex-combatants.

The capabilities of the community members with regardto the skills required during the works need to be investi-gated through a quick skills survey. In the chaoticpost-conflict situation a number of skills normally un-known in rural areas may be found among displaced per-sons, because they have acquired them in a refugeecamp, during military service or elsewhere. The projectshould make full use of available skills.

6.2.4 Feasibility

Schemes must be technically, financially and socially fea-sible.

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6.2.4.1 Technical feasibility

Regardless of whether investments are carried out in apost-conflict or in a normal situation, the technical qualityof an investment must be adequate, otherwise the fundsfor the investments are wasted. Technical feasibility is aprecondition for undertaking an investment project, andthis implies that labour-intensive technologies are suit-able to achieve the outputs using available resources,within a given time frame. Technical feasibility studiesare conducted by engineers and deal with the relation-ship between the technology and the following factors:

� product quality and design,

� project type and timing, and

� availability of resources.

Technical feasibility assessments require extensiveknowledge of the subject matter.

Timing should be based on an assessment of the size ofthe investment in comparison with available resourcesand, e.g., meteorological or other seasonal consider-ations. Assessing the availability of the most importantitem—labour—was discussed in Section 6.2.2. above.Planning should aim at the shortest reasonably possibletiming. Short but realistic implementation deadlines areessential not only because the assets should benefit thetarget groups in a timely manner, but also because longproject delays will increase the time-based fixed projectcosts. As far as possible, resources should be concen-trated on usable consecutive investments in order to fi-nalize and make them productive quickly.

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6.2.4.2 Financial feasibility

Available financial resources determine the scope of theproject. In a limited budget, the scope will depend onwages and other costs. However, costs may vary fromplace to place and must be explored for each project site.As a rule, they cannot be changed. Matching availablefunds with financial needs is not always a matter of sim-ple calculation. It may be necessary to make adjustmentsto the design or the timing of a project.

Strictly speaking, financial feasibility, meaning that thereis a high rate of return from the investment, may not be apriority in a post-conflict situation. The objectives of rein-tegration of the conflict-affected groups into civilian lifeoften deserves higher priority. Nonetheless, a choicemust be made among different investments, and it isclear that high investment returns should be an impor-tant criterion in setting priorities.

It is well known that labour-based methods are oftencost-effective, that is, they represent a least-cost solu-tion. But a financial/economic feasibility analysis shouldalso include a comparison with equipment-intensivemethods. Cost-effectiveness should be true in both eco-nomic and financial terms. In addition, the use of la-bour-based methods should enable substantial foreignexchange savings. However, the situation in apost-conflict situation is such that the social objectives,i.e. employment and income generation, if necessary forthe re-integration of conflict-affected groups, should pre-vail over narrow criteria related to economic growth.

A financial feasibility analysis is indispensable if choicesare to be made among various schemes with economicor productive potential such as roads, irrigation, and af-forestation. Only in emergency programmes may suchan analysis be omitted. The traditional method of assess-

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ing economic feasibility involves a cost-benefit analysis.It is beyond the scope of these Guidelines to describe theprocedures21 in detail. Furthermore, the method requiresthe services of an experienced economist, who is not al-ways readily available in such situations.

A simple calculation of the internal rate of return may bethe best alternative. This can be done by using one of thespread-sheet programmes available for personal com-puters. The method is based on the following parame-ters:

� estimated lifetime of the infrastructure, on average20 years,

� assessment of the investment costs, maintenancecosts (estimated at 5 percent per annum) and opera-tional costs over 20 years, and

� benefits (increased productivity or reduced transpor-tation costs and time).

The internal rate of return on the investment is then cal-culated on the basis of the net benefits over the 20-yearperiod.

6.2.4.3 Social feasibility

A social feasibility analysis should include an assessmentof whether the investments and their design are cultur-ally and socially acceptable to the communities locatedin the vicinity of the investment. Religious and othercodes of conduct for what is socially acceptable, i.e., per-formance of wage labour in public places, mixing bothsexes in the workplace, equal treatment of all workers re-gardless of background, etc., should be explored. Poten-tial issues should be taken up in open discussions with

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21 Please refer to P. Garnier, 1982: Introduction to Special Public WorksProgrammes, Geneva, p. 145.

target group representatives at the planning stage andduring implementation whenever necessary.

Social feasibility is related to the aim of creatingshort-term employment opportunities and income forthe target group(s). An assessment can be made on thebasis of two key parameters:

� the estimated cost per workday, and

� the estimated labour cost in relation to the total costs(labour intensity).

The comparison of these two factors in differentschemes will provide a basis for selection, i.e., prefer-ence should be given to works with a relatively low costper workday, and if short-term employment creation isan important objective, so should a high labour intensityratio.

Focusing assistance on conflict-affected target groups isanother important feature of a social feasibility analysis. Ifshort-term employment is generated on a large scale, butnot for the target group, it should not be considered so-cially viable. The feasibility analysis should appraise thepotential for employing the target groups by:

� comparing the ratio of target group workers in the to-tal labour force of the project, with the ratio of targetgroup members in the whole population, and

� making sure that there is a substantialover-representation of the target groups amongstthe workers.

A similar evaluation can be carried out for community in-vestments, i.e., by determining who will stand to benefitfrom the projects. This can be accomplished by compar-ing categories of beneficiaries with the other communitymembers.

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Additionally, the effect of short-term employment shouldbe measured in terms of the average number of work-days a worker will be employed, for example, for oneyear. The length of employment may be translated di-rectly into income terms by applying the wage rate. Bydoing so, an assessment of the potential income gener-ated from project works will be possible. A comparisonbetween workers belonging to the target group and oth-ers may also be made.

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7PROJECT

IMPLEMENTATION

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A project becomes “active” when a financing agreement,usually in the form of a project document, is signed bythe parties concerned. It becomes operational with therecruitment of a project manager. The selection of a qual-ified project manager capable of combining financial, lo-gistical and engineering management, is thereforeimportant. Implementation starts when inputs are ac-quired and activities initiated. However, the actualkick-off may be deferred for valid reasons.

