emotions 1st chapter
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Emotion is a complexpsychophysiologicalexperience of an individual's state of mind as
interacting withbiochemical(internal) andenvironmental(external) influences. Inhumans,
emotion fundamentally involves "physiological arousal, expressivebehaviors, andconscious
experience."[1]Emotion is associated withmood,temperament,personality,disposition,
andmotivation. Motivations direct and energize behavior, while emotions provide the affective
component to motivation, positive or negative.[2]
Emotion classificationsystem exists, though numeroustaxonomieshave been proposed.
Some categorizations include:[citation needed]
"Cognitive" versus "non-cognitive" emotions
Instinctual emotions (from theamygdala), versus cognitive emotions (from theprefrontal
cortex).
Universal emotions recognized cross-culturally based on research on identification offacial
expressions
Characteristics of Emotional IntelligenceDaniel Goleman, an American psychologist, developed a framework of five elements that define emotionalintelligence:
Self-AwarenessPeople with high emotional intelligence are usually very self-aware. Theyunderstand their emotions, and because of this, they don't let their feelings rule them. They're confident
because they trust their intuition and don't let their emotions get out of control.
They're also willing to take an honest look at themselves. They know their strengths and weaknesses,
and they work on these areas so they can perform better. Many people believe that this self-awareness
is the most important part of emotional intelligence.
Self-RegulationThis is the ability to control emotions and impulses. People who self-regulatetypically don't allow themselves to become too angry or jealous, and they don't make impulsive,
careless decisions. They think before they act. Characteristics of self-regulation are thoughtfulness,
comfort with change, integrity, and the ability to say no. MotivationPeople with a high degree of emotional intelligence are usually motivated. They're
willing to defer immediate results for long-term success. They're highly productive, love a challenge,
and are very effective in whatever they do.
EmpathyThis is perhaps the second-most important element of emotional intelligence. Empathy isthe ability to identify with and understand the wants, needs, and viewpoints of those around you.
People with empathy are good at recognizing the feelings of others, even when those feelings may not
be obvious. As a result, empathetic people are usually excellent at managing relationships, listening,
and relating to others. They avoid stereotyping and judging too quickly, and they live their lives in a
very open, honest way.
Social SkillsIt's usually easy to talk to and like people with good social skills, another sign of highemotional intelligence. Those with strong social skills are typically team players. Rather than focus on
their own success first, they help others develop and shine. They can manage disputes, are excellent
communicators, and are masters at building and maintaining relationships.
MODELS
1.THE ABILITY BASED MODEL
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1. Emotional Perception and Expression - the ability to accurately identify andexpress feelings
The ability for self-awareness; to be aware of your own feelings as they areoccurring.
The ability to become emotionally literate. The ability to learn to identify and labelspecific feelings in yourself and others and the ability to clearly and directlycommunicate and discuss these emotions.
2. Use of Emotions - the ability to use your feelings constructively
The ability to let your feelings guide you to what is important to think about The ability to use your feelings to help you decisions which are healthy for both
you and the rest of the human race
3. Emotional Understanding - the ability to understand the meanings of emotions andhow they can change
This includes the ability to understand...
The purpose of emotions; understanding their survival value to the species The relationships between emotions; how and why they can change from
one feeling to another The emotions which lead to the behavior in yourself and others The relationship between thoughts and feelings The causes of emotions and their relationship to our human psychological
needs, especially our unmet emotional needs.
4. Emotional Management - the ability to manage emotions for personal and socialgrowth
The ability to take responsibility for one's own feelings and happiness The ability to turn negative emotions into positive learning and growing
opportunities The ability to help others identify and benefit from their emotions
2 .Mixed models
The model introduced by Daniel Goleman[18]focuses on EI as a wide array of competencies and
skills that drive leadership performance. Goleman's model outlines four main EI constructs:
1. Self-awareness the ability to read one's emotions and recognize their impact while
usinggut feelingsto guide decisions.
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2. Self-management involves controlling one's emotions and impulses and adapting to
changing circumstances.
3. Social awareness the ability to sense, understand, and react to others' emotions while
comprehendingsocial networks.
4. Relationship management the ability to inspire, influence, and develop otherswhilemanaging conflict.
Goleman includes a set ofemotional competencieswithin each construct of EI. Emotional
competencies are not innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that must be worked on and
can be developed to achieve outstanding performance. Goleman posits that individuals are born
with a general emotional intelligence that determines their potential for learning emotional
competencies.[19]Goleman's model of EI has been criticized in the research literature as mere
"pop psychology" (Mayer, Roberts, & Barsade, 2008).
