Electromagnetic Field Theories for Engineering

Md. Abdus Salam

Electromagnetic FieldTheories for Engineering

2123

Md. Abdus SalamDepartment of Electrical and Electronic EngineeringInstitute Technology BruneiDarussalamBrunei Darussalam

ISBN 978-981-4585-65-1 ISBN 978-981-4585-66-8 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-981-4585-66-8Springer Singapore Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014932423

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To all my teachers, colleagues, and studentswho have encouraged and helped me todevelop professionally over the years. Also,to my wife Asma Ara Bagum, my son SyeedHasan, and my daughters, Yusra binti Salamand Sundus Salam for their love, patience,and support.

Preface

Electrical engineering plays an important role in modernizing human life andencompasses wide areas such as: generation, transmission, and distribution of elec-trical power, digital systems, satellite communications, signal processing, robotics,mechatronics, computer, control, artificial intelligence, and networks.

A 4 year electrical and electronic engineering curriculum normally contains twomodules of electromagnetic field theories during the first 2 years. However, somecurricula do not have enough slots to accommodate the two modules. This book,Electromagnetic Field Theories, is designed for electrical and electronic engineer-ing undergraduate students to provide fundamental knowledge of electromagneticfields and waves in a structured manner. A comprehensive fundamental knowledgeof electric and magnetic fields is required to understand the working principles ofgenerators, motors, and transformers. This knowledge is also necessary to analyzetransmission lines, substations, insulator flashover mechanism, transient phenomena,etc.

This book is written in a simple way so that the students will find it easy to under-stand the electromagnetic field theory and its application in electrical engineering.Several worked out examples are included to enhance the understanding of electro-magnetic field theories. Each chapter also includes several practice problems withanswers given at the end of the book, which would facilitate students’understanding.

The basic parameters in electromagnetic fields are discussed in Chap. 1, whilevector calculus and orthogonal coordinate systems are explained in Chap. 2. InChap. 3, the basics of electrostatics, Coulomb’s law, electric field intensity, Gauss’law, Ohm’s law, and energy have been discussed. Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations,uniqueness theorem, and their analysis on geometric shapes have been introducedin Chap. 4. The current and its density, resistance, capacitance, continuity equation,etc., have been discussed in Chap. 5. Chapter 6 explains Lorentz’s force, magneticflux density, Biot–Savart law, Ampere’s circuital law, vector magnetic potential, airgap, and series and parallel magnetic circuit. Faraday’s law, conduction current,displacement current, Maxwell’s equation, and basics of transformer, have beendiscussed in Chap. 7. Chapter 8 deals with transmission line equations, velocityof wave propagation, wavelengths, lossless propagation, distortionless transmissionline, power, and Smith chart. Plane waves and its analysis are included in Chap. 9,and basics of antenna have been discussed in Chap. 10.

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Features

Several textbooks on electromagnetic theories already exist in the market. However,the book on Electromagnetic Field Theories for Engineering is written for electricaland electronic engineering students with the following key features.

• Easy and logical presentation of each article• Interpretation of each theory with proper mathematical expressions• Emphasis on engineering mathematics to understand electromagnetic field

theories• Detailed description of fundamental laws of electromagnetic field theories• Step-by-step problem solving procedures• Inclusion of solved examples and practice problems• Large number of exercise problems at the end of each chapter• Inclusion of answers to practice and exercise problems

Aids for Instructors

The solution manual will be provided to instructors who will adopt this as a textbook,and they may obtain the solution manual by directly contacting the publishers.

Acknowledgments

The author has written this textbook based on his years of teaching experience. Theauthor would like to acknowledge with gratitude the following faculty membersfor their inspiration, comments, and suggestions during the preparation of the firstedition of this book.

Dr. M. H. Rashid, Professor, University of West Florida, USADr. Akhtar Kalam, Professor, Victoria University, AustraliaDr. M. Saifur Rahman, Professor, Virginia Tech and State University, USADr. Jim Cathey, Professor, University of Kentucky, Lexington, USADr. Mohammod Ali, Professor, University of South Carolina, USADr. M. Bashir Uddin, Professor, Dhaka University of Engineering andTechnology,

Gazipur, BangladeshDr. M. A. Rahman, Professor, Memorial University of Newfoundland, CanadaDr. S. M. Islam, Professor, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, AustraliaDr. Hussein Ahmad, Professor, Universiti Teknologi MalaysiaDr. M. M. A. Hashem, Professor, Khulna University of Engineering and

Technology, BangladeshDr. Khaled Ellithy, Professor, Qatar University, Doha, QatarDr. Saleh Al Alawi, Professor, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Preface ix

Dr. Md. Rafiqul Islam, Associate Professor, International Islamic University,Malaysia

Dr. Mohammad A. Kashem, Associate Professor, University of Wollongong,NSW, Australia

Dr. Quazi Delwar Hossain, Assistant Professor, Chittagong University ofEngineering and Technology, Bangladesh

Dr. Q. M. Rahman, Assistant Professor, Western University, London, CanadaThe author would like to thank Dk. Nurul Saidatul Mirzuana and Umi Farina,

B. Eng. students for typing the solution manual of this book. The author wouldalso like to thank Dr. Loyola D’Silva, Production Manager, Springer Asia Pvt. Ltd.,Singapore, and the production staff for their help in bringing the first edition of thebook to completion.