An EIIP may be composed of a number of schemes. Anindividual scheme, such as road rehabilitation, may becomposed of several construction sites. Other types ofprojects, such as a minor irrigation scheme, may consistof one site only.

Project implementation can be broken down into sixsteps22:

� Staffing and commissioning of the project: The deskofficer of the implementing agency will recruit andfield the project manager. The project manager, inclose cooperation with the desk officer, will recruitand appoint the project team, including field engi-neers, other technical staff, administrators and sup-port personnel. The project team will establish thelinks to central and local authorities, equip the pro-ject premises, and establish the lines of communica-tion to all concerned.

� The professional project staff will prepare a workprogramme for the performance of the works, givingan overview of the whole project period and detailsof the first construction season.

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22 See Coukis, B. et al, 1983: Labor-based Construction Programs,Washington, pp. 51 and 52.

� The professional project staff will prepare the spe-cific organizational set-up and technical resources ofworks in terms of manning tables for site staff, nego-tiating and concluding agreements with representa-tives of the communities and authorities concerned,adapt technical guidelines as necessary, invite offersor pro formas for construction work, organize formonitoring and supervising and for special surveysrequired.

� The professional project staff will, in conjunction withthe national counterparts and with conflict-affectedcommunities/groups, select construction sites, pre-pare detailed designs and assign site staff.

� The professional project staff will have the workersrecruited by the community leaders and initiate theactual construction activities.

� The professional staff of the project will feed andmaintain the system of continuous monitoring and re-porting on the progress of the project. Actual figuresfor costs, resources, amounts and output are col-lected, compiled for weekly and monthly statisticsand compared with planned targets. If necessary, theresources are reallocated and the work programme isadjusted or revised in accordance project deadlines.

The tasks described in the last five steps are continuouslyrepeated with the opening and closing of sites andschemes., Besides doing actual construction work, pro-ject management will in a pilot phase have the additionalresponsibility of adapting and refining certain aspects ofthe overall EIIP framework, including labour recruitment,costing of works, collecting figures for labour productiv-ity, and developing or adapting technical standards,monitoring and reporting systems, training modules andtool specifications.

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Realistic, output-oriented financial and logistical plan-ning in line with the supply of resources to the individualschemes and sites is of utmost importance. Ensuring asteady cash flow is a precondition for timely, ongoing im-plementation and success. Particularly in post-conflictsituations in which confidence levels are generally low,immediate and/or timely payment of workers and suppli-ers is indispensable. Traditional governmental budgetaryand financial procedures are generally not suited for suchoperations.

Decentralized financial management, including decen-tralized responsibilities and procedures for the procure-ment of locally available materials and tools is essential,especially during the initial phases of an EIIP.

7.1 Project organization and staff

In a post-conflict situation, an EIIP will begin with the ap-pointment of a project manager - generally recruitedfrom abroad. The project management team will be com-posed of a financial manager/accountant, a senior store-keeper and an administrative assistant, possibly with amonitoring and evaluation specialist. Large EIIPs will re-quire the recruitment of a senior engineer for each typeof work: road, irrigation, etc.

Site staff size and composition will depend on the sizeand nature of the project:

� Unskilled casual labour recruited from amongst theconflict-affected groups, preferably by or in close co-operation with the community, will be divided intoworkgroups (known as gangs) of some 10 to 50workers.

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� Each gang will have a leader responsible for organiz-ing the works within the group, for maintaining disci-pline and ensuring that activities are carried outefficiently.

� A foreman is required for every three to four gangs.

Depending on the nature and size of the works, a supervi-sor and/or site engineer may be needed. A variety ofskilled workers, such as mechanics, drivers, carpentersand stonemasons may also be required. Administrativeand logistical tasks may call for the services of a pay andaccounts clerk and a storekeeper.

A large project will require a sizeable permanent staff.The project management team will, like any other majoremployer, need to develop ways and means of managingthe staff bearing in mind recruitment initiatives, training,salaries and incentives, working conditions, career devel-opment, etc.

7.2 Recruitment, wagedisbursement and trainingof labour

Recruitment

Recruitment of unskilled workers is done locally by thecommunity leaders in close cooperation with site or pro-ject management. The labour force should live withinwalking distance of the site, about five kilometres away.

The recruitment process usually takes place as follows:

� Project management will visit each site and meet andhold discussions with the leaders of the nearby com-

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munities. It will explain project objectives, opportuni-ties and conditions of work and discuss the localavailability of casual labour with community leaders.Project management will ask them for an opportunityto meet all interested community members andpresent the project in order to gauge the actual inter-est and availability of labour. The project manage-ment team will also ask community leaders forsupport in recruiting the workers.

� Project management and community leaders shouldencourage the conflict-affected target groups, in-cluding internally displaced persons, refugees, de-mobilized combatants, etc. , to designate theirrepresentatives. A consensus should be reachedconcerning the employment to be shared amongstthe different groups commensurate with their skills.

� Community leaders should register all workers will-ing to work and decide, in accordance with projectrequirements, needs of the individuals, and skillsrepresented, who should be employed. In a situationwhere the labour supply exceeds the demand, thegroup representatives should agree on shift work ar-rangements.

� Actual recruitment takes place with registration on amaster roll. Each worker will receive an identity/at-tendance card for easy identification and for registra-tion of attendance, which will be the basis for laterpayment.

Certain recruitment selection criteria and/or quotas mayhave been included in the project design; i.e., workers tobe recruited should have an income below a certain level,belong to specific target groups, such as the internallydisplaced, refugees and female heads of households,and there should be a job quota for a specific targetgroup. Clearly, project management will need to comply

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with these criteria and quotas. However, changes may benecessary, depending on the real world situation.Programme management should be responsive to pro-posals from project management.

