EFFECTS OF PERSONALIZED NARRATION ON LEARNER MOTIVATION IN A

WEB-BASED ENVIRONMENT

by

Mark P. Fazioli

ROD SIMS, Ph.D., Faculty Mentor and Chair

WILLIAM TETU, Ph.D., Committee Member

MICHAEL MCGIVERN, Ph.D., Committee Member

Harry McLenighan, Ed.D., Dean, School of Education

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Capella University

January 2009

3341512

3341512 2009

Copyright 2009 by Fazioli, Mark P. All rights reserved

© Mark P. Fazioli, 2009

Abstract

As technology advances, online instruction has the capabilities to create and

present the environment of modalities and interactivity found within the traditional

classroom. The learner’s experiences within Web-based courses can serve to either

increase or decrease motivation. Conversational narration is one strategy that can be used

in Web-based learning to increase immediacy and affect motivation. This study examined

the effect of personalized narration on learner motivation in a Web-based environment.

Using a mixed methods design, participants completed a portion of Richmond’s

motivation scale to determine initial motivation levels. Following this, participants

accessed a Web-based module that contained either personalized narration or formal

narration. Upon completion of the module, participants once again completed the same

portion of Richmond’s motivation scale, as well as selected items from Gorham’s Verbal

Immediacy Behaviors Scale and a set of open-ended questions. Data analysis included

results from t tests as well as triangulation from qualitative data. Research findings

indicated that there was no statistically significant difference (p<.05) in motivation scale

rating for either the control group or the treatment group from the presurvey to the post

survey. Findings for the immediacy scales were mixed. There was no statistically

significant difference (p=.11) between the treatment group and the control group for the

immediacy factors of use of humor, asking questions, personal examples and

personalized language (the use of “we” or “our”). Participants in the study had diverse

opinions and perceptions about personalized narration, and were also able to explain

aspects and factors of their motivation. Additionally, they accurately described and

advocated for social presence, an indicator of immediacy, in the Web-based environment.

The study determined that personalized narration did not increase motivation; however,

immediacy can be increased through the use of multimedia and personalized narration in

the Web-based environment.

iii

Dedication

I was very fortunate to have such a loving and caring family who constantly

supported my efforts and never let me give up on my dream. I am proud to dedicate this

dissertation to my parents Janet and Felix Fazioli. They taught me to work hard and never

take the easy way out. Their lessons instilled a sense of commitment and honor in

everything that I do.

Most of all, this dissertation would have not be possible without my best friend

and loving wife Patricia Fazioli. For ten years, you have encouraged me to follow a

dream no matter what the cost was. Patty, for all the countless sleepless nights, weekends

and holidays that you sacrificed on my account thank you, from the bottom of my heart;

I’m eternally grateful and I love you.

One last dedication that I must make is to all those people who are dyslexic, who

think they cannot accomplish an education, fulfill a dream and live a better life, I say to

you: “Yes, you can”.

iv

Acknowledgments

Growing up, my late grandmother Julia Laigle always told me that the road we

sometimes choose is not always a smooth one. Most of the time it’s a bumpy road, with

lots of roadblocks. But, if you have a strong will and a support system you will eventually

get to your destination, making you stronger and wiser. The doctoral journey has been

just that, an adventure filled with many road blocks; therefore, without my caring,

dedicated support system keeping me moving forward, this journey would have had a

different outcome.

First of all, I was very lucky to have had the opportunity to work under Dr.

Rodrick Sims, my mentor and committee chair whose expertise and guidance inspired

and motivated me to continue with this study. You have taught me a great deal, which I

intend to use throughout my life.

A special thank you to my committee, Drs. William Tetu and Michael McGivern,

your assistance and input has helped shape the study and give it purpose.

I would also like to personally thank the administration of Charter Oak State

College, President Edward Klonoski, Provost Dr. Shirley Adams, and Dr. Barry

Vroeginday, as well as the leadership of the Connecticut Distance Consortium, Dr. Diane

Goldsmith and Kevin Corcoran and President Meg Dunn of American Academy

McAllister Institute. This study would have never happened without the assistance and

support from all of you.

A very special thanks to Dr. Merle Harris, President Emeritus of Charter Oak

State College whose vision, encouragement and faith in me and my study enabled me to

realize that the dream of a world-class education for an adult learner is possible.

v

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………iv

List of Tables……………………………………………………………………viii

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Introduction to the Problem……………………………………………………….1

Background of the Study………………………………………………………….2

Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………….4

Purpose of the Study………………………………………………………………5

Research Questions………………………………………………………………..5

Significance of the Study………………………………………………………….6

Definition of Terms………………………………………………………………..7

Assumptions and Limitations……………………………………………………..9

Nature of the Study ……………………………………………………………….9

Organization of the Remainder of the Study…………………………………….11

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Growth of Online Learning………………………………………………………12

Communication Theory………………………………………………………….13

Communication and Multimedia………………………………………………...15

Multimedia and Personalization Principles……………………………………...17

Cognitive Load Theory…………………………………………………………..18

Personalization and Narration……………………………………………………20

Social Presence…………………………………………………………………..23

Intimacy and Immediacy…………………………………………………………25

vi

Adult Learners…………………………………………………………………...26

Motivation………………………………………………………………………..27

Malone’s Motivation Theory…………………………………………………….30

ARCS Model of Motivation……………………………………………………..31

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….34

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY

Introduction………………………………………………………………………36

Research Design………………………………………………………………….37

Convenience Sample……………………………………………………………..40

Data Collection…………………………………………………………………..40

Data Analysis Procedures………………………………………………………..46

Limitations of Methodology……………………………………………………..46

Ethical Issues…………………………………………………………………….47

CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Introduction………………………………………………………………………48

Sample……………………………………………………………………………49

Research Questions………………………………………………………………49

Data Sources……………………………………………………………………..50

Findings from Quantitative Analysis…………………………………………….50

Qualitative Data Findings………………………………………………………..59

CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction………………………………………………………………………67

Discussion of Research Questions and Findings………………………………...68

vii

Recommendations for Future Research………………………………………….77

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….78

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………..80

APPENDIX A. Motivation Scale………………………………………………………..90 APPENDIX B. Immediacy Scale………………………………………………………..91

APPENDIX C. Invitation E-mail……………………..…………………………………92

APPENDIX D. Survey Questions………………………………………………………..93

APPENDIX E. Online Consent Form……………………………………………………94

APPENDIX F. Demographic Survey……………………………………………………96

APPENDIX G. Qualitative Treatment Group Responses………………………………..97

APPENDIX H. Qualitative Control Group Responses…………………………………..98

APPENDIX I. Control Group Demographic Data……………………………………...99

APPENDIX J. Treatment Group Demographic Data……………………………...…...100

APPENDIX K. Module Interface………………………………………………………101

APPENDIX L. Testing Treatment……………………………………………………...102

APPENDIX M. Control Treatment……………………………………………………..119

viii

List of Tables

Table 1. Treatment Group Motivation Scale Ratings 52

Table 2. Control Group Motivation Scale Ratings 52

Table 3. Immediacy measure—Personal Examples 55

Table 4. Immediacy measure—Asking Questions 55

Table 5. Immediacy measure—Use of Humor 56

Table 6. Immediacy measure—Use of Personalized Language 57

1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Introduction to the Problem

The growth and prevalence of Web-based learning in both academic and

corporate settings continues to impact education in countless ways (Trierweiler & Rivera,

2005; Allen & Seaman, 2005). Linking learners to instructors and material through

technology to promote lifelong learning in the Information Age has never been so

critically important (Moore, 1998). However, “instruction does not lead to learning

automatically” (Vermunt, 1996, p. 25); more is required.

Several researchers have determined that to support learning in a Web-based

environment requires an increase in learner motivation to achieve improved learning

(Motschnig-Pitrik, 2004; Tuckman, 2004; Lim, Morris, & Yoon, 2006; Richardson &

Newby, 2006). Learner motivation increases as a result of a personalized connection

between the learner and the material, and is directly affected by the manner in which the

material is presented to the learners (Wlodkowski, 1999). Developing a personalized

connection in a Web based environment is not impossible. Narrative is one method of

personalizing instruction, centering learning on the student and directly engaging them in

the learning process (Newmaster, Lacroix & Roosenboom, 2006). Therefore, the

relationship between narrative and motivation is an essential component when fostering

interactive online learning experiences.

2

Background of the Study

The popularity of Web-based courses has significantly altered the manner in

which learning is facilitated and delivered in educational and non-educational settings

(Aragon, 2003). As a result of this exponential growth, researchers have attempted to

discover optimal ways of supporting learning in Web-based environments, examining

aspects such as learner attitudes, immediacy, cognitive load and multimedia (Gorham,

1988; Jawahar & Elango, 2001; Torrisi-Steele, 2001; Mayer, 2001; Sweller, 1999). More

recent research has focused on the concept of social presence and personalized narration

within these environments (Gunawardena, 1995; Moreno & Mayer, 2004; Na Ubon &

Kimble, 2004; Tu, 2002).

Personalizing a learner’s experience within a Web-based course occurs as a result

of tailoring the material and content. Personalization can be accomplished by varying the

communication style of the media by increasing or decreasing the amount of self-

referencing within the modules (Turco, 1996). Moreno and Mayer (2004) argue that

personalization of instructional media will connect learners to content more readily and

allow them to learn material better than when presented with material that is

nonpersonalized. Increasing learner motivation in Web-based learning can be

accomplished by applying the personalization principle, which upholds the use of

conversational rather than formal narration in Web-based learning (Mayer, Fennell,

Farmer & Campbell, 2004).

Conversational narration is one strategy used in Web-based learning that can

increase psychological closeness between real and artificial intelligences, a concept

identified by Wiener and Mehrabian in 1968 as immediacy (Short, Williams & Christie,

3

1976). Immediacy is associated with social presence, the degree to which a person or

intelligence is perceived as genuine in mediated communication (Gunawardena, 1995).

By adopting an informal, conversational approach to communication, immediacy is

fostered. In a Web-based learning environment, immediacy can be achieved either

through changes in on-screen text or audio narration (Walther, 1992).

Social presence is one of the most significant factors in a Web-based learning

environment (McIsaac & Gunawardena, 1996; Tu & McIsaac, 2002). The amount of

social presence in an instructional situation is determined by factors including social

context, online communication, and interactivity. Gunawardena (1995), who believes that

social presence is necessary to improve instruction in technology-based courses, supports

the personalization principle through her research. Tu and McIsaac (2002) have found

that a high level of social presence increases the potential that online learners will engage

more interactively in Web-based activities. In a similar vein, Gunawardena and Zittle

(1997) and Richardson and Swan (2003) determined that social presence was positively

correlated with students’ perceived learning in Web-based learning environments.

Several studies have been conducted that examine how personalized narration can

influence comprehension of new material in Web-based environments (Mayer, Fennell,

Farmer & Campbell, 2004; Mayer & Moreno, 2000; McLaren, Lim, Gagnon, Yaron &

Koedinger, 2006; Moreno & Mayer, 2004; Mayer, Sobko, & Mautone, 2003). Moreover,

personalization of course content “seems to promote the mental interaction needed to

actively involve the learner in the process of understanding” (Mayer & Moreno, 2000, p.

731). Directly addressing learners using personalized narration allows them to believe

4

that they are active participants in the lesson, thereby improving learning and possibly

motivation.

Statement of the Problem

Several researchers have determined that to improve learning in a Web-based

environment requires an increase in learner motivation to (Motschnig-Pitrik, 2004;

Tuckman, 2004; Lim, Morris, & Yoon, 2006; Richardson & Newby, 2006). Motivation is

integral for learning in any environment, whether face-to-face or online (McCombs &

Whisler, 1989; Pintrich & Schunk, 1996; Bai, 2003).