[edit]Measurement of the Emotional Competencies (Goleman) model
Two measurement tools are based on the Goleman model:
1. The Emotional Competency Inventory (ECI), which was created in 1999, and the
Emotional and Social Competency Inventory (ESCI), which was created in 2007.
2. The Emotional Intelligence Appraisal, which was created in 2001 and which can be
taken as a self-report or 360-degree assessment.[20]
[edit]Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence (ESI)
Bar-On[2]defines emotional intelligence as being concerned with effectively understanding
oneself and others, relating well to people, and adapting to andcopingwith the immediate
surroundings to be more successful in dealing with environmental demands.[21]
Bar-On positsthat EI develops over time and that it can be improved through training, programming, and
therapy.[2]Bar-On hypothesizes that those individuals with higher than average EQs are in
general more successful in meeting environmental demands and pressures. He also notes that
a deficiency in EI can mean a lack of success and the existence of emotional problems.
Problems in coping with one's environment are thought, by Bar-On, to be especially common
among those individuals lacking in the subscales of reality testing, problem solving, stress
tolerance, and impulse control. In general, Bar-On considers emotional intelligence and
cognitive intelligence to contribute equally to a person'sgeneral intelligence, which then offers
an indication of one's potential to succeed in life.[2]However, doubts have been expressed about
this model in the research literature (in particular about the validity of self-report as an index of
emotional intelligence) and in scientific settings it is being replaced by the trait emotional
intelligence (trait EI) model discussed below.[10]
[edit]Measurement of the ESI model
The Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i), is a self-report measure of EI developed as a
measure of emotionally and socially competent behavior that provides an estimate of one's
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emotional and social intelligence. The EQ-i is not meant to measure personality traits or
cognitive capacity, but rather the mental ability to be successful in dealing with environmental
demands and pressures.[2]One hundred and thirty three items (questions or factors) are used to
obtain a Total EQ (Total Emotional Quotient) and to produce five composite scale scores,
corresponding to the five main components of the Bar-On model. A limitation of this model is
that it claims to measure some kind of ability through self-report items (for a discussion, see
Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2001). The EQ-i has been found to be highly susceptible to
faking (Day & Carroll, 2008; Grubb & McDaniel, 2007).
[edit]Trait EI model
Soviet-born British psychologist Konstantin Vasily Petrides ("K. V. Petrides") proposed a
conceptual distinction between the ability based model and atraitbased model of EI and has
been developing the latter over many years in numerous scientific publications.[9][22]Trait EI is "a
constellation of emotional self-perceptions located at the lower levels of personality."[22]In lay
terms, trait EI refers to an individual's self-perceptions of their emotional abilities. This definitionof EI encompasses behavioral dispositions and self perceived abilities and is measured byself
report, as opposed to the ability based model which refers to actual abilities, which have proven
highly resistant to scientific measurement. Trait EI should be investigated within
apersonalityframework.[23]An alternative label for the same construct is trait emotional self-
efficacy.
The trait EI model is general and subsumes the Goleman and Bar-On models discussed above.
The conceptualization of EI as a personality trait leads to a construct that lies outside
thetaxonomyof human cognitive ability. This is an important distinction in as much as it bears
directly on the operationalization of the construct and the theories and hypotheses that are
formulated about it.[9]
[edit]Measurement of the trait EI model
There are many self-report measures of EI,[24]including the EQ-i, the Swinburne University
Emotional Intelligence Test (SUEIT), and the Schutte EI model. None of these assess
intelligence, abilities, or skills (as their authors often claim), but rather, they are limited
measures of trait emotional intelligence.[22]One of the more comprehensive and widely
researched measures of this construct is the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire
(TEIQue), which was specifically designed to measure the construct comprehensively and is
available in many languages.
The TEIQue provides an operationalization for the model of Petrides and colleagues, that
conceptualizes EI in terms of personality.[25]The test encompasses 15 subscales organized
under four factors:Well-Being,Self-Control,Emotionality, andSociability.