The recruitment process may reveal a local or temporarylabour shortage, despite previous assessments. Thework programme may require adjustments so as to suitavailability. If this fails to solve the problem, the projectmay need to be replanned or, at worst, abandoned. How-ever, this not likely to occur in a post-conflict situation.

Recruitment must be voluntary: an individual must ex-press the desire to work and actively apply for the job.This is a fundamental principle of international labour lawas outlined in international conventions. Forced or com-pulsory labour is not permitted in the mobilization and re-cruitment of labour.

Wage disbursement

The establishment of wage levels was discussed in Sec-tion 5.5.1 above and is a major responsibility. However,wages need to be adapted to the local situation, particu-larly, if they are partly paid in kind. The size and composi-tion of the food basket should be adapted to local tastesand the average size of a family/household.

Project management should determine productivitynorms and daily tasks in line with general standards.Daily tasks should be planned according to an assess-ment of an individual’s capacity to do the physical worksplanned. The following factors may come into play:

� Climate: Extreme temperatures, humidity , strongwinds and altitude may affect physical capacity towork.

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� Physical condition of workers: Their general state ofhealth, and in particular their nutritional status, willclearly have an impact on productivity. In apost-conflict situation the nutritional and health sta-tus of workers will most likely be poor, and the out-put projections should be adjusted accordingly. Animprovement in a worker’s nutritional status shouldlead to a readjustment of productivity norms.

� Skills: A newly recruited labour force is generally notaccustomed to the kind of physical work involved.Workers need to learn basic skills and to adjust totheir tasks. Experience shows that they will developefficient movements, thus requiring the expenditureof less strength. Output will initially be low.On-the-job training in the correct handling of imple-ments and in the reduction of physical strain shouldbe an integral part of a start-up phase.

Workers must receive timely payment of wages. This is abasic prerequisite, because they will depend on remu-neration for subsistence. Furthermore, the whole reinte-gration process will depend on the confidence of theconflict-affected individuals towards society in general.Honouring agreements should be respected as a funda-mental principle by project management.

Payment should be made in cash and/or kind at short,regular intervals, i.e., every week or every other week.Payment should be made directly to the worker, regard-less of gender.

Savings schemes, or banking of wages, where cashwages are partially or fully deposited on a dedicated ac-count, may be set up in close cooperation with the work-ers, but only with their agreement.

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Training

On-the-job training in the correct handling of implementsand in the reduction of physical strain should be an inte-gral part of a start-up phase. More specific on-the-jobtraining should be supplied in connection with commu-nity investments, i.e., works with a direct, exclusive ben-efit to the community. Further maintenance and/oroperation will be the community’s responsibility. Thiswill involve basic construction skills such as mixing ofconcrete, compaction of earth, basic masonry etc.

EIIP projects include techniques and operations whichmay be unfamiliar to newly recruited workers.23 Positionssuch as skilled worker, overseer or driver may be filled byindividuals who do not have an adequate professionalbackground. They are often recruited amongst unskilledworkers, who have proven specials abilities and interestsduring the initial works. In such cases, special trainingwill need to be set up within the project, as formal train-ing institutions are not generally equipped to offer the re-quired courses, especially in a post-conflict situation.

Training in relation to community investments may beexpanded to include administrative functions involved inrunning an irrigation system or a water supply system,for example. This may include different functions such ascollection of charges, book and store keeping, account-ing and disbursements.

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23 See Miller, S., 1990: Training Needs Assessment for Special PublicWorks Programmes, ILO, Geneva, for further insights into EIIP-relatedtraining. ILO has, moreover, produced a number of training manualscovering a wide range of subjects.

7.3 Participation of localcommunities

The full participation of local communities in, and theirsupport for an EIIP project is a key success factor. Localcommunities should be involved in the identification,planning, implementation, supervision and maintenanceof the investments. Their part in the identification andplanning process, in supplying labour and benefitingfrom training was dealt with in the preceding section. Thepresent section will, therefore, concentrate on their rolein project implementation.

In a post-conflict situation, organization of communitiesmay become the direct responsibility of the project. Anestablished community with a long tradition of leader-ship and interaction between its different groups andmembers may simply not exist. Target groups such asdisplaced persons and refugees share a common charac-teristic: their attachment to the specific locality is new;demobilized combatants and returnees experience ashorter or longer absence from their community. A newsocial organization will need to set up. It will be a longtime before a strong community is firmly established.The project may in such a situation need to play an im-portant role in its organization. The organization of eachconflict-affected group would be a natural first step. Thisimplies setting up a committee for each group, a commit-tee whose members will represent the target group indiscussions and negotiations relating to the project.

The committees will have an important role to play interms of:

� information distribution,

� site identification,

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� recruitment of workers and shift agreements,

� supply of locally available materials, water and possi-bly meals,

� provision of overnight facilities for project staff,

� guarding and storage of project equipment and ma-terials, and

� future maintenance.

In later phases, when the communities become more set-tled and the project takes root, the individual target groupcommittees may merge into a full-fledged developmentcommittee, which will represent the whole community.The identification of community schemes will then be-come a key function of the committee.

7.4 Implementation of works

Project management will devise a project-level workplan. Different types of planning tools may be utilized todraw up the work plan, from a simple bar-chart to morecomplicated Gantt charts combined with network analy-sis or critical path planning. That choice is made by theproject manager.

The main factors to be considered in a work plan for con-struction activities are the setting of production targets,scheduling of resources, selection of construction meth-ods and a budget forecast. In principle a short work planshould be developed for each site and worked into anoverall project plan.

On this basis each site will develop its own short-termplan to maintain a constant output and optimum re-source utilization. Production must be monitored regu-

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larly, output appraised and the plan amended ifnecessary.

A short-term site plan should include:

� the list of all tasks required in the correct logical se-quence;

� the bill of quantities (list of operations) and estimatedproductivity norm for all operations;

� the calculated inputs, i.e., number and type of work-ers, tools and equipment, materials, etc., and

� the expected duration of each task and a work sched-ule.