Learner motivation increases as a result of personalized connection between

learners and content, including the manner in which the material is presented to the

learners (Conrad, 2002; Wlodkowski, 1999). According to Tinto (1987), Gunawardena

and Zittle (1997), and Richardson and Swan (2003), social presence makes interactions

appealing, thereby increasing learner motivation. Social presence is defined as the degree

of awareness of another person or intelligence in an interaction (Walther, 1992). It has

been shown that enhancing social presence in Web-based environments can induce and

sustain learners’ motivation (Newberry, 2001; Tu, 2001).

Developing a personalized connection in a Web based environment is not

impossible. Narrative is one method of personalizing instruction, centering learning on

the student and directly engaging them in the learning process (Newmaster, Lacroix &

Roosenboom, 2006). Narrative also cultivates social presence in a Web-based

environment, which has been shown to positively affect student perceptions of learning

(Christophel, 1990; Richardson and Swan, 2003) as well as motivation for participation

5

(Weaver & Albion, 2005). Narrative learning, according to Gerrig (1993) allows learners

to actively draw inferences and experience realistic emotions. Further, narrative has been

shown to play a central role in memory by providing an organizing structure for new

experiences and knowledge (Mott, Callaway, Zettlemoyer, Lee & Lester, 1999).

Despite the range of research that identifes the critical relationship between

motivation, narration, and learning, little focus has been placed on the impact of

personalized learner-centered narration on learner motivation in Web based courses. A

better understanding of the relationship between the narrative presentation of material

and learner motivation in a Web-based course will inform the creation of instructional

strategies designed to improve the motivation of learners in these environments.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of personalized narration on

learner motivation in a Web-based environment. Specifically, this study investigated

personalized narration used in a Web-based course for students who take online courses

at technical schools and colleges in the northeastern United States.

Research Questions

This study aimed to examine the relationship between personalized narration and

learner motivation in a Web-based environment. The study investigated three questions:

1. Is there a significant difference in motivation between learners in a Web-based

course using personalized narration and learners in a Web-based course using

formal narration?

6

2. Is there a significant difference in immediacy between a Web-based course using

personalized narration and a Web-based course using formal narration?

3. What perceptions and opinions do learners have of personalized narration in a

Web-based course?

Significance of the Study

An examination of the relationship between personalized narration and learner

motivation in a Web-based environment enhances the body of knowledge about best

practices in Web-based learning. Significant differences exist between this study and

others that have been recently done regarding personalized narration in Web-based

learning. This study examines the relationship between personalized narration and learner

motivation; others have looked at how personalized narration affects learner achievement

and performance (Mayer & Moreno, 2000; McLaren, Lim, Gagnon, Yaron & Koedinger,

2006; Moreno & Mayer, 2004). Web-based instruction is not solely for the academic

environment; increasingly corporations are using Web-based instruction for adult learners

with diverse backgrounds. Understanding the role personalized narration has on learner

motivation will enable instructional designers to create instruction that appeals to learners

as well as delivers pertinent instruction to them. This study also allows learners to have a

voice about personalized narration, a component missing from other studies. By

interviewing participants, insight into motivating aspects of personalized narration will be

gained.

A study involving narrative is timely. Research on narration in learning is prolific

(Gjedde, 2005; Mandler, 1984; Plowman & Luckin, 1999; Walker, 2006; Dettori &

7

Giannetti, 2006; Wanner, 1994). Research on personalized narration has typically

focused on storytelling, memoirs and elementary school learning, but not on motivation

in the online context. The personalization aspect takes narrative into a new realm, that of

social presence and immediacy. Myriad studies on immediacy in the classroom, and its

affect on motivation, have been conducted (Christophel, 1990; Kelly and Gorham, 1988;

Richmond, 1990), but none have been conducted that look at immediacy and motivation

in the Web-based environment. Using personalized narration is one method of creating

immediacy for the online learner.

Definition of Terms

Cognitive Load Theory. “Universal set of learning principles that are proven to result in

effective instructional environments as a consequence of leveraging human

cognitive learning processes” (Clark, Nguyen, & Sweller, 2006, p. 7)

Extrinsic Motivation. Motivation to engage in an activity with desirable outcomes such

as rewards, grades, or some other factor external to the learner (Schunk, Pintrich,

& Meece, 2002).

Formal Narration. Instructional content presented in monologue-style language using

third person pronouns (Moreno & Mayer, 2004).

Immediacy. Measurement of the “psychological distance which a communicator puts

between himself or herself and the object of his/her communication”

(Gunawardena, 1995, p.151).

Intimacy. Function of factors such as physical distance, eye contact, smiling, and personal

topics of conversation (Gunawardena, 1995, p.151).

8

Intrinsic Motivation. Motivation to engage in an activity for its own purpose (Schunk,

Pintrich, & Meece, 2002).

Motivation. “A hypothetical construct to explain the initiation, direction, intensity and

persistence of goal-directed behavior” (Good & Brophy, 1990, p.360).

Multimedia Principle. Students learn better from words and pictures than words alone

(Mayer 2006).

Multimedia. Combination of characteristics that consist of text, graphic art, sound,

animation, and video developed through technology (Vaughan, 1998).

Personalization Principle. Using words in a conversational style rather than formal style

(Mayer, Fennell, Farmer, & Campbell, 2004).

Personalized Narration. Instructional content presented in conversational language using

“you”, “your”, “I”, “our”, and “we” (Clark & Mayer, 2003, p.146).

Social Presence. “The degree to which a person is perceived as a ‘real person’ in

mediated communication (Gunawardena, 1995, p.151).

State Motivation. Student engagement guided by an intention of mastering the skill or

acquiring the knowledge being taught (Brophy, 1987).

Trait Motivation. An enduring disposition of a learner to master skills and learn

knowledge (Brophy, 1987).

Web-based learning. A delivery platform used to present learning through the Internet or

Intranet.

9

Assumptions and Limitations

The Web-based course used in this study was directed at adult learners, and it was

assumed that the adults participating in the course have the prerequisite knowledge and

skills to use the technology in the course. It was also assumed that participants will

answer questions in the surveys honestly. All participant information was kept

confidential and was not released.

Limitations to the study are many and varied. Participation was fully voluntary

and the degree of participation was not expected to be 100%. Participants in both test and

control groups were convenience populations who were eligible to participate in the

Web-based module or who volunteered for the study. This self-selection was a limitation

of the study. The learners in both groups were working towards Associates or Bachelors

degrees, and there was random variation by age, gender, culture, and employment

demographics as typically found in adult learner populations.

Nature of the Study

This study used a mixed methods approach to examine the effects of personalized

narration on learner motivation and corresponding learner perceptions and opinions. A

student motivation scale, an immediacy scale and a qualitative survey were used as data

collection methods.

In the first phase of the study, a portion of Richmond’s (1990) student motivation

scale was used as a repeated measure to assess the state motivation of participants prior to

and after participating in the Web-based module. The motivation scale consists of a

bipolar set of adjectives and is based on Beatty, Forst, and Stewart’s (1986) scale.

10

Richmond (1990), Frymier and Thompson (1992) and Frymier (1993) all used the

motivation scale and reported an alpha reliability of 0.94.

The second phase of the study consisted of an experiment that followed a

between-subjects design. Participants were matched based on age, gender and on the

degree being sought and assigned to one of the two groups. The experimental group

participated in a Web-based learning module that included personalized narration. The

Web-based learning module for the control group included formal narration. The

narration ran throughout the Flash-based module as the main method of imparting

information to learners. The narration was presented as an Mp3 audio narration within the

module. The participant was able to control the audio using the module remote control

component, with the ability to pause, play and rewind the audio narration. The audio was

synchronized with the instruction and animation to imitate the auditory modality that

would be found in face-to-face instruction.

Upon completion of the Web-based learning module, participants once again

completed the portion of Richmond’s (1990) motivation scale. This was followed with

selected items from Gorham’s (1988) Verbal Immediacy Behaviors (VIB) scale. The VIB

has alpha reliabilities that range from .83 to .94 (Christophel, 1990; Gorham, 1988;

Gorham & Zakahi, 1990; Powell & Harville, 1990).

Finally, surveys of participants were employed as a means of triangulation

(Creswell & Clark, 2007). Surveys, asking open-ended questions, were completed by

participants. These questions asked participants how they regarded the narration used in

the module and whether it helped motivate them to complete the module.

Survey/questionnaires proved useful in gathering additional, qualitative information from

11

participants since they were not directly observed interacting with the Web-based module

(Creswell, 2003). The surveys helped reveal participants’ motivational response to the

personalized narration used in the WBT.

Organization of the Remainder of the Study

The dissertation is organized into five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an

introduction to the study. Chapter 2 provides a review of the literature and related

research that supports the study design and concept. It includes background information

about communication, narrative, personalization and the personalization principle.

Current literature regarding social presence, multimedia communication and motivation

in Web-based courses is summarized. The chapter culminates with a discussion of the

motivational factors of narrative, and application of narrative in Web-based

environments. These practices provide the foundation for the study.

Chapter 3 outlines the study design and methodology. It contains information

about the population and sample in the study, outlines the instrumentation used, and

describes the data collection process. Chapter 4 describes the research findings of the

study. Chapter 5 provides a discussion of the data, lessons learned, and recommendations

for future study.

12

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Growth of Online Learning

Adjustments are essential in schools and educational institutions in the 21st

century. Schools established to address the needs of society in the 19th and 20th centuries

are changing because the needs of society have evolved to include technology, making

learning a continuous process. Culture, including the educational processes citizens

experience, creates enriching experiences that are both necessary and enriching for

learners of all ages (Dickinson, 2000).

As an example of this evolution, the online courses across the country continue

to grow in number. The National Center for Education Statistics projected an 18%

growth in online enrollment across the United States in all degree programs with higher

enrollments projected in college undergraduate courses affiliated with graduate degree

programs (Allen & Seaman, 2005).

Online learning presents a unique situation where instructors are no longer the

purveyors of knowledge, but learning facilitators, mentors, and coaches for topics that

can be learned online, at your own pace. Instead of being a subject of its own, the

technology of online learning has become a “means to an end, driven by a rigorous

curriculum and justified by its capability of enhancing instruction” (Microsoft, 2006).

Online learning, allows students of all ages to become mobile learners, not reliant on one

source for information.

13

Dixon (as cited in Seehusen, 2000) noted three reasons colleges offer distance

learning: to deliver to a large area, to accommodate population growth and increasing

enrollment without spending on infrastructure, and to reach a wider student population by

catering to nontraditional students. Online courses are attractive to many learners since

they break down the barriers of time and distance to help students achieve their personal

and professional goals. As the futurist Saffo declared: "We'll see more distance learning

because, as a society, we're becoming more mobile" (Rector, 2005). The students have

to be different types of learners because the information is not given to them on a fixed

schedule; rather, they must apply themselves to locate the information and spend time

learning it. Communication between and among learners continues, but in an altered

manner.

Communication Theory

Communication is best described as “the exchange of information and the

transmission of meaning” (Dessler, 2001, p.362). These exchanges and transmissions

take place using the five modalities of the sensory system: tactile, gustatory, visual,

auditory, and olfactory. Exchanging information using these five modalities to

communicate creates a communication channel, which is simply a means to carry

messages through a connection between individuals that consists of encoding and

decoding information to produce meaning (Elsom-Cook, 2001). People are continuously

communicating with each other; with the advent of modern technology, as multimedia

continues to progress and evolve, it broadens the communication process and allows

individuals to receive information in increasingly sophisticated methods.