Thepsychometricproperties of the TEIQue were investigated in a study on a French-speaking
population, where it was reported that TEIQue scores were globallynormally
distributedandreliable.[26]
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The researchers also found TEIQue scores were unrelated to nonverbal reasoning (Raven's
matrices), which they interpreted as support for the personality trait view of EI (as opposed to a
form of intelligence). As expected, TEIQue scores were positively related to some of the Big
Five personality traits(extraversion,agreeableness,openness,conscientiousness) as well as
inversely related to others (alexithymia,neuroticism). A number of quantitative genetic studies
have been carried out within the trait EI model, which have revealed significant genetic effects
and heritabilities for all trait EI scores.[27]Two recent studies (one a meta-analysis) involving
direct comparisons of multiple EI tests yielded very favorable results for the TEIQue.[11][28]
3.The trait emotional intelligence (trait EI) model successfully integrates and extends
EIrelated ideas in a general framework that incorporates 15 specific facets.
The TEIQue assesses all of the above facets through 15 subscales. In addition, it
provides scores on four factors of broader relevance (well-being, self-control, emotionality,
and sociability). Below, you will find brief information about each of the scales and factors.
At all times, it is important to remember that scores on the trait EI facets do not reflect cognitive
abilities (e.g., IQ), but rather self-perceived abilities and behavioural dispositions.
The TEIQue is a scientific measurement instrument based exclusively on trait EI theory.
Trait EI theory is unrelated to what lay individuals understand by emotional intelligence and is
incompatible with all other models promoted in the various literatures. The TEIQue is not an
alternative to questionnaires or tests claiming to measure emotional intelligence. It is
Copyright K. V. Petrides 2001. All rights reserved.
specifically developed and updated to provide a gateway to trait EI theory. Trait EI theory is
developed in the context of the trait emotional intelligence research program.
Interpreting subscale scores
1.Emotion expression: High scores on this scale mean people are fluent in communicating
their emotions to others. They know what the best words are for expressing their feelings
accurately and unambiguously. Low scores on this scale indicate a difficulty in communicating
emotionrelated thoughts, even in situations when this is necessary. People with low scores find
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it difficult to let others know how they feel. Inability to express emotion may be indicative of a
more generalized problem of lack of self-confidence and social assertiveness.
2.Empathy: This scale measures the perspective-taking aspect of empathy: seeing the world
from someone elses point of view. In other words, it has to do with whether one can
understand other peoples needs and desires. People with high scores on this scale tend to be
skilful in conversations and negotiations because they take into account the viewpoints of those
they are dealing with. They can put themselves in somebody elses shoes and appreciate how
things seem to them. Low scorers have difficulty adopting other peoples perspectives. They
tend to be opinionated and argumentative and may often seem self-centred.
3Self-motivation: People with high scores on this scale are driven by a need to produce
highquality work. They tend to be determined and persevering. rewarded for their efforts
because they have a strong sense of achievement and are motivated from within. Low scorers
tend to need a lot of incentives and encouragement in order to get things done. They need
constant reward to keep going and they are more likely to give up in the face of adversity. They
also tend to have reduced levels of drive and persistence.
4.Emotion regulation: This scale measures short-, medium-, and long-term control of ones
own feelings and emotional states. High scorers have control over their emotions and can
change unpleasant moods or prolong pleasant moods through personal insight and effort. They
are psychologically stable and they know how to pick themselves up after emotional setbacks.
Low scorers are subject to emotional seizures and periods of prolonged anxiety or even
depression. They find it difficult to deal with their feelings and are often moody and irritable.
5.Happiness: This scale concerns pleasant emotional states, primarily directed towards the
present rather than the past (life satisfaction) or the future (optimism). High scorers are cheerful
and feel good about themselves. Low scorers often feel blue and can be overly negative about
things. More generally, people with low scores on this scale tend to be disappointed with their
life as it is at present. Along with self-esteem and optimism, this scale reflects your general
psychological state at present.
6.Social awareness: High scorers believe they have excellent social skills and are socially
sensitive, adaptable, and perceptive. They are good at negotiating, brokering deals, and
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influencing others. In addition, they tend to have control over their emotions and the manner in
which they express them, which enables them to function confidently in diverse social contexts,.
like parties or networking events. Low scorers believe they have limited social skills and often
feel anxious in unfamiliar settings because they are unsure about how to behave. They find it
difficult to express themselves clearly and have a small circle of acquaintances. They are
known for their limited interpersonal skills.
7.Low impulsiveness: This scale measures mainly dysfunctional (unhealthy) rather than
functional (healthy) impulsivity. Low impulsivity involves thinking before acting and
reflecting carefully before making decisions. High scorers on this scale weigh all the
information before they make up their mind, without, however, being overly cautious. Low
scorers tend to be impetuous and to give in to their urges. Much like children, they want
immediate gratification and have low self-control. They often speak without having thought
things through and they change their mind frequently.