7.5 Monitoring, reviewingand adjustment

Monitoring is the continuous supervision of the imple-mentation of an activity. Its purpose is to ensure that in-put deliveries, work schedules, targeted outputs, andother required actions proceed according to plan.

Monitoring of progress in terms of output combined withproductivity measurements should be undertaken at reg-ular intervals at each site.24 The purpose is to allow thesupervision of the individual sites but also to adjust plansand to gain valuable information which may be used toplan new sites and projects.

Productivity measurements should refer to a single taskor operation such as excavation, spreading or unloading.This involves recording all inputs, from labour to materi-als and equipment and modes of operation (i.e., task

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24 Coukis, B, 1983: Labor-based Construction Programs, Washington,provides a complete set of monitoring formats in Appendix I.

work or piece work). Labour may be measured in termsof workdays, and materials, in cubic metres, squaremetres or litres, for example.

Output measurements consist in a description of thetask, the completed quantity of output, the period inquestion, comparison of task work/piece work and pro-ductivity.

The data collected should be analysed regularly at thesite level, and at three- or six-monthly intervals at projectlevel. The results should be presented in a progress re-port25 containing a revised work programme, as well.

While monitoring is a continuous everyday activity, re-views are decision-making events. Review meetingsshould be planned at six-month intervals or wheneverthe an important need arises. A review will allowprogramme leaders, financial authorities (Ministry of Fi-nance or an external donor agency) and project manage-ment to discuss the project. This will provide anopportunity to evaluate progress, and to make budgetdecisions, major work programme changes and projectdesign adjustments.

A review meeting should be held every two years to de-termine the project’s impact on the target group and dis-cuss the achievement of objectives. To this end, relevantinformation should be gathered with regard to the pro-ject’s socio-economic aspects.

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25 See Dalton, M. and Freedman, J., 1992: Guidelines for the Preparationof Project Progress Reports, ILO, Geneva, for a detailed description ofreports in the EIIP context.

8PROJECT

EVALUATION

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Evaluation is a process which attempts to determine assystematically and objectively as possible the relevance,effectiveness and impact of activities with regard to theirobjectives. As such it is a learning and action-orientedmanagement tool, an organizational process for improv-ing activities under way and an invaluable aid to be usedin future planning, programming and decision-making.

In a post-conflict situation an evaluation should focus onthe following the key issues:

� whether the EIIP under evaluation has become inte-grated into national efforts to better the social andeconomic situation of the project area,

� whether it has furthered the reintegration of the con-flict-affected groups into civilian life, and

� whether it has made a cost-effective contribution tothe rehabilitation of damaged infrastructures.

It would discuss the following points:

� the commitment of the post-conflict administrationfor the adoption of a labour-intensive approach;

� the EIIP’s role in developing national capacity at cen-tral, provincial, district, and community levels toprogramme, design, implement and monitor futureEIIPs;

� the functioning of an effective consultative and coor-dination mechanism between partners and actors inpost-conflict countries, such as UNHCR, UNICEF,WFP, ICRC, UNDP and bilateral funding agencies andinternational NGOs;

� the effectiveness and success of targeting strategies ofan EIIP to reach the conflict-affected groups (favouring

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one war-affected group over another in the same com-munity will create social friction and tension);

� the extent to which an EIIP succeeds in providingsubstantial employment and decent income to a rela-tively large number of refugees, internally displacedpersons, demobilized combatants, etc.;

� the economic impact of the income, in terms of pro-viding a basic livelihood and as a means to permitsettlement and engagement in other economic activ-ities;

� the economic impact of the infrastructures providedto help the local and/or regional economy to de-velop;

� the contribution of an EIIP to help the target groupsto become organized and make a contribution to thedevelopment of civil society;

� technical, financial and social soundness of the re-constructed infrastructures.

An evaluation can be performed during the pro-ject/programme implementation, at its final stage orupon completion.

An ongoing evaluation is the analysis performed, duringthe implementation phase, of the continuing relevanceand likely outputs, effectiveness and impact of the pro-ject. Ongoing evaluation can assist decision-makers byproviding information for adjustments of objectives, poli-cies, implementation strategies, or other activity compo-nents, as well as future planning. The results aresummarized in an evaluation report and presented anddiscussed at a review meeting. Evaluation is not a freeservice, but the systematic collection of data at regular in-tervals will help to keep its costs down. Compilation andanalysis of data requires the assistance of an expert. A

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systematic, continuous evaluation is particularly impor-tant in a pilot programme, where the EIIP will prove itspotential. In a larger programme there is still a need forcontinuous evaluation, but it may not be necessary to gointo detail.

Final and ex-post evaluations focus on the relevance, ef-fectiveness, and in particular, on the impact andsustainability of the project. Ex-post evaluations are notcommon, often replaced by an appraisal towards the endof the project.

A major evaluation should performed at least every twoto three years by a team of experts who have not been in-volved in the activities of the programme or project un-der review. The evaluation team will work on the basis ofthe terms of reference elaborated by the programme au-thorities.

The points included in an evaluation are defined below26:

RELEVANCE: the degree to which the rationale,objectives, and expected impact ofan activity are, or remain, perti-nent, valid and significant.

IMPACT: the degree of changes producedas the result of the activities thathave been undertaken.

EFFECTIVENESS: a measure of the extent to whichan activity achieves its objectives.

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26 See Gaude, J., Miller and Demoitie, 1990: Guide for the Evaluation ofLocal Resource-based Training and Infrastructure Programmes, ILO,Geneva , for a detailed explanation of evaluations in the EIIP context.

EFFICIENCY: the productivity of the implemen-tation process of an activity—howwell inputs have been convertedinto outputs. An efficiency analysisusually compares a variety of waysof conducting an activity to find theone which requires minimum in-puts to achieve a fixed goal or pro-duces maximum outputs from afixed quantity of inputs.