14

Multimedia involves the integrated coordination and presentation of information

represented as continuous media data, in addition to information encoded as discrete

media data, such as text and graphics (Wolf, Griwodz and Steinmetz, 1997). This multi-

tiered system requires that multiple channels of communication be addressed. Shannon

and Weaver (1949) developed a communication theory that included a source sending

information to a receiver along a channel. This initial theory focused primarily on

auditory information, which Shannon and Weaver (1949) called noise, but has been

expanded by subsequent theorists to also include graphics, text and video (Berlo, 1960;

Sweller, 1990).

The information theory is an important component of communication theory, and

was also developed by Shannon and Weaver (1949). It contains three concepts:

uncertainty, entropy, and redundancy. Uncertainty is the information the receiver is

lacking about incoming signals. The less information the receiver has, the more

communication is achieved. Entropy, a concept that also exists in other systems of the

universe, measures the amount of ambiguity in a system. “The higher the entropy, the

lower the communication potential, and the lower the entropy, the higher the

communication potential” (Shelton, 2004, p. 21). Low entropy, therefore, enables

authentic communication to occur and certifies that messages are received from the

sender by the receiver.

The final component, redundancy, describes the predictable format of messages.

Messages that are redundant utilize structures and formats of message delivery that are

familiar to receivers, such as directly addressing the receiver prior to delivering the

message in a conversational manner. According to Shannon and Weaver (1949),

15

redundancy is the goal of communicating messages because it ensures that the message

will be delivered to the receiver. This contrasts with Mayer’s (1990) redundancy

principle which holds that repeated instances of the same message interferes with

learning and increases cognitive load.

Critical to the success of any communication is the ability of communicators to

lower entropy, reduce the uncertainty of the audience “by sending, in the appropriate

channel, properly encoded messages that are meaningful, understandable, and, on the

whole, new” (Shelton, 2004, p. 22). This goal can be competently achieved by any

person, or any multimedia-enhanced Web-based system.

Communication and Multimedia

Multimedia takes communication to a new level, associating communication with

information relay mechanisms.

“The multimedia component is characterized by the presence of text, pictures,

sounds, animation and video; some or all of which are organized into some

coherent programs. The interactive component refers to the process of

empowering the user to control the environment, usually by a computer” (Phillips,

1997, p.8).

Text often is the source of the information found in multimedia. Words and

symbols in all forms are the most common system of communication (Vaughan, 1998).

Meaning can be extracted from what is written (content), as well as how it is written

(context). All text is structured, and the structure, divisions and hierarchy between

16

sections enable readers to understand the messages inherent in the text (Elsom-Cook,

2001).

Illustrations, visuals and graphics help to communicate an object, often in a more

accurate manner than describing it in words (Burmark, 2002). Visuals can illustrate more

than just tangible objects; they can be used to represent abstract ideas, show relationships

between objects and concepts, and teach psychomotor and attitudinal skills (Fenrich,

2005). Visuals are not only static photographs or drawings, however. Both animation and

video are types of visuals that are more dynamic since they include a series of images

shown together to simulate motion (Clark & Lyons, 2004).

The feasibility of animation and video is the result of a phenomenon known as

persistence of vision, in which objects remain on the retina of the human eye for a

moment after they are viewed (Vaughan, 1998). Animation enables movement to be

created where there is no true movement, adding emphasis to areas of importance. Video

can enhance and bring abstract concepts and situations to life. However, overdoing either

animation or video can distract from the message being communicated.

Sound, as the only auditory element of multimedia, can be the most powerful

component of all. It comprises not only spoken words, but also music and noise that can

support messages being conveyed to learners, or conversely, distract and annoy them.

Fenrich (2005) suggests using sound to gain attention, give feedback and provide

narration to support text and animation.

Any of these elements can be combined with others in creating interactive

multimedia. Combining these elements properly is essential in order to be effective and to

enhance long-term memory. Each of the multimedia elements is recognized in the brain

17

as possessing either a visual or an auditory sensory modality. When used correctly,

multimedia engages learners to integrate information from various sensory modalities

into long-term memory and build schema. Schema, also known as mental models, are

stored in long-term memory, forming the basis for all thinking (Clark & Lyons, 2004).

All multimedia elements result in the formation of either verbal or pictorial mental

models.

Interactivity is inherent to multimedia, according to Welch (1999), who also states

that electronic communication and multimedia “encourage us to reply quickly, often in a

more oral style” (p. 35). Shedletsky and Aitken (2004) concur, adding that

communication on the Web often employs features of conversation “in which we

construct reality with words and language (and conversational) structures” (p. 21). The

addition of the technology and media does not remove the simple fact that humans are

comfortable with communication in a manner they are accustomed to. In fact, scholars

have recognized that technology-enhanced communication can in fact improve

communication (Shah & Romine, 1995; Baron, 2000).

Multimedia and Personalization Principles

The purpose of the multimedia principle, which is based on Mayer’s cognitive

theory of multimedia learning, is to reduce the cognitive load of learners and to build

long-term retention. The multimedia principle states that “students learn better from

words and pictures than from words alone” (Mayer, 2006, p.63). When applying this

principle in the creation of multimedia, words and illustrations are placed together so that

18

learners can more readily construct verbal and pictorial mental models and subsequently

build connections between them.

In order to test the multimedia principle, Mayer (2001) conducted nine studies in

which students were given instructional material that consisted of words with annotated

static illustrations, narrated animated illustrations, or words alone. When given words

alone, students showed minor retention; however, there was a greater impact on transfer

of learning when students were given words and illustrations together. These studies

show that pictorial and verbal content, when presented together, facilitate learning by

allowing students to build both types of mental models. Clark and Lyons (2004) concur,

stating that visuals presented with concrete language improve learning when they

strengthen the content of the lesson.

It was these studies that lead Moreno and Mayer (2004) to question and

subsequently investigate the conditions under which multimedia, especially narration,

works to improve learning. A personalization hypothesis was developed, and through

testing became the personalization principle. This principle states that personalization of

narration enables learners to exert less mental effort when learning new concepts in a

computer-based learning environment, thereby increasing learning (Moreno & Mayer,

2004). As a result of its focus on mental effort exerted by learners, the theory invokes the

precepts of cognitive load theory.

Cognitive Load Theory

According to Chi, Glaser, and Rees (1982), and Larkin, McDermott, Simon and

Simon (1980), cognitive load theory is based on two main theories of cognitive structure:

19

the notion of an unlimited capacity of long-term memory, as well as the schema theory of

knowledge. Cognitive load theory concerns the load imposed on a learner’s cognitive

system due to the completion of a task (Paas & van Merrienboer, 1994).

Cognitive load can take one of three distinct forms: intrinsic, extraneous and

germane (Sweller, 2004). Intrinsic cognitive load is created by the mental work needed to

overcome the difficulty of the instructional material. In designing instruction, not much

can be done to reduce the intrinsic cognitive load because the instructional material itself

is difficult to learn. The level of difficulty of the material is inherent to the material and

cannot be changed; it therefore increases the intrinsic cognitive load. More difficult

material tends to have more elements interacting with each other. For instance, learning

how to use a new type of software would be very difficult for a learner for the first time

because there are many pieces of information (elements) that need to be coordinated in

memory simultaneously to complete the task or instruction. Clark, Nguyen and Sweller

(2006) have found that tasks with low element interactivity, such as learning a foreign

language, can be processed simultaneously, subsequently lowering the intrinsic cognitive

load.

Extraneous load, often referred to as irrelevant load, is a form of cognitive load

that occurs when information is processed into working memory that consumes mental

capacity but does not promote learning (Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2003). When instruction

is designed, the instructional methods and multimedia characteristics to present material

can greatly reduce extraneous load. Narrating text that simultaneously appears on-screen

in interactive multimedia will increase extraneous cognitive load for learners. Choosing

20

to add sidebars of information to multimedia presentations will bring about the split

attention effect and increase extraneous cognitive load.

The third and final category of cognitive load is germane load, also known as

relevant load. Once the extraneous load has been reduced, the efforts that the learners

expend on learning the lesson at hand is referred to as germane load, which is completely

relevant to the learning process. Clark, Nguyen, and Sweller (2006) state that instruction

imposed on working memory uses the mental capacity in the ways that builds schema and

long-term memory. In developing instruction, the goal is to balance the cognitive load for

the learner, rather than expecting the learner to filter through excessive mental

distractions in order to learn. In many instructional tasks, as a result of the complexity of

the material, intrinsic load cannot be altered.

When developing Web-based instructional materials, the goals of instructional

designers are to reduce extraneous load and increase germane load. These goals can be

accomplished by adhering to the multimedia principles and adjusting the instructional

strategies. When cognitive load is reduced, more mental capacity is available to process

learning (Paas, Renkl & Sweller, 2003). Moreno and Mayer (2004) believe that this

reduction in cognitive load can successfully occur through the use of personalized

narration.

Personalization and Narration

Personalization of material within a Web-based course can be achieved by

varying the communication style of the media by increasing or decreasing the amount of

self-referencing within the modules (Turco, 1996). Using narrative scripts that directly

21

address students, conversationally, encourage them to believe they are actively involved

in the lesson. Conversational scripts are beneficial to learning because less cognitive

effort is used to process information that is presented in a familiar style rather than an

unfamiliar, monologue style (Mayer, 1984; Spiro, 1977). Mayer and Moreno (2004)

argue that personalization of instructional media will connect learners to content more

readily and allow them to learn material better than when presented with material that is

non-personalized. Schank (1990) also discusses the important of scripts, and reinforces

the idea that scripts make mental processing less taxing, and allow energy to be devoted

to real learning.

Reeves and Nass (1996) have shown that people tend to treat computers as social

beings and interact with them as they would with other people, a paradigm also referred

to as “computers are social actors (CASA)” (Tung & Deng, 2006, p. 252). It is

reasonable, then, to believe that narration directed toward learners using the computer for

a Web-based course will be treated as if it is coming from a person as well. Presenting

information in a narrative, conversational style will further enhance the feeling of

conversation between the course and the learner (Clark & Mayer, 2003).

Narrative is an important facet of successful communication (Whitby, 1993) and

is recognized as a natural way of organizing life experiences, creating meaning and

understanding (Bruner, 1996). It incorporates two facets: expression through storytelling,

and cognitive construction of knowledge. The second component of narration includes

the discovery of culturally embedded knowledge as well as a method for knowledge

sharing between and among people (Bruner, 1990; Schank, 1995).

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The application of most narrative is the conventional literary story, written in

third-person (DeVries, 2006). However, there are many different forms of narrative. Each

type has a different purpose and should be recognized for the goal it seeks to achieve

(Champion, 1998).

The narrative format has been a time-honored way of teaching in many cultures;

teachers become proficient storytellers, employing narrative for motivation, and for

experiential and contextual learning by using stories or having learners create stories as

well (Gjedde, 2005). Personalized, conversational narration that adheres to the

personalization principle does not take the form of the literary story. Instead, it follows

conventions of conversation, using first- and second-person to convey its message to the

learner.

Any narrative used in instruction should conform to familiar narrative structures

since previous research has suggested that unfamiliar structures increase cognitive load

and decrease motivation (Bower & Morrow, 1990; Olson, 1990). Conversations are very

familiar given that they are, in fact, the first form of communication used by humans

worldwide (Myers, 2001). It is the effortless conversation that is used early on in life that

allows people to construct meaning, in both verbal and written forms (Lapadat, 1994).

First- and second-person narrative emulates conversational communication and elicits

related responses in readers.