8.Emotion perception: This scale measures emotion perception in ones own self as well as in
others. High scorers on this scale are clear about what they feel and able to decode other
peoples emotional expressions. In contrast, people with low scores on the emotion perception
scale are often confused about how they feel and do not pay much attention to the emotional
signals that others send out.
9.Self-esteem: The self-esteem scale measures ones overall evaluation of oneself. Highscorers have a positive view of themselves and their achievements. They are confident,
positive, and satisfied with most aspects of their life. Low scorers tend to lack self-respect and
to not value themselves very highly. Low self-esteem scores are often the result of challenges
in one or more of the other areas that the TEIQue assesses.
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10.Assertiveness: Individuals with high scores on this scale are forthright and frank. They
know how to ask for things, give and receive compliments, and confront others when necessary.
They have leadership qualities and can stand up for their rights and beliefs. Low scorers tend to
backdown even if they know they are right and have difficulty saying no, even when they feel
they must. As a result, they often end up doing things they do not want to do. In most cases,
they prefer to be part of a team rather than to lead it.
11.Emotion management: This scale concerns ones perceived ability to manage other
peoples emotional states. High scorers on the emotion management scale can influence other
peoples feelings (e.g., calm them down, console them, motivate them). They know how to
make others feel better when they need it. Low scorers can neither influence nor manage
others feelings.They become overwhelmed when they have to deal with other peoples
emotional outbursts and are less likely to enjoy socializing and networking.
12.Optimism: Like happiness, this scale is linked to well-being, albeit in a forward-looking way.
High scorers look on the bright side and expect positive things to happen in their life. Low
scorers are pessimistic and view things from a negative perspective. They are less likely to be
able to identify and pursue new opportunities and tend to be risk-averse. Along with happiness
and self-esteem, this scale reflects your general psychological state at this point in time.
13.Relationships: This scale mainly concerns ones personal relationships, including close
friends,
partners, and family. It is about starting and maintaining emotional bonds with others. High
scorers usually have fulfilling personal relationships that positively affect their productivity and
emotional well-being. They know how to listen and be responsive to the people close to them.
Low scorers find it difficult to bond well with others and tend to undervalue their personal
relationships. They often behave in ways that hurt those close to them.
Adaptability: High scorers are flexible in their approach to work and life. They are willing and
able to adapt to new environments and conditions in fact, they may even enjoy novelty and
regular change. Low scorers are change-resistant and find it difficult to modify their work- and
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life-style. They are generally inflexible and have fixed ideas and views.
Stress management: High scorers on this scale can handle pressure calmly and effectively
because they have developed successful coping mechanisms. More often than not, they are
good at regulating their emotions, which helps them tackle stress. Low scorers are less likely
to have developed stress-coping strategies. They may prefer to altogether avoid situations that
are potentially hectic, rather than deal with the associated tension. Their vulnerability to stress
is problematic, as it leads them to reject important, but time-demanding, projects.
Interpreting factor scores
Well-being: High scores on this factor reflect a generalized sense of well-being, extending from
past achievements to future expectations. Overall, individuals with high scores feel positive,
happy, and fulfilled. In contrast, individuals with low scores tend to have low self-regard and to.
be disappointed about their life as it is at present. Your well-being score largely depends on
your scores on the other three factors of the TEIQue.
Self-control: High scorers have a healthy degree of control over their urges and desires. In
addition to fending off impulses, they are good at regulating external pressures and stress.
They are neither repressed nor overly expressive. In contrast, low scorers are prone toimpulsive behaviour and seem to be incapable of managing stress. Low self-control are
associated with inflexibility.
Emotionality: Individuals with high scores on this factor believe they have a wide range of
emotion-related skills. They can perceive and express emotions and use these abilities to
develop and sustain close relationships with important others. Individuals with low scores on
this factor find it difficult to recognize their internal emotional states and to express their feelings
to others, which often leads to less rewarding personal relationships.
Sociability: The sociability factor differs from the emotionality factor above in that it
emphasises social relationships and social influence. The focus is on the individual as an agent
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in different social contexts rather than on personal relationships with family and close friends.
Individuals with high scores on the sociability factor are better at social interaction. They
believe they have good listening skills and can communicate clearly and confidently with people
from very diverse backgrounds. Those with low scores believe they are unable to affect others
emotions and are less likely to be good negotiators or networkers. They are unsure what to do
or say in social situations and, as a result, they often appear shy and reserved.
Theories
Somatic theories
Somatictheories of emotion claim that bodily responses rather than judgements are essential toemotions. The first modern version of such theories comes from William James in the 1880s.