COST-

EFFECTIVENESS:

the quality in terms of costs of anactivity. The team may comparethe costs of different ways an activ-ity might be, or, might have beenconducted, in order to find theleast-cost approach to achieve thedesired outputs and objectives.

SUSTAINABILITY: the ability to continue to producepositive results once internationalassistance has come to an end.

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ANNEX 1Annotated Bibliography

1. Partnership

�UN/CCPOQ. 1996. Survey of the United Nations System’sCapabilities in Post-Conflict Reconstruction. UN Vienna.

A survey mandated by the ACC Consultative Committee on Programmeand Operational Questions (CCPOQ) giving an overview of what the UNSystem has to offer in post-conflict situations.

2. Employment-intensiveInvestment Programmes

� Freedman, D.H. 1990. “Special employment programmesin developed and developing countries”, International La-bour Review, Vol. 129, No. 2. ILO, Geneva.

Describes the importance of special employment programmes to respondto the economic crisis and rising unemployment of the 1980s. Examineschanges in economic conditions and policy environment. Highlights thechanging nature of public works and provides a review and assessment offour special public works programme categories. Concludes with an anal-ysis of two core issues: targeting and programme duration.

�Gaude J. and Watzlawick H. 1992. “Employment creationand poverty alleviation through labour-intensive publicworks programmes in least developed countries”. Interna-tional Labour Review, Vol. 131, No. 1. ILO, Geneva.

A condensed review of labour-intensive investment policies and methodsas policy instruments to alleviate poverty and create productive and sus-tained employment. Presents the economic rationale and application meth-ods, and examines the prerequisites for long-term employment creationthrough the design and implementation of small-scale, needs-oriented ba-sic infrastructure. Special issues discussed: i) the roles of central and localgovernment, ii) public or community works, iii) force account versus pri-vate-sector implementation, iv) supply- versus demand-led infrastructure,v) sustainability and replicability and vi) social funds.

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3. EIIPs in conflict-affectedcountries

� ILO. 1994/1995. Relevance and Potential of Employ-ment-Intensive Works Programmes in the Reintegration ofDemobilized Combatants. Country Reports: Cambodia andUganda by Guha, S. and Country Report: Mozambique byMayer, J. Geneva.

Examines the relevance and potential of employment-intensive worksprogrammes in the reintegration of demobilized combatants into civilianlife. Describes the experience of ILO and other agencies in implementingemployment-intensive programmes in Cambodia, Mozambique andUganda with respect to achieving the objectives of rehabilitation of infra-structure along with the reintegration of conflict-affected groups.

� ILO. 1997. The Planning, Design and Implementation ofEmployment-intensive Investment Programmes. CaseStudy Cambodia by Shone, M.; Case Study Mozambiqueby Vletter, F. and Case Study Uganda by Lyby, E. Geneva.

Reviews and assesses EIIP experiences in Cambodia, Mozambique andUganda by comparing them with similar programmes, e.g., of WFP andUNDP. Establishes guidelines and checklists for the preparation of EIIPsin conflict-affected countries.

� ILO, 1997. ILO’s Technical Assistance Projects in Con-flict-Affected Countries: A Sample. Geneva.

Short summaries of projects in 17 countries, containing an overview ofbackground, objectives, beneficiaries, strategies and lessons learned.

4. Choice of technology

Roads Sector

� Edmonds, G.A. and de Veen, J.J. 1993. Technology choicefor the construction and maintenance of roads in develop-ing countries, CTP 128. ILO, Geneva.

Reviews the experience of the use of local resources for the constructionand maintenance of roads and emphasizes two major innovations: i) in-volvement of the private sector, mainly small-scale contractors and ii)development of simple equipment. Gives an interesting overview of the

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cost of labour-based road construction and maintenance in a number ofAfrican and Asian countries.

�Howe, J. and Bantje, H. 1995. Technical Choice in the CivilEngineering Practice: Experience in the Road Sector. ILO,Geneva.

Explores low-cost methods in road construction and maintenance thatare technically and economically viable and efficient. Discusses choice oftechnology from a theoretical perspective (Part I). Considers choice of

technology in road engineering, in particular (Part II).

�Martens, B. 1991. Etude comparée de l’efficacitééconomique des techniques à haute intensité demain-d’oeuvre et à haute intensité d’equipement pour laconstruction de routes secondaires au Rwanda (Compara-tive study of the economic effectiveness of labour- andequipment-intensive technologies in construction of sec-ondary roads in Rwanda). ILO, Geneva.

Breaks down road construction into different activities and compares thecosts involved in each activity using equipment- and labour-intensivetechnology. Concludes that labour-based construction is around 30 percent less costly than equipment-based. Analysis of the employment andthe economic impact at the national level by means of a simplified mac-roeconomic model. Labour-intensive construction uses only half asmuch foreign exchange as equipment-based construction, creates overtwice as many jobs and its multiplier effect on the national economy isalso twice as high.

Irrigation

�Martens, B. 1989. Economic development that lasts. La-bour-intensive irrigation projects in Nepal and the UnitedRepublic of Tanzania. ILO, Geneva.

Presents three irrigation projects implemented by the ILO, one in Nepaland two in Tanzania. Analyses the projects in terms of organization, com-munity participation, economic and employment impact.

5. Planning and programming

�Coukis, B. et al. 1983. Labour-Based Construction Programs.A Practical Guide for Planning and Management. WorldBank/Oxford University Press. Washington.

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A useful and comprehensive manual based on ten years of research andfieldwork in nine countries. Summarizes the basic technical and organi-zational know-how needed by decision-makers and managers for theplanning and implementation of employment-intensive workprogrammes.

�Garnier, P. 1982. Introduction to Special Public WorksProgrammes. ILO, Geneva.