As a type of narrative, conversation and conversational elements provide structure

within a Web-based environment. Researchers have investigated the role of narrative in

multimedia settings, and found that learners working within multimedia Web-based

environments that did not use narrative were unfocused (Laurillard, Stratfold, Luckin,

23

Plowman, & Taylor, 1998). The presence of narrative in these types of environments

provides the necessary structure that focuses learners and enables them to build mental

models for long-term retention.

Conversations also serve important purposes as ways to learn, remind and

understand concepts more deeply. Schank (1990) defines conversation as “responsive

storytelling” (p. 24), in which participants are reminded of events from the past and use

these frameworks as schemata on which to build new ideas. Conversations do not always

need to occur between two people; having two intelligences interacting will produce the

same results (Schank, 1990).

Personalized, conversational narration within Web-based environments, as a

result of fostering familiarity among learners, is more enjoyable to use (Reeves & Nass,

1996). The predictable format of conversational narration conforms to human

expectations and allows learners to feel competent and empowered. Human-like media,

including Web-based learning programs, promote social presence because of their

conversational styles and encourage people to treat media like people (Reeves & Nass,

1996). Social presence has been shown to be a critical component in motivating learners.

Social Presence

Social presence is defined as the “degree of salience of the other person in the

interaction and the consequent salience of the interpersonal relationships” (Short,

Williams & Christie, 1976, p. 65). Originally conceived of as a construct of strictly face-

to-face interactions, social presence has been observed and evaluated in a variety of

environments including Web-based instruction (Gunawardena & Zittle, 1997; Tu, 2000;

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Tu, 2002; Walther, 1992). Gunawardena (1995) believes that social presence is necessary

to improve instruction in technology-based courses.

According to Tinto (1987), social presence makes interactions appealing, thereby

increasing learner motivation. It has been shown that enhancing social presence in Web-

based environments can induce and sustain learners’ motivation (Newberry, 2001; Tu,

2001). The social character of computer technology enables people to view the computer,

and any software programs running on it, as a social actor (Marakas, Johnson, & Palmer,

2000). By employing the CASA paradigm in Web-based learning, social presence is

enhanced. Learners will react to the computer as they would to other people, which can

subsequently result in increased user involvement and motivation (Tung & Deng, 2006).

Some literature suggests that social presence may not be adequately supported in

a Web-based learning environment because the messages are filtered and do not have the

benefit of human facial expressions or gestures (Sproull & Keisler, 1986; Daft & Lengel,

1986). However, literature also exists that posits that the Web-based environment

adequately supports highly affective interpersonal interactions. Angeli, Bonk, and Hara

(1998) found that over one-fourth of the interactions in a Web-based learning

environment consisted of personal messages including compliments, greetings and

expressions of feeling. Similar results were also found by McDonald (1998), Weiss and

Morrison (1998) and Kanuka and Anderson (1998).

An additional outcome of fostering social presence in a learning environment,

traditional or Web-based, is the level of comfort that results, allowing learners to feel at

ease (Aragon, 2003). Environments that lack social presence are viewed as impersonal,

reducing the comfort level as well as the information exchange among learners (Leh,

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2001). As a result, the corresponding concepts of intimacy and immediacy play a critical

role in creating social presence.

Intimacy and Immediacy

Intimacy is a measure of physical distance and includes nonverbal factors such as

eye contact and smiling (Gunawardena, 1995). Asynchronous Web-based environments

do not have means of supporting intimacy, although some intimacy may be fostered in

synchronous learning environments depending on the instructional methods employed

(Tu, 2000).

Immediacy, in contrast, measures “the psychological distance which a

communicator puts between himself or herself and the object of his/her communication”

(Gunawardena, 1995, p. 151). Research has shown that immediacy is a predictor of

instructional effectiveness and can be a major factor in how students view the course they

are taking (Andersen, Norton & Nussbaum, 1981; Walther, 1992). Kelley and Gorham

(1988) and Richmond, Gorham and McCroskey (1987) discovered that immediacy

affects cognitive learning in the traditional, face-to-face classroom setting.

Immediacy can take two forms, verbal and nonverbal. Frymier (1993) explains

that verbal immediacy is characterized by the use of personal examples, words such as

“we”, “you”, “our” and “your”, and humor. Web-based training courses, because of their

format and environment, can capably support verbal immediacy. Personalizing dialogue

in such a manner enhances social presence and “seems to promote the mental interaction

needed to actively involve the learner in the process of understanding” (Mayer &

Moreno, 2000, p. 731).

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Several studies have been conducted that examine how personalization can impact

comprehension of new material (Mayer & Moreno, 2000; Mayer & Moreno, 2004;

McLaren, Lim, Gagnon, Yaron & Koedinger, 2006). There also exists research that

shows how immediacy in a conventional, face-to-face learning environment influences

recall of information and student learning (Gorham, 1988; Christophel, 1990). Frymier

(1993) conducted a study that attempted to explain the relationship between teacher

immediacy behaviors and student learning. She found that teacher immediacy behaviors

motivate students to study, and subsequently learn the material presented to them.

Additional research followed that also showed that teacher immediacy behaviors

positively influenced student motivation, regardless of the age of the student or cultural

background (Frymier, 1993; Christophel & Gorham, 1995; Pribyl, Sakamoto, & Keaten,

2004; Weaver & Albion, 2005). There have been no studies that have investigated

immediacy in a Web-based environment, however. Gaps in the literature remain as to

how personalized narration impacts upon learner motivation in Web-based environments.

Adult Learners

Web-based learning environments are often directed toward adult learners,

reflecting the demographic changes in the world (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). Adult

learning follows a philosophy that differs from conventional education; andragogy helps

to create a learning climate that is unique and reflective of the myriad backgrounds of the

adult learners.

Knowles (1968) based his theory of andragogy on several factors, incorporating

key beliefs about adult learners that continue to inform instruction. Five key beliefs form

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the basis of andragogy: (a) adult learners are motivated to learn what they deem to be

relevant and useful; (b) adult learning is life-centered; (c) experience has been shown to

be the richest source of adult learning; (d) adults have a deep need to be self-directing; (e)

individual differences among people increase with age (Knowles, Holton & Swanson,

1998).

Knowles (1990) explained the need for adult learners to be actively involved in

the learning process. This active involvement should be paired with control over learning

so that learners can learn how they learn best. Additionally, Brookfield (1990) points out

that adult learners are continuous learners, and therefore prefer meaningful, realistic

learning situations. These characteristics and preferences can be adequately addressed

through Web-based learning environments.

Learner control can be programmed into Web-based learning modules; menu

systems and exit controls give adult learners choices within their learning experience.

Meaningful feedback during practice sections can expand and deepen the learner’s

knowledge. Web-based learning modules can also take advantage of multiple media

including graphics and audio to deliver content and create an environment in which

learners feel comfortable and motivated (Driscoll, 2002).

Motivation

Allen (2003) states that “instructors cannot learn their learners, and neither can e-

learning technology with all its graphics, animation, audio, and interactivity” (p.150). In

order for learning to occur, the students must be motivated and become involved in the

learning process for successful transfer. A key component of consideration in the design

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of all instruction, learner motivation tends to increase a learner’s participation and

activity level in learning tasks (Goslin, 2003).

Bandura (1988) cites goal setting as an important component affecting

motivation. Learners that have set a goal are likely to feel a sense of self worth and

engage in tasks that will help in the achievement of the goal. A learner forecasting

success on a current task that will directly relate to and enable fulfillment of personal

goals at present and in the future will be more invested in the task, and garner more from

it than a learner who cannot connect the task to goals (deCharms & Muir, 1978).

Motivation has been conceived of in several ways. Brophy (1987) described trait

and state motivation. Trait motivation is a predisposition toward learning, while state

motivation is directed toward specific topics, activities or classes. Both characterizations

of motivation as conceived of by Brophy (1987) can be stimulated by the learning

environment.

An additional and more well-known description of motivation describes it as

falling within one of two classifications, extrinsic or intrinsic. Myriad internal and

external factors can intensify the learner’s desire to engage in activities to learn (Dessler,

2001). Internal factors create intrinsic motivation, which encourages learners to engage in

activities for their own sake, often as a result of the pleasure experienced when

participating. Intrinsic motivation can be likened to trait motivation. Rewards and other

external factors have no bearing on how learners feel about the activity (Pintrich &

Schunk, 1996). Wlodkowski (1999) emphasizes that it is natural for people to be curious,

active, thoughtful and effective at what is determined to be important. Emotions

influencing intrinsic motivation occur as a result of the cultures and backgrounds learners

29

bring to each unique learning situation, enabling them to respond to activities and tasks

differently.

Extrinsic motivation, influenced by external factors, encourages learning in order

to achieve or gain something, such as rewards. This form of motivation occurs outside of

the learning process, and can be compared to Brophy’s (1987) construct of state

motivation which can change relative to the situation in which learners find themselves.

The educational system in the United States is dominated by extrinsically motivating

factors, including grades and eligibility (Wlodkowski, 1999). Both intrinsic and extrinsic

motivation are contextual, and can change depending on circumstances (Pintrich &

Schunk, 1996).

Learners have different needs and reasons to learn. Some learners are simply

curious about the subject matter, possessing trait motivation, while other learners are

motivated by grades or rewards, possessing state motivation. Context also plays a

significant role in shaping motivation within the extrinsic or intrinsic classifications of

the learners needs. When learners realize that what they are learning fits within their

needs and values, their motivation emerges (Wlodkowski, 1999).

Multimedia-based instructional practices can increase motivation since they are

realistic representations of the environment and enable learners to be active participants

in their own learning (Herrington & Oliver, 2000). The motivational capabilities of

narrative-centered learning environments have been documented (Mott, Callaway,

Zettlemoyer, Lee & Lester, 1999; Timcenko, 2006; Mott & Lester, 2006). Personalized

narration is one method that can be used in order to increase learner motivation within an

online course (Clark & Mayer, 2003). Personalized narration draws the learner into the

30

learning situation and immerses them in the experience, causing them to react to the

media as they would in a traditional classroom with conversations occurring between and

among teachers and learners. In the design of multimedia, two models for motivation are

frequently used: Malone and Lepper’s theory and Keller’s ARCS model.

Malone’s Motivation Theory

According to this theory, intrinsic motivators are beneficial than extrinsic

motivators. Malone and Lepper (1987) describe four elements than enhance intrinsic

motivation: challenge, curiosity, control and fantasy. Challenge can be achieved by

varying the difficulty of the material as learner performance improves.

There are two types of curiosity that can increase motivation. Sensory curiosity is

stirred by presenting visual or auditory effects that surprise the learner or attract attention.

Cognitive curiosity increases when unfamiliar information is presented that motivates the

learner to seek new information.

Learner control can take one of three forms. Learners can determine which

sequence of lessons that they wish to follow. A second form involves feedback from the

software based on responses and choices learners have made. The third and final form of

control occurs when learners create new things using computer tools such as graphical

software programs. This situation gives power to the learner which Malone and Lepper

(1987) considered to be extremely motivating.

Fantasy can be fostered in Web-based learning environments that create authentic

situations through the use of audio or visual effects. Fantasy is valuable in increasing

31

motivation since it can “encourage learners to envision themselves in a situation where

they can really use the information that they are learning” (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).

ARCS Model of Motivation

The ARCS model of motivation, developed by John Keller, is an influential

method of improving the motivational design of instructional materials (Keller & Kopp,

1987). This model describes a process of motivational design utilized within various

instructional design models. The motivational design process has been described as a

problem solving approach that structures instruction so that it motivates learners based on

satisfaction and expectancy of success (Keller, 1987).

The ARCS model contains four components of motivation that must be met in

order to have a motivated learner: attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction.