The theory lost favor in the 20th century, but has regained popularity more recently due largely
to theorists such asJohn Cacioppo,Antnio Damsio,Joseph E. LeDouxandRobert
Zajoncwho are able to appeal to neurological evidence.[citation needed]
[edit]JamesLange theory
Main article:JamesLange theory
William James, in the article "What is an Emotion?",[6]argued that emotional experience is
largely due to the experience of bodily changes. The Danish psychologistCarl Langealso
proposed a similar theory at around the same time, so this position is known as the James
Lange theory. This theory and its derivatives state that a changed situation leads to a changed
bodily state. As James says "the perception of bodily changes, as they occur, isthe emotion."
James further claims that "we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because
we tremble, and neither we cry, strike, nor tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as
the case may be."[6]
This theory is supported by experiments in which by manipulating the bodily state, a desired
emotion is induced.[7]Such experiments also have therapeutic implications (for example,
inlaughter therapy,dance therapy). Some people may believe that emotions give rise to
emotion-specific actions: e.g. "I'm crying because I'm sad," or "I ran away because I wasscared." The JamesLange theory, conversely, asserts that firstwe react to a situation (running
away and crying happen before the emotion), andthenwe interpret our actions into an emotional
response. In this way, emotions serve to explain and organize our own actions to us.
The JamesLange theory has until 1953 been all but abandoned by most scholars .[8]
Tim Dalgleish (2004)[9]states the following:
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The JamesLange theory has remained influential. Its main contribution is the emphasis it
places on the embodiment of emotions, especially the argument that changes in the bodily
concomitants of emotions can alter their experienced intensity. Most contemporary
neuroscientists would endorse a modified JamesLange view in which bodily feedback
modulates the experience of emotion." (p. 583)
The issue with the JamesLange theory is that of causation (bodily states causing emotions and
being a priori), not that of the bodily influences on emotional experience (which can be argued is
still quite prevalent today in biofeedback studies and embodiment theory).
[edit]Cognitive theories
Several theories argue that cognitive activityin the form of judgments, evaluations, or
thoughtsis necessary for an emotion to occur. This, argued byRichard Lazarus, is necessary
to capture the fact that emotions are about something or haveintentionality. Such cognitive
activity may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual
processing.
An influential theory here is that of Lazarus: emotion is a disturbance that occurs in the following
order: 1.) Cognitive appraisalThe individual assesses the event cognitively, which cues the
emotion. 2.) Physiological changesThe cognitive reaction starts biological changes such as
increased heart rate or pituitary adrenal response. 3.) ActionThe individual feels the emotion
and chooses how to react. For example: Jenny sees a snake. 1.) Jenny cognitively assesses
the snake in her presence, which triggers fear. 2.) Her heart begins to race faster. Adrenaline
pumps through her blood stream. 3.) Jenny screams and runs away. Lazarus stressed that the
quality and intensity of emotions are controlled through cognitive processes. These processes
underlie coping strategies that form the emotional reaction by altering the relationship betweenthe person and the environment.
George Mandlerprovided an extensive theoretical and empirical discussion of emotion as
influenced by cognition, consciousness, and the autonomic nervous system in two books (Mind
and Emotion, 1975, and Mind and Body: Psychology of Emotion and Stress, 1984)
There are some theories on emotions arguing that cognitive activity in the form of judgements,
evaluations, or thoughts is necessary in order for an emotion to occur. A prominent
philosophical exponent isRobert C. Solomon(for example, The Passions, Emotions and the
Meaning of Life, 1993). The theory proposed byNico Frijdawhere appraisal leads to action
tendencies is another example.
It has also been suggested that emotions (affect heuristics, feelings and gut-feeling reactions)
are often used as shortcuts to process information and influence behavior.[10]Theaffect infusion
model(AIM) is a theoretical model developed by Joseph Forgas in the early 1990s that attempts
to explain how emotion and mood interact with one's ability to process information.
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[edit]Perceptual theory
A recent hybrid of the somatic and cognitive theories of emotion is the perceptual theory. This
theory is neo-Jamesian in arguing that bodily responses are central to emotions, yet it
emphasizes the meaningfulness of emotions or the idea that emotions are about something, as
is recognized by cognitive theories. The novel claim of this theory is that conceptually-basedcognition is unnecessary for such meaning. Rather the bodily changes themselves perceivethe
meaningful content of the emotion because of being causally triggered by certain situations. In
this respect, emotions are held to be analogous to faculties such as vision or touch, which
provide information about the relation between the subject and the world in various ways. A
sophisticated defense of this view is found in philosopher Jesse Prinz's book Gut Reactionsand
psychologist James Laird's book Feelings.