Brunei Darussalam Md. Abdus Salam PhDJanuary 2014

Contents

1 Basics of Electromagnetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Field Parameters and SI Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2.1 Electric Flux Density and Field Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.2.2 Magnetic Flux Density and Field Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2.3 Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.3 Exercise Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Vector Analysis and Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.2 Vectors and Scalars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.3 Vector Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82.4 Unit Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92.5 Vector Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102.6 Vector Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112.7 Vectors Multiplication and Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132.8 Dot Product of Two Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132.9 Cross Product of Two Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.10 Orthogonal Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.10.1 Cartesian Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182.10.2 Circular Cylindrical Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222.10.3 Spherical Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.11 Potential Gradient and Gradient of a Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352.12 Divergence of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392.13 Curl of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432.14 Two Important Vector Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462.15 Exercise Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

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3 Electrostatic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513.2 Coulomb’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513.3 Electric Field Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543.4 Gauss’ Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563.5 Electric Field of Continuous Charge Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603.6 Electric Field Due to an Infinite Sheet Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633.7 Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643.8 Derivation of Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693.9 Line Integral of Irrotational Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723.10 Potential Due to a Point Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723.11 Electric Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743.12 Materials for Static Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773.13 Dielectric Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783.14 Dielectric Material Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803.15 Dielectric Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813.16 Refraction of Electric Field at Dielectric Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833.17 Electrostatic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863.18 Exercise Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

4 Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914.2 Derivation of Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914.3 Uniqueness Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 944.4 Solutions of Laplace’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

4.4.1 One-Dimension Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964.4.2 Two-Dimension Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

4.5 Solution of Laplace’s Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates . . . . . . . . 1044.6 Solutions of Poisson’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054.7 Numerical Solution of Laplace’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064.8 Exercise Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

5 Electric Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1175.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1175.2 Current and Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1175.3 Conductivity and Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205.4 Power and Joule’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1225.5 Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1235.6 Current Density Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1255.7 Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1295.8 Parallel Plate Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1305.9 Determination of Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1325.10 Coaxial Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

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5.11 Spherical Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1345.12 Parallel Plate Capacitor with Two Dielectric Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1365.13 Exercise Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

6 Static Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1416.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1416.2 Magnetic Flux Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1426.3 Biot–Savart’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1436.4 Magnetic Field of a Long Straight Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1446.5 Ampere’s Circuital Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1486.6 Ampere’s Circuital Law in a Long Straight Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . 1496.7 Infinite Sheet of Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1516.8 Curl of a Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1536.9 Scalar and Vector Magnetic Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1596.10 Magnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1616.11 Magnetic Field Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1646.12 Magnetic Field of Two Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1666.13 Magnetic Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1676.14 Series Magnetic Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1686.15 Parallel Magnetic Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1706.16 Magnetic Circuit with Air Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1736.17 Hysteresis Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1786.18 Inductance and Mutual Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1796.19 Exercise Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

7 Time-Varying Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1877.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1877.2 Faraday’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1877.3 Motional Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1887.4 Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1907.5 Conduction and Displacement Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1907.6 Maxwell’s Equation from Ampere’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1927.7 Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1957.8 Time-Varying Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1977.9 Field of a Series Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1997.10 Time-Harmonic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2017.11 Exercise Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

8 Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2098.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2098.2 Transmission Line Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2098.3 Phasor Form Solution of Transmission Line Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

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8.4 Lossless Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2158.5 Low-Loss Transmission Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2188.6 Distortionless Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2208.7 Determination of Attenuation Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2238.8 A Finite Transmission Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2248.9 Input Impedance for Lossless Transmission Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2298.10 Power of Lossless Transmission Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2348.11 Basics of Smith Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2368.12 Exercise Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

9 Uniform Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2439.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2439.2 Time-Domain Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2439.3 Wave Equation in Time-Harmonic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2459.4 Solution of a Wave Equation in the Frequency Domain . . . . . . . . . . . 2469.5 Solution of a Wave Equation in the Time Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2519.6 Wave Propagation in Lossy Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2549.7 Wave Propagation in Good Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2579.8 Power Flow and Poynting Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2609.9 Incident and Reflected Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2639.10 Uniform Wave Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2719.11 Exercise Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

10 Basics of Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27510.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27510.2 Working Principles of Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27510.3 Potential Functions for Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27610.4 Hertzian Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27710.5 Antenna Gain and Directivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28510.6 Long Dipole Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28910.7 Friis Transmission Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29310.8 Exercise Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

Appendix A: Mathematical Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297A.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297A.2 Basic Trigonometric Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297A.3 Trigonometric Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298A.4 Derivative and Integral Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299A.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300A.6 Integral Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

Contents xv

Appendix B: Answers to Practice and Exercise Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301Chapter 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301Chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301Chapter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303Chapter 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305Chapter 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306Chapter 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307Chapter 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308Chapter 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311