Attention is the first and likely the most critical aspect of the ARCS model. The main

function of attention is to draw on natural human curiosity and motivate learners by

means of getting and maintaining their attention. By introducing startling or unexpected

events, a sense of curiosity is created that engages the learner in inquiry-oriented

behavior to create interest in the instruction (Berlyne, 1965).

There are three distinct techniques of gaining attention, according to Keller

(1987). Perceptual arousal is created when learners encounter a surprising event early in

the instruction. Inquiry arousal occurs as a result of questions students raise and attempt

to answer using information they are uncovering. Varying the methods used when

presenting information can also assist learners in maintaining interest by utilizing various

elements of instruction (Keller & Kopp, 1987). Immediacy behaviors are also useful in

32

gaining attention, whether demonstrated by a teacher in a classroom or by a computer

acting as a social agent, engendering similar reactions from learners (Frymier, 1993;

Reeves & Nass, 1996).

Once the attention strategies have been accomplished and the learner’s interest

has been captured, questions arise in the minds of learners about the relevance of the

instruction, and how it will impact their lives in achieving their goals. Dick, Carey and

Carey (2001) caution that while gaining attention is important, unless learners perceive

the learning as relevant to them, motivation will decrease.

Relevance can be established in part by engendering familiarity with the concepts;

using examples and language that are already a part of the experience and values learners

possess (Keller & Suzuki, 1988). Defining goals and objectives of the instruction help

learners become further oriented to the relevance of the instruction. Providing learners

with opportunities to fulfill personal goals and motives also helps to enhance relevance

for learners (Driscoll, 2005). There is little evidence that immediacy behaviors and the

CASA paradigm can help increase relevance (Frymier, 1993).

Once attention and relevance are clearly in place, learner confidence must be

supported. Unless confidence is fostered, motivation for learning decreases and the

instruction can become unsuccessful. Covington (1984) states that self-perceived

competency plays a large role in motivation. Similarly, White (1959) describes learners

who are more likely to persevere as those that believe they have the necessary skills to be

successful.

Building confidence occurs in numerous ways. In order to banish fear of failure,

learners should be told exactly what is expected of them. Learners also will become more

33

confident if the instruction provides adequate assistance to complete a task that the

learners otherwise are not quite able to successfully complete individually (Driscoll,

2005). By allowing learners to experience success throughout multiple levels of learning,

they will develop a positive self-perception of their ability. A final method of instilling

confidence throughout the learning experience is to provide the learners with feedback

reflecting their individual progress (Keller & Kopp, 1987).

The final aspect of the ARCS model is satisfaction. The consequences of learning

often lead to, or hinder, further learning experiences (Maehr, 1976). Generally, learners

expect satisfaction or rewards as a consequence for their efforts. The rewards can be

intrinsically motivating, or, more often, extrinsically motivating.

The best way for learners to achieve natural satisfaction is for them to find their

new skills immediately useful and beneficial (Keller, 1987). Not every learning situation

lends itself to immediate implementation, however. In these cases, providing learners

with positive consequences, including verbal praise or incentives, generates satisfaction.

Finally, Keller & Suzuki (1988) suggest that maintaining consistent standards and

consequences is essential for learners to feel they have been equitably treated, which is

also a key component in generating satisfaction.

Both confidence and satisfaction can be instilled in learners through the use of

personalized, conversational narration. It has been shown that users of media respond to

good and bad experiences on a visceral level (Reeves & Nass, 1996; Tung & Deng,

2006). In a similar manner, media can deeply affect how users and learners view a

situation. Reeves and Nass (1996) found that computer users were able to determine the

personality of the computer based on interactions that they had with it. These interactions

34

helped the computer users form strong opinions of how satisfied they were with the

process. Their feelings about the computer media also affected their confidence levels

and caused them to give “a visceral and quick response on the order of ‘I like it’ or ‘not

for me’ ” (Reeves & Nass, 1996, p.117).

Conclusion

The online learning environment perpetually evolves and annexes new territory.

Adult learners, similarly, continue to take advantage of the conveniences offered by

online learning and prompt the growth currently occurring in this forum (Allen &

Seaman, 2005). Communication within this environment should be crafted in such a way as

to decrease cognitive load and increase learning and understanding in all learners, including

adult learners who value new knowledge that can be put into use in their respective

situations.

Sound, one component of multimedia used in online learning environments, can

be employed to clarify communication. It can take many forms, including narration,

which can be scripted in a personalized manner, using words in a conversational style

rather than formal style (Mayer, Fennell, Farmer, & Campbell, 2004). Moreno and Mayer

(2004) believe that a reduction in cognitive load can also occur through the use of

personalized narration. In fact, previous research has shown that the narrative style used

in instruction should conform to familiar narrative structures, since unfamiliar structures

increase cognitive load and decrease motivation (Bower & Morrow, 1990; Olson, 1990).

Personalized, conversational narration within Web-based environments fosters

familiarity among learners and is more enjoyable to use (Reeves & Nass, 1996). The

35

predictable format of conversational narration conforms to human expectations and

allows learners to feel competent and empowered. Human-like media, including Web-

based learning programs, can promote social presence through the use of conversational

narration that promotes immediacy, encouraging learners to become more involved with

the subject matter and work toward deeper understanding (Moreno & Mayer, 2004). As

stated by Thissen (2003), “Emotions and motivation are central driving forces behind

human actions. For this reason, a good multimedia product addresses users not only on a

cognitive level, but also on an emotional one and applies specific motivational

strategies.” (p. 227).

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CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY

Introduction

Research has determined that to support learning in a Web-based environment

requires an increase in learner motivation to achieve improved learning (Motschnig-

Pitrik, 2004; Tuckman, 2004; Lim, Morris, & Yoon, 2006; Richardson & Newby, 2006).

Learner motivation increases as a result of a personalized connection between the learner

and the material, and is directly affected by the manner in which the material is presented

to the learners (Wlodkowski, 1999; Frymier, 1993). Developing a personalized

connection in a Web-based environment is not impossible. Narrative is one method of

personalizing instruction, centering learning on the student and directly engaging them in

the learning process (Newmaster, Lacroix & Roosenboom, 2006).

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of personalized narration on

learner motivation in a Web-based environment, as well as to investigate learner

perceptions and opinions of personalized narration. Specifically, this study proposed to

explore personalized narration used in a Web-based course for students who take online

courses at various technical schools and colleges in the northeastern United States.

This study aimed to examine the relationship between personalized narration and

learner motivation in a Web-based environment. The study answered three questions:

1. Is there a significant difference in motivation between learners in a Web-based

course using personalized narration and learners in a Web-based course using

formal narration?

37

2. Is there a significant difference in immediacy between a Web-based course using

personalized narration and a Web-based course using formal narration?

3. What perceptions and opinions do learners have of personalized narration in a

Web-based course?

Hypotheses

H0: There is no significant difference in motivation between learners in a Web-

based course using personalized narration and learners in a Web-based course using

formal narration.

H0: There is no significant difference in immediacy between a Web-based course

using personalized narration and a Web-based course using formal narration.

Research Design

Two types of research methods were used to respond to the three research

questions of this study. As stated by Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004), one of the

guidelines in conducting mixed methods research is for researchers to employ approaches

that will effectively answer the research questions. Rather than attempting to conduct

research following one preferred method because it is faster or easier to use, matching the

methods to the research questions results in a more complete and accurate understanding

of phenomena.

This study employed concurrent triangulation procedures using a Quantitative –

Quantitative – Qualitative design as a means to collect multiple forms of data (Creswell,

2003). Greene, Caracelli and Graham (1989) have stated that the benefits of triangulation

38

lead researchers to conduct mixed-methods studies. Triangulation, which corroborates

findings from different methods, is one of the most common and well-known approaches

used when mixing methods.

A quasi-experimental design was used to address the first two research questions.

Since convenience rather than random sampling was used to determine the sample used

in the study, a quasi-experimental design was appropriate (Shadish, Cook & Campbell,

2002).

The first step of the study was to administer a portion of Richmond’s (1990)

motivation scale to determine initial motivation levels of participants. This motivation

scale was used as a repeated measure of state motivation of participants prior to and after

participating in the Web-based training. The motivation scale consisted of a set of bipolar

adjectives and was based on Beatty, Forst, and Stewart’s (1986) scale. Richmond (1990),

Frymier and Thompson (1992) and Frymier (1993) used the state motivation scale and

reported an alpha reliability of .94. The motivation scale was administered to the

participants in an online format.

Once the participants completed the motivation scale, they accessed the Web-

based module (Figures 1 & 2). This experimental portion followed a between-subjects

design in which participants were randomly assigned to one of the two treatments:

personalized narration or formal narration. Upon completion of the module, participants

once again completed the portion of Richmond’s (1990) motivation scale. This was

followed with selected items from Gorham’s (1988) Verbal Immediacy Behaviors (VIB)

scale. The VIB has alpha reliabilities that range from .83 to .94 (Christophel, 1990;

Gorham, 1988; Gorham & Zakahi, 1990; Powell & Harville, 1990).

39

The final research question was best addressed through the use of surveying

participants, a qualitative research method. Surveys were conducted with participants in

the Web-based training using interview questions that were standardized and open-ended,

with a predetermined sequence and wording of the same questions to minimize

possibility of bias (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003). As Czaja and Blair (2005) state, the

questions are written so that they gather information that pertains to the research

questions. Questions that did not directly gather information for one or more of the

research questions provided information in conjunction with one of the study’s variables.

Additionally, questions were designed so that they asked all participants the same

questions in as simple a format as possible, reducing the likelihood of error on the part of

the interviewer (Fowler, 1995; Fowler & Mangione, 1990). The survey questions

(Appendix D) for this study were designed following these guidelines.

Surveys proved useful in gathering additional, qualitative information from

participants since they were not directly observed interacting with the Web-based training

(Creswell, 2003). The surveys helped reveal participants’ motivational response to the

personalized narration used in the WBT.

Quantitative methods, such as quasi-experimentation used in this study, fall

within a positivist worldview; namely, that there is one reality that exists in the world that

is knowable within certain limitations (Mertens, 2005). Researchers are cautioned to

remain neutral and objective, so that the results generated are independent of the

researcher. In order to do this, hypotheses are empirically justified and phenomena are

statistically analyzed by means of numerical data (Gall, Gall & Borg, 2003), which may

result in higher credibility. However, the categorization of quantitative research may

40

produce data that is not representative of all groups or possibilities, and cannot be applied

to specific situations (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). By including the qualitative

component of data collection and analysis via interviewing, a more comprehensive

explanation was generated that would “enrich and explain the quantitative results in the

words of the participants” (Creswell & Clark, 2007, p. 34).

Convenience Sample

This study was conducted using volunteers who were enrolled in online classes at

two different colleges in New York and Connecticut. Participants in the study were

drawn from interested and available students. These students participated in a Web-based

module as adult learners. Participating students varied, pursuing two-year degrees, four-

year degrees as well as certificates. Forty participants were recruited, and were evenly

distributed between the two groups. Twenty participants were in the personalized

narration group and twenty in the formal narration group.

Data Collection

This study employed concurrent triangulation procedures as a means to collect

multiple forms of data. Quantitative data was collected in the first step. A portion of

Richmond’s (1990) motivation scale was administered in an online format to participants

in order to determine initial motivation levels (Appendix A). The data from the

motivation scale was collected by the survey software and stored for use in analysis.

After the motivation scale is completed, each participant accessed one version of

the Web-based module, depending upon the experimental group to which they had been

41

assigned. Participants in the control group had a Web-based module that used formal

narration, while those in the experimental group had a Web-based module that used

personalized, conversational narration.

Upon completion of the module, the motivation scale and a verbal immediacy

scale (Appendix B) were administered to participants. As in the first step, data from both

scales was collected by the survey software and stored for use in analysis.