[edit]Affective events theory
This is a communication-based theory developed by Howard M. Weiss and Russell Cropanzano
(1996), that looks at the causes, structures, and consequences of emotional experience(especially in work contexts). This theory suggests that emotions are influenced and caused by
events which in turn influence attitudes and behaviors. This theoretical frame also
emphasizes timein that human beings experience what they call emotion episodesa "series
of emotional states extended over time and organized around an underlying theme." This theory
has been utilized by numerous researchers to better understand emotion from a communicative
lens, and was reviewed further by Howard M. Weiss and Daniel J. Beal in their article,
"Reflections on Affective Events Theory" published in Research on Emotion in Organizationsin
2005.
[edit]Cannon
Bard theoryIn theCannonBard theory,Walter Bradford Cannonargued against the dominance of the
JamesLange theory regarding the physiological aspects of emotions in the second edition
ofBodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage. Where James argued that emotional
behavior often precedes or defines the emotion, Cannon and Bard argued that the emotion
arises first and then stimulates typical behavior.
[edit]Two-factor theory
Another cognitive theory is theSingerSchachter theory. This is based on experiments
purportedly showing that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed
into the same physiological state with an injection of adrenaline. Subjects were observed toexpress either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation
displayed that emotion. Hence, the combination of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive) and
the participants' reception of adrenaline or a placebo together determined the response. This
experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz's (2004) Gut Reactions.
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[edit]Component process model
A recent version of the cognitive theory regards emotions more broadly as the synchronization
of many different bodily and cognitive components. Emotions are identified with the overall
process whereby low-level cognitive appraisals, in particular the processing of relevance, trigger
bodily reactions, behaviors, feelings, and actions.
[edit]Situated perspective on emotion
A situated perspective on emotion, developed by Paul E. Griffiths and Andrea Scarantino ,
emphasizes the importance of external factors in the development and communication of
emotion, drawing upon thesituationismapproach in psychology.[11]This theory is markedly
different from both cognitivist and neo-Jamesian theories of emotion, both of which see emotion
as a purely internal process, with the environment only acting as a stimulus to the emotion. In
contrast, a situationist perspective on emotion views emotion as the product of an organism
investigating its environment, and observing the responses of other organisms. Emotion
stimulates the evolution of social relationships, acting as a signal to mediate the behavior ofother organisms. In some contexts, the expression of emotion (both voluntary and involuntary)
could be seen as strategic moves in the transactions between different organisms. The situated
perspective on emotion states that conceptual thought is not an inherent part of emotion, since
emotion is an action-oriented form of skillful engagement with the world. Griffiths and Scarantino
suggested that this perspective on emotion could be helpful in understanding phobias, as well
as the emotions of infants and animals.
[edit]Evolutionary psychology
Illustration fromCharles Darwin'sThe Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.
Main article:Evolution of emotion
Perspectives on emotions from evolutionary theory were initiated in the late 19th century
withCharles Darwin's bookThe Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.[12]Darwin's
original thesis was that emotions evolved via natural selection and therefore have cross-
culturally universal counterparts. Furthermore, animals undergo emotions comparable to our
own (seeemotion in animals). In the early 1970s,Paul Ekmanand colleagues began a line of
research that suggests that many emotions are universal.[2]He found evidence that humans
share at least five basic emotions: fear, sadness, happiness, anger, and disgust.[2]Other
research in this area focuses on physical displays of emotion including body language of
animals and humans (seeaffect display). The increased potential inneuroimaginghas also
allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient parts of the brain. Important neurological
advances were derived from these perspectives in the 1990s by, for example, Joseph E.
LeDouxandAntnio Damsio.
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Social emotions evidently evolved to motivate social behaviors that were adaptive in the
ancestral environment.[2]For example, spite seems to work against the individual but it can
establish an individual's reputation as someone to be feared.[2]Shame and pride can motivate
behaviors that help one maintain one's standing in a community, and self-esteem is one's
estimate of one's status.[2][13]
[edit]Neurobiological theories
Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of thelimbic system,
theneurobiologicalexplanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant
mental state organized in the limbic system of themammalian brain. If distinguished from
reactive responses ofreptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of
generalvertebratearousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for
example,dopamine,noradrenaline, andserotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity
level, as visible in body movements, gestures, and postures.