Describes the main stages of the planning, design, organization and im-plementation of special public works programmes; aimed at nationaland international staff. Provides a valuable insight into the comprehen-sive design of labour-intensive programmes, discussing technical,socio-economic and training issues.

� ILO. 1979. Guidelines on the Organization of La-bour-intensive Works Programmes. Geneva.

Comprehensive guidelines (1000 pages) based on two decades of expe-rience in the implementation of employment-intensive worksprogrammes in developing countries. Explores all angles of the subject,from planning and design, to implementation and evaluation.

6. Employment conditionsand remuneration systems

�Guichaoua, A. 1991. “Les travaux communautaires enAfrique Centrale” (“Community labour in Central Africa”),Revue Tiers-Monde, Vol. 32, No. 127. Paris.

Gives the historical background behind unpaid communal works, bothvoluntary and compulsory, in Burundi and Rwanda. Studies existingpractices with respect to their social and economic viability. Concludesthat non-paid “voluntary” or “forced” labour should be abolished.

�Majeres, J. and Miller, S. 1991. “La rémunération dans lesprogrammes d’investissement-travail: entraide, rétributionou salaire?” (Remuneration in employment investmentprogrammes: mutual aid, payment or wage?), RevueTiers-Monde, Vol. 32, No. 127, Paris.

Outlines evolution of labour-intensive employment programmes andprovides a brief analysis of various ILO-assisted projects in the sector.Conclusions i) a direct link between productivity and remuneration in tra-ditional public works should be (re-)introduced either through a basicminimum wage or through piece-work and, ii) contracts communal

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works should be introduced based on negotiations between beneficia-ries and external assistance providers; labour would thus be valued at itsopportunity cost and appear in cost estimates; wage payments would bedecided in the overall negotiations.

�Mayer, J. 1989. “International labour standards and techni-cal cooperation: the case of special public worksprogrammes”, International Labour Review, Vol. 128, No.2. Geneva.

Presents an overview of the special relevance of international labourstandards to employment-intensive works programmes in general andILO’s technical assistance programmes in the sector in particular, anddiscusses their effective application. Standards discussed: employmentpolicy, forced labour, child labour, equality.

�Miller, S. 1992. “Remuneration systems for labour-intensiveinvestments: lessons for equity and growth”, InternationalLabour Review, Vol. 131, No. 1. ILO, Geneva.

Analyses unpaid labour in the context of self-help projects and examinesthe forms (cash or kind), methods (piece- or daily rate) and levels of re-muneration applied in some 11 labour-intensive programmes assistedby the ILO. Concludes with policy prescriptions for simultaneously pro-moting employment, growth and equity.

� Vaidya, K.G. 1988. Wage rates on labour-based construc-tion projects in the presence of high rates of inflation andovervalued exchange rates, CTP 93. ILO, Geneva.

In a number of developing countries the real value of public sector wageshas fallen below a subsistence level and labour-intensive programmesare unable to recruit workers to operate at acceptable productivity levels.Analyses payment in kind as a possible remedy, but advocates flexiblepiece-work rates as the best theoretical solution.

7. Community participation

� Egger, P. 1992. “Rural organizations and infrastructure pro-jects: Social investments come before material invest-ments”, International Labour Review, Vol. 131, No. 1. ILO,Geneva.

Identifies different forms of community participation by means of a com-parative analysis of several ILO-assisted projects and highlights major is-sues relating to participation. Examines the interaction between the

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principal organizations and actors involved in the projects and concludesthat social investments (training and organizing communities/beneficia-ries) must precede investments in infrastructure.

�Garnier, P. and Majeres, J. 1992. “Fighting poverty by pro-moting employment and socio-economic rights at thegrassroots level”, International Labour Review, Vol. 131,No. 1. ILO, Geneva.

Positive findings drawn from the experience of many organizations in re-lation to community participation. Employment and poverty alleviationprogrammes in the infrastructure sector can influence decentralized gov-ernment institutions and help create a framework for negotiations be-tween the public administration on one side, and the private sector andgrassroots organizations on the other. Productive capacities of the mostmarginalized groups can be developed and their awareness raised.

8. Design

� ILO. 1996. Design, Monitoring and Evaluation of TechnicalCooperation Programmes and Projects. Geneva.

A training manual which gives a thorough introduction to the logicalframework approach to project design and evaluation. May also be valu-able as a reference for international and national planners and managersinvolved in technical cooperation.

9. Implementation

Road Construction

�Anderson, C., Beusch, A. and Miles, D. 1996. Road Mainte-nance and Regravelling (ROMAR) Using Labour-basedMethods, Handbook and Workbook. London.

Aimed at small contractors; deals with theory and practice of technical,financial and managerial issues. Workbook provides contractors with ex-ercises to test skills.

�Miles, D. 1996. Towards Guidelines for Labour-based Con-tracting. A framework document. MART Working PaperNo.1. Loughborough University, UK.

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Provides checklists for practitioners, but also lays the groundwork for theproduction of a comprehensive manual to assist policy makers,programme designers and managers.

10. Evaluation

� ILO. 1990. Guide for the Evaluation of Local Re-source-Based Training and Infrastructure Programmes.Geneva.

Offers advice on the evaluation procedures for employment-intensiveworks programmes with a focus on project implementation and impact.Aimed at ILO member States, trade unions and employers’ organizationsand their officials.

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ANNEX 2Emergency, Rehabilitation and

Development Phases of EIIPs.

1. Overview

Objectives, planning requirements, composition ofprogrammes and targeting may vary substantially fromone phase to the next: emergency, rehabilitation and de-velopment. Although basic methodologies remain es-sentially the same, planning and programming standardsand the possibilities of meeting them will vary. However,the phases will overlap considerably. Some initial prob-lems may take a long time to overcome, while new struc-tures emerge. With this in mind an attempt has beenmade to give an overview of the three EIIP phases and ofthe role the ILO can play in this process.