The final step of the study occurred after participants completed the final

motivation and immediacy scales. Participants completed surveys that asked open-ended

questions. Questions were open-ended in order to allow participants space for reflection

and detailed answers.

Instrumentation Several types of instruments were used in the study. Each

instrument was chosen or designed based on its ability to answer the research questions

embedded in the study. Details about the instruments follow.

Motivation scale The motivation scale that was a part of the study was also used

by several researchers in previous studies (Beatty & Payne, 1985; Beatty, Forst &

Steward, 1986; Richmond, 1990; Christophel, 1990). Alpha reliability coefficients were

reported ranging from .94 to .96; substantial evidence for construct validity of the scale

has been published (Beatty & Payne, 1985; Beatty, Forst & Steward, 1986; Richmond,

1990; Christophel, 1990). Participants accessed the scale through a link located within the

online module and completed it on the Internet.

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Verbal immediacy scale The verbal immediacy scale has been utilized in previous

studies (Christophel, 1990; Gorham, 1988; Gorham & Zakahi, 1990). Alpha reliability

coefficients were reported ranging from .83 to .94; construct validity for the verbal

immediacy scale has also been reported (Christophel, 1990; Gorham, 1988; Powell &

Harville, 1990). Participants accessed the scale through a link located within the online

module and completed it on the Internet.

Web-based multimedia modules Multimedia design is derived from several

disciplines and includes the use of many techniques (Boyle, 1997). The design of the

Web-based multimedia modules takes into consideration these areas and follows common

principles of design, including the Gestalt laws related to visual unity (Thissen, 2003).

Visual balance is a desirable feature of any composition involving multimedia

(Arntson, 1998). All elements included within the modules were visually united and

promoted an experience that was organized and whole (Schwier & Misanchuk, 1993).

Color, an integral part of any design, was used to unite elements of similar function,

including navigational elements and other areas of the screen, following the Gestalt law

of similarity.

Harmony is another component of visual balance that was demonstrated in the

modules. The basic layout of the main components was repeated from screen to screen

(Boyle, 1997). Harmony is not only visually appealing, but also helps to reduce

cognitive load since users are not actively hunting for navigational elements as well as

other controls and content information.

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Elements on the screen were grouped together by function, following the Gestalt

law of proximity. As recommended in the research, navigational elements in the form of

buttons were placed along the bottom of the screen, and were clearly labeled with their

purposes (Alessi & Trollip, 2001; Lohr, 2003). Buttons that did not apply to certain

screens were disabled, and appeared grayed-out. When users pointed at the buttons, the

cursor changed shape, providing the user with confirmation about which button has been

selected. Users were also able to control the volume of the audio to suit their preferences.

The modules were created using a combination of both graphical and authoring

tools, specifically using the Adobe CS3 design suite (Photoshop, Illustrator,

Dreamweaver, and Flash). The audio narration was recorded and edited using Sony

Sound Forge. The content of both modules was the same, tips on incorporating visual

literacy within instructional presentations. The only change to the modules was the

narration.

The narration formed the backbone of the online modules, and was the main

method used for presenting the information to participants. One module, for the control

group, employed a script using formal narration. The other module, for the experimental

group, employed the same script with minor changes made to present informal,

conversational narration using words such as “you” and “your” in place of words such as

“it” and “the.” This strategy replicated the one used by Moreno and Mayer (2004). The

modules were validated by an expert in the field.

When the module opened, there was a title page that denoted what the module

was about. The user navigated away from this title page when they were ready to

continue. A page of simple directions was provided for the operation of the overall

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module; directions for activities were included just prior to the activity screen. A page

counter was also included in the modules so that users could track their progress through

the program.

Alessi and Trollip (2001) state that in almost every interactive multimedia

learning program available, text is the most commonly used method of information

delivery. The text in these modules used a sans serif font for optimal legibility on screen

and will be in high contrast to the background color (Thissen, 2003). The font size ranged

from 12 to 15 point, depending on the level of importance of the content.

Any information that was presented in text format on the screen was limited; it

was placed into bulleted lists taken from the narration to reinforce important aspects. It

was not merely be a transcript of the narration since this was in direct conflict with the

redundancy principle (Mayer, 2001).

Each module included an identical image of an instructor, (Appendices L and M).

The purpose of this image was to replicate the presence of another person, simultaneously

promoting social presence. Users heard narration associated with this instructor

throughout the module, creating verbal immediacy within the modules. Clark and Lyons

(2004) endorse images of this type, stating that they manage cognitive load, focus and

direct learner attention, and motivate “learners to initiate and complete learning goals” (p.

23).

When learners completed the module, there was an exit button available for them

to terminate the program. This button was always available to users if they decided to end

their involvement with the program (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).

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Survey The survey consisted of open-ended, standardized questions. The

questions were focused on topics related to the research questions but not addressed by

the motivation and verbal immediacy scales. The questions aimed to uncover deeper

meaning from responses to the scales as well as elicit participant opinions and

perceptions of the narration used in the modules. Questions are listed in Appendix D.

Procedure Once approval for the study was received, students were sent an e-mail

inviting them to participate in the study. The e-mail message is located in Appendix C.

The e-mails included the information on the Research on Human Subjects Consent form

approved by the Capella Internal Review Board. The participants were also informed that

the purpose of the study was to examine the effect of personalized narration on learner

motivation in a Web-based environment, as well as to investigate learner perceptions and

opinions of personalized narration. The e-mail also informed participants that the study

was part of the requirements for completion of a doctoral program. Information was

included in the e-mail that explained how to contact the researcher about participation.

Links to both an online consent form (Appendix E) and a demographic survey (Appendix

F) were also be included in the e-mail for individuals to complete. No further e-mails

regarding particpation were sent to interested participants until demographic surveys

were completed.

A second e-mail was sent to interested participants that reiterated the information

from the initial e-mail as well as information about how to access the online module. The

Web-based module contained links to the two motivation scales, and the immediacy

scale, links to the Flash-based modules and links to the survey, as well as detailed

46

directions on how to complete each part. Reminders for participation were sent via e-mail

on a daily basis for one week.

Data Analysis Procedures

Data collected from the motivation scales prior to and after module participation

were tested for statistical significance using t tests for dependent means. Immediacy scale

data was tested for statistical significance using t tests for independent means.

Surveys were reviewed closely and examined for similar phrases, patterns and

themes (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Generalizations were made among these patterns,

which were then triangulated with the quantitative data.

Limitations of Methodology

Mixed-methods studies comprise both quantitative and qualitative methods, and

researchers must cautiously control for threats to internal validity. Historically, the two

approaches have been in competition with each other, while simultaneously contributing

a great deal of knowledge to countless disciplines (Datta, 1994).

Combining quantitative and qualitative methods brings together not only their

strengths, but also their weaknesses. In this research study, the complementary strengths

and no overlapping weaknesses of the quantitative and qualitative measures afford the

researcher the option to approach the study in a pragmatic manner (Creswell, 2003).

However, both methods have, inherent to them, limitations that must be addressed.

47

Ethical Issues

Integral pitfalls of any research methodology must be avoided. As stated by

Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004), one of the guidelines in conducting mixed methods

research is for researchers to employ approaches that will effectively answer the research

questions. Rather than attempting to conduct research following one preferred method

because it is faster or easier to use, matching the methods to the research questions results

in a more complete and accurate understanding of phenomena. Gall, Gall, and Borg

(2003), emphasize the need for careful and deliberate data collection processes,

especially with respect to identifying issues or patterns that may be evident in the early

stages of the process.

Privacy of individuals participating in the study was protected; data provided was

handled and recorded in a manner that ensured confidentiality. Anonymity was also

provided, as data was collected through the use of online survey instruments. Fully

informed consent was also obtained so as not to do harm or deceive participants (Guba &

Lincoln, 1989). Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that

can be identified with participants remained confidential, kept in a locked file within the

researcher’s residence. This information will be destroyed, as required, seven years after

publication of results. All possible safeguards were used to protect participant anonymity.

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CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Introduction

The purpose of this mixed method study was to examine the effect of

personalized narration on learner motivation in a Web-based environment. The results

from the survey instruments and their relationship to personalized narration in a Web-

based course are presented.

This study employed concurrent triangulation procedures using a Quantitative –

Quantitative – Qualitative design. Two surveys comprised the quantitative portions of the

data collections. A portion of Richmond’s (1990) motivation scale was administered in

an online format to participants in order to determine initial motivation levels (Appendix

A). This was used as a repeated measure, also given after participants completed the

Web-based learning module. This was followed with selected items from Gorham’s

(1988) Verbal Immediacy Behaviors (VIB) scale (Appendix B).

Qualitative data was collected through the use of a survey consisting of open-

ended, standardized questions. The questions focused on topics related to the research

questions but not addressed by the motivation and verbal immediacy scales. The purpose

of the questions was to extract deeper meaning from responses to the scales as well as

elicit participant opinions and perceptions of the narration used in the modules (Appendix

D).

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This chapter is divided into eight sections: (a) sample, (b) research questions, (c),

data sources, (d) findings from quantitative analysis, (e) qualitative data findings, and (f)

summary of research question findings.

Sample

The study was conducted using volunteers enrolled in online classes at two

different colleges, one in New York and one in Connecticut. A convenience sample was

used, drawing forty participants from interested and available students pursuing two-year

or four-year degrees.

The control group consisted of 20 participants, 14 females and 6 males. Fifteen

participants identified themselves as White, 2 as Hispanic/Latino, 1 as Black/African

American, and 2 as Other. Twelve were pursuing bachelor’s degrees and 8 were pursuing

associates degrees. The ages ranged from 25 to over 50 years (Appendix J).

The treatment group also consisted of twenty participants, fourteen female and six

male. Fourteen participants identified themselves as white, three as Hispanic/Latino, one

as Black/African American, one American Indian/Alaska Native and one Asian/Pacific

Islander. Thirteen were pursuing bachelor’s degrees and seven were pursuing associates

degrees. The ages ranged from under twenty-five to over fifty years (Appendix J).

Research Questions

This study set out to examine the relationship between personalized narration and

learner motivation in a Web-based environment. The study investigated three questions:

50

1. Is there a significant difference in motivation between learners in a Web-based

course using personalized narration and learners in a Web-based course using

formal narration?

2. Is there a significant difference in immediacy between a Web-based course using

personalized narration and a Web-based course using formal narration?

3. What perceptions and opinions do learners have of personalized narration in a

Web-based course?

Data Sources

Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected for this study. Two sources

were used to collect quantitative data: a portion of Richmond’s (1990) motivation scale,

and selected items from Gorham’s (1988) Verbal Immediacy Behaviors (VIB) scale.

Richmond’s motivation scale was used as a repeated measure, given before and after the

participants completed the Web-based module. The VIB scale was administered only

after the Web-based module was completed.

Quantitative data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social

Sciences® (SPSS). Responses for each question were given a unique variable name and

were assigned a unique numerical code prior to being entered into SPSS for analysis.

Findings from Quantitative Analysis

Quantitative analysis conducted on data collected from the motivation scales prior

to and after module participation was tested for statistical significance using t tests for

dependent means. Immediacy scale data, gathered through the use of Gorham’s (1988)

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VIB scale, was tested for statistical significance using t tests for independent means for

each of the characteristics of immediacy measured in the survey.

Motivation Scale Analysis—Research Question 1

Research Question 1: Is there a significant difference in motivation between learners in a

Web-based course using personalized narration and learners in a Web-based course using

formal narration?