For example, the emotion ofloveis proposed to be the expression ofpaleocircuitsof themammalian brain (specifically, modules of thecingulate gyrus) which facilitate the care, feeding,
and grooming of offspring. Paleocircuits are neural platforms for bodily expression configured
before the advent ofcorticalcircuitsfor speech. They consist of pre-configured pathways or
networks ofnerve cellsin theforebrain,brain stemandspinal cord.
The motor centers ofreptilesreact to sensory cues of vision, sound, touch, chemical, gravity,
and motion with pre-set body movements and programmed postures. With the arrival of night-
activemammals, smell replaced vision as the dominant sense, and a different way of
responding arose from theolfactorysense, which is proposed to have developed
intomammalianemotion and emotional memory. The mammalian brain invested heavilyinolfactionto succeed at night as reptiles sleptone explanation for why olfactory lobes in
mammalian brains are proportionally larger than in the reptiles. These odor pathways gradually
formed the neural blueprint for what was later to become our limbic brain.
Emotions are thought to be related to certain activities in brain areas that direct our attention,
motivate our behavior, and determine the significance of what is going on around us. Pioneering
work byBroca(1878),Papez(1937), andMacLean(1952) suggested that emotion is related to
a group of structures in the center of the brain called thelimbic system, which includes
thehypothalamus,cingulate cortex,hippocampi, and other structures. More recent research has
shown that some of theselimbic structuresare not as directly related to emotion as others are,
while some non-limbic structures have been found to be of greater emotional relevance.
In 2011, Lvheim proposed a direct relation between specific combinations of the levels of the
signal substancesdopamine,noradrenalineandserotoninand eight basic emotions. A model
was presented where the signal substances forms the axes of a coordinate system, and the
eight basic emotions according toSilvan Tomkinsare placed in the eight corners. Anger is,
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pedia.org/wiki/Limbic_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cingulate_cortexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_D._MacLeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Papezhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Brocahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfactoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reptileshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal_cordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_stemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forebrainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerve_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuronal_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_cortexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cingulate_gyrushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paleocircuits&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serotoninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noradrenalinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopaminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reptilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammalian_brainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurobiologicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotion&action=edit§ion=14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Gaulin_6-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Gaulin_6-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Gaulin_6-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Gaulin_6-1 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according to the model, for example produced by the combination of low serotonin, high
dopamine and high noradrenaline.[14]
Lvheim Cube of emotion
[edit]Prefrontal cortex
There is ample evidence that the left prefrontal cortex is activated by stimuli that cause positive
approach.[15]If attractive stimuli can selectively activate a region of the brain, then logically the
converse should hold, that selective activation of that region of the brain should cause a
stimulus to be judged more positively. This was demonstrated for moderately attractive visual
stimuli[16]and replicated and extended to include negative stimuli.[17]
Two neurobiological models of emotion in the prefrontal cortex made opposing predictions. The
Valence Model predicted that anger, a negative emotion, would activate the right prefrontal
cortex. The Direction Model predicted that anger, an approach emotion, would activate the left
prefrontal cortex. The second model was supported.[18]
This still left open the question of whether the opposite of approach in the prefrontal cortex is
better described as moving away (Direction Model), as unmoving but with strength andresistance (Movement Model), or as unmoving with passive yielding (Action Tendency Model).
Support for the Action Tendency Model (passivity related to right prefrontal activity) comes from
research on shyness[19]and research on behavioral inhibition.[20]Research that tested the
competing hypotheses generated by all four models also supported the Action Tendency
Model.[21][22]
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[edit]Homeostatic/primordial emotion
Another neurological approach distinguishes two classes of emotion. "Classical" emotions
including love, anger and fear, are evoked by appraisal of scenarios fed by environmental
stimuli via distance receptors in the eyes, nose and ears.[23]"Homeostatic"[24]or
"primordial"[25]
emotions are feelings such as pain, hunger, thirst and fatigue, evoked by internalbody states, communicated to the central nervous system byinteroceptors, which motivate
behavior aimed at maintaining the body's internal milieu at its ideal state .[26]These demanding
sensations that capture conscious attention are coordinated from the lower or basal regions of
the brain and impact diverse regions of the brain, including the frontal lobes. [25]
[edit]Disciplinary approaches
Many different disciplines have produced work on the emotions.Human sciencesstudy the role
of emotions in mental processes, disorders, and neural mechanisms. Inpsychiatry, emotions
are examined as part of the discipline's study and treatment of mental disorders in
humans.Nursingstudies emotions as part of its approach to the provision of holistic health care
to humans.Psychologyexamines emotions from a scientific perspective by treating them as
mental processes and behavior and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological
processes. Inneurosciencesub-fields such associal neuroscienceandaffective neuroscience,
scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with the
psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. Inlinguistics, the expression of emotion
may change to the meaning of sounds. Ineducation, the role of emotions in relation to learning
are examined.