2. Emergency Phase

This phase follows the cessation of hostilities and ofteninvolves the repatriation of large numbers of returnees,the resettlement of internally displaced people, and sup-port to the overall population affected by conflict. UNHCRusually takes a lead role in the resettlement process. Con-flict-affected persons need assistance to rebuild theirhomes and rehabilitate basic local infrastructure (roads,water supply, drainage, sanitation systems, etc.). Duringthe emergency phase it is important to keep people em-ployed and fed. People would prefer to be directly in-volved in building and maintaining the basicinfrastructure, rather than watching bulldozers and otherequipment do the job. EIIPs should be closely associatedwith relief operations. UNICEF and WFP, often involved in

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this phase, would, include the most vulnerable in theirtarget areas.

WFP carries out relief operations in a particular countrywhere people are driven from their land and lackself-sufficiency in food production. In areas where theseprogrammes are not entirely of a critical emergency na-ture, Food for Work (FFW) activities are often the deliverymechanism for food distribution. WFP-FFW activitiesduring the emergency stage generally deal with infra-structure rehabilitation support related to food produc-tion or market access.

EIIP activities during the emergency phase should in-clude:

� a detailed assessment of the scope and content of anEIIP, possibly in the context of a broader employ-ment programme; however, the EIIP should be keptsimple with an emphasis on proven technologiesand schemes such as roads;

� the establishment of appropriate mechanisms forplanning and prioritizing of infrastructure works incooperation with the government (if operational),leading UN and other international agencies;

� promotion of international labour standards, in par-ticular those dealing with basic human rights;

� ad hoc training of local technical and supervisorypersonnel in the basic skills necessary for la-bour-intensive project implementation; and

� EIIP implementation, possibly in cooperation withthe government.

Potential EIIP partners during the emergency phase aregovernment, UNHCR, UNICEF, ICRC, WFP, UNDP, bilat-eral programmes, international organizations and NGOs.

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3. Rehabilitation Phase

The rehabilitation phase should build on the emergencyphase and be developed in close association with thegovernment and local counterparts, especially thosewho, for various reasons, were not involved during theemergency phase.

Planning and coordination with all major programmesduring this phase is indispensable. There will be a poten-tial for complementarity between the actions of variousprogrammes, specially within general infrastructureworks comprising equipment- and labour-based activi-ties, where major and minor works need to be performedaccording to an overall plan and timetable. In this phasethe EIIP should be fully integrated into an overall employ-ment programme aimed specifically at enhancing the ca-pacity of countries emerging from armed conflict to planand implement programmes for the effective reintegra-tion of all conflict-affected groups and to build sustain-able peace. The three main components of theemployment programme are as follows :

� employment-intensive investment programmes(EIIP),

� skills and vocational training, and

� small and micro enterprises development.

In this phase EIIPs are likely to focus on the rehabilitationor construction of basic infrastructure in selected regionsand districts in order to facilitate access and to boost thelocal economies. The priorities for these works are usu-ally quite self-evident. In rural areas the aim is tore-establish a degree of self-sufficiency by means of im-proved irrigation systems, and roads for access to mar-kets and services. In urban settings the reconstruction ofbasic water supply and sanitation, health and education

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facilities, improved roads and housing facilities are keypriorities. During the rehabilitation phase a substantialpart of the works will consist of maintenance and majorrepairs to existing infrastructure which has been dam-aged or is in disrepair owing to lack of maintenance dur-ing the hostilities.

WFP services are likely to continue through this phase inthe event of continuous food shortages or lack of foodproduction. The WFP target areas are however likely tobe much wider and more spread out than the operationalareas covered by an EIIP. Food-for-Work support can beparticularly useful for the maintenance of infrastructureworks if it happens to be in a food deficit area.

During the rehabilitation phase the government will de-velop sectoral development policies and establish priori-ties. However, it may wish to concentrate its own effortsoutside the areas drawing substantial external assis-tance. UN activities will be centred in areas of most needand will not cover the entire country.

EIIPs should transfer responsibility for the operational ac-tivities to government staff. The ILO should assist thegovernment in the development of national EIIP policiesand programmes.

During the rehabilitation phase the EIIP should focus onthe following activities:

� assisting in the establishment of local and sectoralpriorities in the target areas of the UN programme,with a special responsibility for the employment issues,

� coordinating closely with complementary programmesand establish partnerships (e.g., agricultural exten-sion services for irrigation schemes under rehabilita-tion),

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� advising the government with regard to the develop-ment of employment-intensive policies andprogrammes,

� introducing labour-intensive maintenance systemsfor rehabilitated infrastructures, and

� intensifying the transfer of skills to counterpart staffand possibly handing over partial responsibility togovernment.

Potential EIIP partners during the rehabilitation phase in-clude counterparts in the government, UNDP, WFP, bilat-eral programmes, international organizations and NGOs.

4. Development Phase

The development phase usually commences once thegovernment has prepared a national strategy andprogrammes for development. A strategy is necessary,not only as a planning tool to consolidate policies andprogrammes, but also to prepare work packages for con-sideration by various donors and development banks.The establishment of a functioning government adminis-tration, with fully staffed and equipped central and re-gional departments and agencies, is a requirement forconsolidating the development phase.

The ILO has always advocated a close partnership withpolicy makers in working out the details of the role of la-bour-based technologies to be utilized for the construc-tion and maintenance of certain types of infrastructure.

The EIIP should become institutionalized as an integralpart of normal government programmes; hence theneed to intensify the transfer of skills to government per-sonnel. Depending on government policies there is a po-tential for the utilization of smaller labour-based

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contractors as implementer of works. This will include areform of the governments procurement system in orderto enable minor infrastructure works and maintenanceactivities to be tendered. This should give priority to lo-cal, emerging contractors, who utilize employ-ment-intensive methods. By doing so, investments aremade in local areas rather than in procurement from thecapital or abroad.

In the development phase the full strength of the ILO’swider mandate within international labour standards,whether labour law, social security, occupational healthand safety, should be promoted through an integratedemployment programme with broader aims.