A paired-samples t test was conducted to evaluate the impact of the Web-based

module on participants’ ratings on the Richmond’s motivation scale. For the treatment

group, there was no statistically significant difference in motivation scale rating from the

pre-survey (M=1.88, SD=1.130) to the post survey (M=1.88, SD=.881), t(19)=.000, p<.05

(two-tailed) (Table 1). This indicates that the treatment condition did not impact

motivation. The same test was also conducted for the control group. Similarly, there was

no statistically significant difference in motivation scale rating from the pre-survey

(M=1.96, SD=1.098) to the post survey (M=1.88, SD=.881), t(19)=.303, p<.05 (two-

tailed) (Table 2). This also indicates that the Web-based module did not impact

motivation. The findings uphold the null hypothesis: There is no significant difference in

motivation between learners in a Web-based course using personalized narration and

learners in a Web-based course using formal narration.

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Table 1

Treatment Group Motivation Scale Ratings

Motivation Scale Test Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean PreMotivation 1.88 20 1.130 .226 Post Motivation 1.88 20 .881 .176

Table 2

Control Group Motivation Scale Ratings

Motivation Scale Test Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean PreMotivation 1.96 20 1.098 .220

Post Motivation 1.88 20 .881 .176

There was no significant difference in motivation between learners in a Web-

based course using personalized narration and learners in a Web-based course using

formal narration. These findings can be further explained through the statements

participants gave to the qualitative portion of the final survey. Participant responses to

the third survey question, which asked “what elements of the Web-based course on visual

literacy motivated you”, give further explanation on what participants considered as

motivating factors.

Participants stated that regardless of other factors, their motivation for the topic

was determined at the outset of their participation in the experiment. One treatment group

participant said that “the concept of visual literacy itself is motivating”. Another

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participant from the treatment agreed, adding that “it was the material that was of interest

to me, nothing else”. Similar responses came from control group participants: “The

subject of visual literacy-understanding images as communication is valuable and

motivated me a lot”. One control group participant was very direct about what motivated

her/him in stating:

Even though the talking reminded me of Ben Stein from TV, and I could have been bored out of my mind, I knew that the topic was something I wanted to know more about and that kept me focused. For another control group participant, the motivation also came from the subject

matter being presented to them. This participant indicated that the topic was the driving

force for them to continue, even in cases where they did not like to listen to the instructor

speak.

I was not happy with the tone of the instructor, but I kept on listening and going on because I know that what she was saying about everyone needing to learn how to design and interpret was true. Communication is a powerful tool and visually is one way that is powerful for all of us to use to communicate with others.

Analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data show that the motivation levels

did not change for participants as a result of the treatment condition because many

participants view the topic as interesting or important before they even completed the

pre-survey. The subject matter of the Web-based module was a factor in motivating them

to participate.

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Immediacy— Research Question 2 (RQ2)

Research Question 2: Is there a significant difference in immediacy between a Web-

based course using personalized narration and a Web-based course using formal

narration?

An independent-samples t test was conducted to compare scores on Gorham’s

Verbal Immediacy Behaviors (VIB) scale for the treatment group and the control group.

Scores for each question were analyzed separately to determine which immediacy

behaviors impacted the participants.

Use of Personal Examples

One of the indicators on the VIB scale asks participants how often the instructor

“uses personal examples or talks about examples she/he has had outside of class”.

Findings on the independent-samples t test for the category of personal examples showed

that there was no statistically significant difference in scores for the treatment group

(M=2.64, SD=1.221) and for the control group (M=2.88, SD=1.269) t(39)= -.682, p=.11

(two-tailed) (Table 3). The magnitude of the differences in the means was very small (eta

squared=0.01), which means that only one percent of the variance in immediacy is

explained by the types of narration.

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Table 3

Immediacy Measure—Personal Examples

Group N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Treatment 20 2.64 1.221 .244

Control 20 2.88 1.269 .254

Asking Questions

Another indicator on the VIB scale asks participants how often the instructor

“asks questions”. Findings for this category showed that there was no statistically

significant difference in scores for the treatment group (M=3.40, SD=1.000) and for the

control group (M=2.44, SD=1.083) t(39)= 3.256, p=.11 (two-tailed) (Table 4). The

magnitude of the differences in the means was large (eta squared=0.22), which means

that the variance in immediacy can be explained by the types of narration.

Table 4

Immediacy Measure—Asking Questions

Group N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Treatment 20 3.40 1.000 .200

Control 20 2.44 1.083 .217

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Use of Humor

The next indicator on the VIB pertained to use of humor by the instructor in the

Web-based module. There was no statistically significant difference in scores for the

treatment group (M=2.56, SD=1.044) and for the control group (M=1.84, SD=.943)

t(39)= 2.558, p=.11 (two-tailed) (Table 5). The magnitude of the differences in the means

was moderate (eta squared=0.15), indicating that the variance in immediacy could be

explained by types of narration used in the Web-based module.

Table 5

Immediacy Measure—Use of Humor

Group N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Treatment 20 2.56 1.044 .209 Control 20 1.84 .943 .189

Personalized Language

The final indicator on the VIB scale asked how often the instructor in the Web-

based module “refers to class as ‘our’ class or what ‘we’ are doing”. There was no

statistically significant difference in scores for the treatment group (M=3.20, SD=1.414)

and for the control group (M=2.96, SD=1.098) t(39)= .670, p=.11 (two-tailed) (Table 6).

The magnitude of the differences in the means was small (eta squared=0.01) indicating

that only one percent of the variance in immediacy could be explained by types of

narration used in the Web-based module.

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Table 6

Immediacy Measure—Use of Personalized Language

Group N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Treatment 20 3.20 1.414 .283 Control 20 2.96 1.098 .220

There was no significant difference in any of the four aspects of immediacy

between a Web-based course using personalized narration and a Web-based course using

formal narration. The measures of personal examples, asking questions, use of humor,

and personalized language were not found to be significantly different. Participants in the

control group, who experienced a formal tone, and treatment group, who experienced a

less formal, more conversational tone, did not report a higher incidence of these

comments from the instructor.

The final survey with the open-ended questions allowed participants in both

groups to comment about factors that made the Web-based module feel like a real

classroom. These comments coincided with the concept of immediacy and the items on

the VIB scale. One treatment group participant explained that “some of her dry humor

reminded me of another professor I had a while back” while another participant in the

treatment group commented that “I didn’t get all her jokes, but it made the time go by

better”.

Questioning practices in the Web-based module were also noticed by the

treatment group participants, one of whom commented that “with her standing in front of

58

the board, asking questions, I felt a bit glad I was not in a real classroom just in case I had

to write the answer on the board!”

The eta squared for the immediacy scale indicators of using humor and asking

questions were also large, indicating a high probability that the differences could be

attributed to the treatment. The scripts for the treatment group included dry humor,

moments of levity and rhetorical questions to engage the learner and connect on a

personal level. Conversely, scripts for the control group had no humor, moments of levity

or rhetorical questions for participants. These scripts merely presented information.

The data analysis for the measures of personal examples, in which the instructor

in the Web-based course shared personal stories of herself, and use of personalized

language, in which the instructor used words such as “we” or “our” showed no significant

difference between groups.

The personal examples measure can be explained through triangulation, looking

at the comments of participants in the control group. Participants in this group repeatedly

brought up the story told by the instructor in the module. They stated that the “story about

how other students used the topic in their lives was very interesting and made me want to

pay attention more”. This was not a personal example shared by the instructor of her own

life, but may have been misinterpreted by participants as a personal story.

Additionally, control group participants repeatedly described the personality of

the instructor as serious, business-like, and “like a typical college professor”. Four of the

control group participants commented that the professor in the Web-based module had a

clear voice that was “easy to listen to and understand”. Control group participants

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focused more on the mechanical aspects of the narration and personality, but did not pay

attention to the lack of the use of “we” or “our” or personal examples in the module.

The narration for the treatment Web-based module included numerous instances

of “we” or “our’ in the language and three personal examples/stories from the instructor.

Similarly, treatment group participants missed these specific aspects. However, treatment

group participants commented that the instructor “seemed very friendly”, was “a nice

person”, and “made the information very interesting to me”. One participant explained:

It was her personality that made the information to get across to me [sic]. She was enthusiastic about the topic of visual literacy and she did some great techniques to keep me interested in it.

It is difficult to establish what the techniques were that this participant mentioned as these

comments are broad and indistinct in dealing with aspects of immediacy in the final

survey.

Eta squared was also calculated for both of these indicators. It was small which

indicates a low probability that a difference between groups could be attributed to the

treatment and differences in narration style. Analysis of all data collected on immediacy

upholds the null hypothesis: There is no significant difference in immediacy between a

Web-based course using personalized narration and a Web-based course using formal

narration.

Qualitative Data Findings

Participants answered open-ended questions as a part of the post survey.

Responses were used to inform research question three (RQ3). The open-ended questions

allowed participants to write down thoughts and opinions they had of the Web-based

60

module that they had just completed. Five separate questions, covering five distinct

topics, were asked (Appendix D). Participants were free to write as much or as little as

they chose to write.

Word-based techniques were used to extract the themes in the participants’

responses. Ryan and Bernard (2003) state that in order to identify themes, participant

responses must be sorted into categories of similar meaning. In the data that was

collected, each short answer response was read several times prior to being categorized

and coded. As Creswell and Clark (2007) recommend, text from responses was divided

into smaller phrases, and a label was assigned to each unit. All of the repeated labels were

tallied and several themes emerged regarding learner motivation as related to narration

and tone.

Differences in Personality/Tone

The first question asked participants to describe the personality of the instructor.

There was a marked difference in the perceptions of participants in the treatment group

(Appendix G), which used informal narration, from the participants in the control group

(Appendix H), which used formal narration. Treatment group participants described the

instructor’s personality as positive and upbeat. These participants also frequently

explained that the positive tone “kept my attention” and “held my interest”. One

participant in particular stated “the instructor had a positive and lively tone. She seemed

interested and alert, and changed her tone to emphasize parts of the course”. Another

participant echoed these feelings, describing the instructor’s tone as conversational:

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The instructor’s tone was conversational and attempted to keep the topic interesting by varying the tone of her voice. Nothing is more boring than a monotone instructor’s tone. Upon examining all responses, coding and tallying word repetitions and key

words in context for the control group, it became evident that participants had a very

different opinion of the instructor’s personality. Thirteen of the twenty participants

indicated that the personality of the instructor was serious and boring. One participant

described the instructor’s personality as “Businesslike, but competent”. Similarly, others

said that the tone was boring and they wanted the instructor “to get to the point quicker”.

Still others said that the instructor was monotone: “she could’ve been a bit more upbeat

while talking”, and “her tone didn’t vary a lot”.

Effect of Personality on Motivation

Participants’ motivation was affected based on their perceptions of the instructor’s

personality/tone. Treatment group participants, who had identified the instructor’s

personality in the previous question as positive, indicated that they were motivated to

continue working in the module, as stated by one participant: “Her tone kept me

interested and motivated. I was more inclined to continue through the course because of

it”. One participant in particular explained that the tone conveyed more energy than she

was accustomed to in Web-based modules: “she was energetic and motivated, and this

kept my interest. She was very knowledgeable about what she was covering and it

showed-not like some of the voices I have to listen to for my work training”.

Similarly, the control group participants suggested that the instructor’s

personality/tone played a part in their motivation to continue working in the Web-based

62

module: “the module was easy to follow, but I don’t think it had anything to do with the

instructor.” Other participants were not as kind, and stated that the tone “made me want

to stop listening”, “made me want to drop out”, and “didn’t keep me from getting

sidetracked”. One participant in particular had a very difficult time staying motivated:

I couldn’t wait for it to be over. It was just too much for me to handle. The whole thing started to mean nothing to me, so I started to shut down and was not absorbing any of the information. I wanted to move forward before she was done, but waited for her to finish droning.