Social sciencesoften examine emotion for the role that it plays in human culture and social
interactions. Insociology, emotions are examined for the role they play in human society, social
patterns and interactions, and culture. Inanthropology, the study of humanity, scholars use
ethnography to undertake contextual analyses and cross-cultural comparisons of a range of
human activities; some anthropology studies examine the role of emotions in human activities.
In the field ofcommunication sciences, critical organizational scholars have examined the role
of emotions in organizations, from the perspectives of managers, employees, and even
customers. A focus on emotions in organizations can be credited toArlie Russell Hochschild's
concept ofemotional labor. The University of Queensland hosts EmoNet,[27]an e-mail
distribution list representing a network of academics that facilitates scholarly discussion of all
matters relating to the study of emotion in organizational settings. The list was established in
January 1997 and has over 700 members from across the globe.
Ineconomics, the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of
goods and services, emotions are analyzed in some sub-fields of microeconomics, in order to
assess the role of emotions on purchase decision-making and risk perception. In criminology, a
social science approach to the study of crime, scholars often draw on behavioral sciences,
sociology, and psychology; emotions are examined in criminology issues such asanomietheory
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotion&action=edit§ion=16http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotion&action=edit§ion=16http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotion&action=edit§ion=16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p10-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p10-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p10-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_homeostasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_homeostasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Craig2003-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Craig2003-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Craig2003-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p7-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p7-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p7-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interoceptorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interoceptorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interoceptorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p7-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p7-24http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotion&action=edit§ion=17http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotion&action=edit§ion=17http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotion&action=edit§ion=17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlie_Russell_Hochschildhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlie_Russell_Hochschildhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlie_Russell_Hochschildhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_laborhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_laborhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_laborhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomiehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomiehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomiehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomiehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_laborhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlie_Russell_Hochschildhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotion&action=edit§ion=17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p7-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interoceptorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p7-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Craig2003-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_homeostasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p10-22http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotion&action=edit§ion=16 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and studies of "toughness," aggressive behavior, and hooliganism. Inlaw, which underpins civil
obedience, politics, economics and society, evidence about people's emotions is often raised
intort lawclaims for compensation and incriminal lawprosecutions against alleged lawbreakers
(as evidence of the defendant's state of mind during trials, sentencing, and parole hearings).
Inpolitical science, emotions are examined in a number of sub-fields, such as the analysis of
voter decision-making.
Inphilosophy, emotions are studied in sub-fields such asethics, thephilosophy of art(for
example,sensoryemotionalvalues, and matters oftasteandsentimentality), and
thephilosophy of music(see alsoMusic and emotion). Inhistory, scholars examine documents
and other sources to interpret and analyze past activities; speculation on the emotional state of
the authors of historical documents is one of the tools of interpretation. Inliteratureand film-
making, the expression of emotion is the cornerstone of genres such as drama, melodrama, and
romance. Incommunication studies, scholars study the role that emotion plays in the
dissemination of ideas and messages. Emotion is also studied in non-human animals
inethology, a branch of zoology which focuses on the scientific study of animal behavior.
Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with strong ties to ecology and
evolution. Ethologists often study one type of behavior (for example, aggression) in a number of
unrelated animals.
[edit]Sociology
Main article:Sociology of emotions
We try to regulate our emotions to fit in with the norms of the situation, based on many
sometimes conflictingdemands upon us which originate from various entities studied by
sociology on a micro levelsuch as social roles and "feeling rules" the everyday socialinteractions and situations are shaped byand, on a macro level, by social institutions,
discourses, ideologies, etc. For example, (post-)modernmarriageis, on one hand, based on the
emotion of love and on the other hand the very emotion is to be worked on and regulated by it.
The sociology of emotions also focuses on generalattitude changesin a population. Emotional
appeals are commonly found in advertising, health campaigns and political messages. Recent
examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaign advertising emphasizing
the fear of terrorism.
[edit]Psychotherapy
Depending on the particular school's general emphasis either on cognitive components ofemotion, physical energy discharging, or on symbolic movement and facial expression
components of emotion,[28]different schools ofpsychotherapyapproach human emotions
differently. Cognitively ori