During the development phase, EIIPs should focus on thefollowing activities:

� advising the government with regard to finalizing anational EIIP strategy and programme, by, for exam-ple, issuing planning, implementation and evaluationguidelines;

� supporting development activities complementaryto EIIPs, including the formation of specific partner-ships with relevant development agencies;

� providing technical assistance to the governmentagency responsible for the coordination of EIIPs;

� intensifying the training activities related to design,implementation, monitoring and evaluation of EIIPs,aimed at public and private sector personnel; espe-cially establishing training for small-scale contractorsto be able to deliver EIIP infrastructure contracts, andsupport the development of the potential for privateconsultancy involvement in infrastructure designand implementation, and

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� promoting the introduction of labour-based technol-ogy into the curricula of the local institutions ofhigher education for engineers and technicians withthe objective of formalizing such curricula for engi-neers, planners and economists.

Potential EIIP partners during the development phasefeature counterparts in the government, UNDP, bilateralprogrammes, specialized NGOs, the World Bank and re-gional development banks.

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ANNEX 3Checklists for Planning and

Implementing Reconstruction

Works in Countries Emerging

from Armed Conflicts

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CHECKLIST 1:Partnership for Reintegration and

Rehabilitation :

Preparation of National Recovery Efforts

The following steps should be taken to foster the recov-ery and development of countries emerging from armedconflict:

1. establish a partnership for recovery between the na-tional and international organizations, including the na-tional government, the UN and its specialized agencies,humanitarian organizations and other relevant bodies;

2. develop the partnership along more formal lines, i.e., bydrawing up a strategic framework designed to bringgreater harmony into the planning, programming and fi-nancing of recovery efforts;

3. identify, within a strategic framework, the national andinternational partners in an employment programme, inparticular those within the UN agencies, other interna-tional organizations and NGOs;

4. define the partners’ role and responsibilities in the em-ployment programme;

5. strike an agreement on policies, overall EIIP organizationand partners’ roles within the limits of the employmentprogramme and strategic framework;

6. establish the potential for internal or external/donorfunding;

7. agree on and coordinate specific operations among thedifferent agencies taking part in the programme.

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CHECKLIST 2:EIIP Planning for Reintegration and

Rehabilitation:

Drawing up a National Programme

The following points should be borne into account in de-veloping an employment-intensive investmentprogramme for countries emerging from armed conflict.

1. National policies for EIIPs need to be formulated andagreed upon by the major partners.

2. Priorities should be set on the basis of policy indications.Selection criteria (social, economic, institutional, etc.) forEIIP projects need to be established.

3. Specific agreements relating to EIIP financing should bereached.

4. A rough outline of the EIIP must be drawn up accordingto established priorities, local infrastructure rehabilita-tion needs and available funding.

5. In EIIPs featuring several projects, certain basic condi-tions and parameters need to be established to ensurecoordination: i) consistent remuneration systems andwork conditions, ii) technical standards and labour inten-sities of works, iii) women participation, iv) environmen-tal concerns, and v) the public and private sectorinvolvement.

6. The determination of remuneration systems include: i)setting of the wage level, ii) deciding on the mode of pay-ment, be it cash, kind, cash and kind, or a special bankingarrangement, and iii) deciding on whether the wages willbe paid as a daily wage or on the basis of productivity atpiece or task rates.

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7. Establishment of the basic working conditions would in-clude: i) setting the working hours, ii) wage payment in-tervals, iii) deciding on the types and levels of facilitieson site, and iv) deciding on the safety and health mea-sures needed.

8. The setting of technical standards must ensure a goodquality of the works with a view to facilitate the futuremaintenance of the infrastructures created.

9. Special initiatives should be designed to promotewomen’s participation in the projects.

10. Broad guidelines on environmentally friendly worksshould be given.

11. The role of the public and private sectors in the EIIPshould be considered. Guidelines should be given forpublic- and private-sector development and measuresshould be planned for capacity building according totheir roles.

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CHECKLIST 3:Project Formulation:

Preparation of EIIP Projects.

The following points should be considered in the devel-opment of EIIP projects in countries emerging fromarmed conflict.

1. On the basis of the problems and needs identified at theprogramme planning stage, terms of reference will bedrawn up for a formulation team. It will translate thebroad programme objectives into one or several specificprojects and prepare a project document detailing pro-ject interventions and budgets.

2. The basis for formulating a sound project document is athorough problem analysis (an identification and assess-ment of the problems in the target area. To identify theproblems the first step will be to obtain an overview ofthe project area in terms of composition and number ofconflict-affected people and their location, the state ofthe basic infrastructure and the security situation.

3. On the basis of the overview more specific informationfrom the identified project area will need to be collectedduring visits and discussions with the conflict-affectedgroups, by undertaking socio-economic and technicalsurveys and gathering information from other develop-ment activities in the project area.

4. A labour availability assessment is necessary to explorethe demand for labour in relation to the supply.

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5. Discussions will need to be held with the target groupsof conflict-affected people concerning their role in theplanning, implementation and future operation of the in-frastructures. Possibilities for the organization and mobi-lization of the conflict-affected groups should beoutlined and modes of cooperation, preferably in theform of contracts should be established.

6. In the process described above, a number of specificschemes and construction sites will be identified and adraft project design will be established.

7. The schemes and the draft project design will need toundergo a feasibility analysis in order to enable selectionof the best composition of schemes, sites and other pro-ject arrangements. The feasibility study will include tech-nical, financial and social assessments.

8. One or more project document(s) will be finalized andsubmitted to potential donors for consideration.

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International Labour Office

Design and printing: International Training Centre of the ILO, Turin, ItalyPhotographs: Jaques Maillard, Van Imschoot, The Egyptian Social Fund For Development

ISBN 92-2-112402-9

Employment intensive

Worksin Countries Emerging from Armed Conflicts