Motivating Elements

Participants in both treatment group and the control group had similar opinions on

what elements in the Web-based module motivated them. A majority of participants in

both groups stated that the multimedia elements (audio, text and graphics/images)

embedded in the Web-based module were motivating factors. Several of them

specifically pinpointed elements in the module, including “charts, graphs and tables” as

well as “the stories of people using the communication method”. Still others found that a

combination of elements motivated them to continue:

I liked seeing the lecturer as opposed to reading an instructor’s lecture as I have done in several of my online courses. It was also preferable to just listening to an audio tape and watching the psychedelic colors stream across my computer screen. I felt more focused. I have also often wondered what some of my online instructors looked like.

Another participant had some requests and suggestions for her college and how it

could keep her motivated while learning online:

The introduction to visual literacy was really different than what I’m used to. I think if all the online classes at my school had the various visual elements as tools, I think I would learn a little quicker. I find that some of the online classes I have taken or am taking lack more visual aids and show and tell techniques that I saw in this course.

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Immediacy in the Web-based Module

Participants in the treatment and control groups indicated that there were several

aspects of the Web-based module that imitated a traditional face-to-face classroom.

Treatment group participants indicated that the combination of audio and visual elements

most closely replicated a traditional face-to-face classroom. One participant explained:

“learning by listening. Feeling connected with the instructor. Sometimes information is

hard to retain by just reading it but hearing and seeing other items helps.” The

connection of audio and visual elements was also helpful in “building a sense of being

between the learner and the instructor.” Other treatment group participants went a step

further, and let their imaginations fill in the gaps to create a realistic situation: “she was

standing in front of a white wall or something that made me feel like she was about to

write something on the board with a marker and she was wearing something I would

imagine my professors to be wearing.”

Just as in the previous question, control group participants had similar opinions,

but also needed to move beyond the lack of motivation that they received from the

instructor’s personality/tone, as indicated by this participant’s response: “It was the

teacher, droning on, blah, blah, blah, maintaining a particular commanding, uninteresting

stance…which is sort of like in some of the worse classes I’ve had.”

Another control participant was similarly frustrated with the instructor’s

personality, but also found a commonality: “I found the pictures did help make the

connection with the audio a little better than no person at all. I think the audio can be

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helpful, if it’s the right kind, and it did give a little bit of a more personal connection, but

I personally wish it was more interesting.”

Seven of the control group participants indicated that the combination of audio

and visual elements enabled the module to be “classroom-like”, even though certain

aspects of a traditional classroom, such as other students in the room, were absent

(Appendix H).

The final question in the survey also covered the area of immediacy, asking

whether or not the participant would want to take another course with that instructor.

Treatment group participants overwhelmingly stated that they would want to take another

course with the instructor, and had various reasons to do so. Eleven participants stated

that the instructor was motivating and that reason alone would lead them to another

course with this instructor, finding the instructor “upbeat and easy to pay attention to”

(Appendix G). Five participants found the instructor’s voice to be clear and precise,

making them eager to sign up for another course with this instructor.

One participant believed that she was not only motivating but also “she sounds

nice and pretty knowledgeable. She also explains things well and I could ask her to repeat

something or re-explain something and it seems she wouldn’t get mad”.

Another participant was also able to interpret the instructor’s personality through

the module. “I would want to take another course with this instructor because I would

feel comfortable asking her for help if I had to. It also seems that she’s the type of person

who would do anything and everything possible to make sure that her students learned,

using any method out there to help me understand what it is she’s trying to teach me. This

is more important to me than anything else when I am trying to learn.”

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Some of the control group participants would have also taken another course with

the instructor, although for different reasons. Nine of these participants cited the

instructor’s “clear voice” as an important reason, since, according to one participant,

“you need to be able to understand who’s teaching you. As long as the language is

comprehensible and the subject matter is interesting to me, I’d take another class with

her” (Appendix H).

Others in the control group stated that because they were unmotivated and bored

by the instructor, they could not see themselves taking another class with her. One

participant felt that it would just be too difficult to do: “I would not be able to maintain

any concentration for any length of time to acquire any information. That would frustrate

me so much; it would make me drop out”.

A few participants noted that the monotone quality of the instructor needed to be

changed in order for them to return:

The instructor seemed robotic, like she was reading from a script rather than conducting a dialogue or really talking to, and sharing information with learners. It just seemed that the instructor was really bored, or didn’t care that others were going to listen to her. The tone of the instructor was too rehearsed or practiced. It wasn’t realistic at all. I would prefer more of a conversational tone, personally. It would be more interesting. Qualitative data show that participants’ motivation was affected by numerous

factors, personality of the instructor being only one of them. It is important to note that

eleven participants in the control group and eight participants in the treatment group

found the subject matter to be the most motivating element of the experience

(Appendices G and H). This finding could explain the results found for the motivation

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scale in which neither group had a significant difference before or after participating in

the Web-based module. Many participants had similar feelings to this participant:

I really was interested in the topic because I think it is important for students, really everyone, to know about. It would not matter to me who was teaching it, really…I would take it anyway because I think I need it. Perceptions and opinions learners have of personalized narration in a Web-based

course are diverse. Many treatment group participants were acutely aware of a

personalized connection between themselves and the instructor through the use of

language. Participants in the control group also noted that the tone of the instructor could

have been more conversational and friendly. Participants in both groups were able to

identify characteristics of immediacy, including presence, which enabled them to equate

the Web-based instructor to a classroom professor.

Chapter 5 presents a summary of the study to include purpose, research questions,

linking of findings to literature as identified in Chapter 2; limitations and findings;

conclusions; recommendations for practice; and recommendations for future research.

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CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

This study used a mixed methods approach to examine the effect of personalized

narration on learner motivation in a Web-based environment as well as to discern the

opinions and perceptions learners have of personalized narration within Web-based

modules in an effort to understand how and if narrative styles close the existing cyber-

gap between instructor and learner. Prior to this study, little empirical evidence existed

that would explain the impact of personalized narration on learner motivation or to give

insight into learner attitudes related to differences in narration within Web-based learning

environments.

Three research questions guided the study, and each question is discussed in detail

below. The primary intent of this study was to investigate the effect of personalized

narration on learner motivation in a Web-based environment, furthering the research of

Moreno and Mayer (2004). Two variations of the same eLearning module were used as

the two treatments: one that utilized a formal, prescribed style of language and tone and

one that utilized an informal, friendly style of language and tone. A total of forty learners

participated, with twenty assigned to the informal narration treatment situation and

twenty assigned to the formal narration control situation. Participants completed a

presurvey about motivation, taken from portion of Richmond’s (1990) motivation scale in

order to determine initial motivation levels (Appendix A). This was used as a repeated

measure, also given after participants completed the Web-based learning module. This

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was followed with selected items from Gorham’s (1988) Verbal Immediacy Behaviors

(VIB) scale (Appendix B). Participants also completed a series of open-ended,

standardized questions (Appendix D) which focused on topics related to the research

questions but not addressed by the motivation and verbal immediacy scales in order to

extract deeper meaning from responses to the scales as well as elicit participant opinions

and perceptions of the narration used in the modules.

Quantitative data was analyzed through the use of t tests and survey responses

were coded using word-based techniques as described by Ryan and Bernard (2003) to

determine emergent themes. The triangulation of data through the diverse sources,

accomplished through comparisons of qualitative responses to quantitative data gleaned

from participant survey responses served to support and validate findings.

Discussion of Research Questions and Findings

Research Question 1: Is there a significant difference in motivation between learners in a

Web-based course using personalized narration and learners in a Web-based course

using formal narration?

The findings of this study revealed that there were no significant differences in

participants in either the treatment or control group from the presurvey to the post survey.

This finding diverges from the literature which states that personalized narration has been

able to increase motivation since it is a realistic representation of the environment and

enables learners to be active participants in their own learning (Herrington & Oliver,

2000; Mott, Callaway, Zettlemoyer, Lee & Lester, 1999; Timcenko, 2006; Mott & Lester,

2006). While initially this finding may be perplexing, it also adds a new dimension and

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perspective to the literature in regards to personalized narration and motivation. The

population of online learners surveyed in this study may be representative of a new

generation of online learners who are not motivated solely because of the manner in

which information is presented, as this is something with which they are becoming more

and more comfortable (Gee, 2003; Wuensch, Aziz, Ozan, Kishore, & Tabrizi, 2008).

Rather, the participants likely had other reasons for their motivation that could not be

determined through the quantitative surveys used in the study.

The open-ended questions in the final survey found that students who participated

in the study did so because the subject matter (Visual literacy-communications skills for

students) interested them. Learners who volunteered to participate in the study were

initially interested in the subject matter and, as they stated, they were happy to continue

learning about it because they thought it was important for them to learn. It is important

to note that five learners in the control group specifically indicated in their comments that

they “did not mind” the instructor’s personality because they found the subject matter

appealing and could “work around her”. These statements echo reasons for motivation

found in the literature (Wlodkowski, 1999; Cole, Field & Harris, 2004; Lundberg, 2003).

The quantitative survey shows that, as a result of the participating learner

population, motivation levels of participants prior to and after participating in the Web-

based learning module remained statistically stagnant. Recruiting participants to a study

such as this may require that a prescribed group, such as an intact college class, be used,

rather than going out and recruiting interested and available participants in order to get a

better understanding of the actual effect of narration on motivation.

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The research question regarding motivation can be further answered by the

comments of participants about their own motivation in the open-ended questions. It was

clear from their comments that the personality, tone and language of the instructor did

affect their desire to learn and to continue in the module. Control group participants

stated that they wanted to quit, or drop out of the class while treatment group participants

felt comfortable moving on and learning more. This finding is in alignment with the

literature which states that personalized, conversational narration within Web-based

environments is more enjoyable to use (Reeves & Nass, 1996). It is also obvious from the

comments that participants in both groups made, that a distinct personality was observed

in the instructor and that this personality or tone played a significant role in their

motivation.

Additionally, as described in the literature, participant responses indicate that the

personalized narration in the treatment situation was able to imitate social presence in a

Web-based environment to induce and sustain learners’ motivation (Newberry, 2001; Tu,

2001). Treatment group participants equated the narration and tone of the instructor in the

Web-based module with her personality and were able to infer something about her as a

person, and how she might interact with them in a realistic setting. Personal qualities

came across to participants through the narration in the verbal manner that Aragon (2003)

identifies as necessary in promoting a level of comfort with the learning situation.

Research Question 2: Is there a significant difference in immediacy between a Web-based

course using personalized narration and a Web-based course using formal narration?

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As indicated in the research (Walther, 1992; Tu, 2000), this study revealed that

certain factors of immediacy do predict how students view the course they are taking.

Participants in the treatment group viewed the immediacy factors of use of humor, in

which the instructor in the Web-based course made jokes while explaining the topic, and

asking questions, in which the instructor asked rhetorical questions of learners, positively.

In the open-ended, qualitative data portion of the study, participants indicated that these

actions by the instructor made her seem more realistic and gave them a sense of her

human-ness. Similarly, the control group participants did not notice these factors, since

they were not included in the script. Some of the participants in the control group,

however, noticed the lack of immediacy but did not call it that; three of them commented

that they wanted the instructor to be more conversational in her speech.

In addition, the two other immediacy factors that were included in the Web-based

module, personal examples and personalized language (the use of “we” or “our”) were

not significantly different between the two groups. Neither group reported a high use of

these factors, which was unexpected since the treatment group script included as many

instances of these factors as of the other factors. It may be, as participants indicated in the

qualitative survey, that they became bored with the instructor and tuned out, not paying

attention to nuances in language. Additionally, the survey was an individual exercise, and

the author was unable to ask clarifying or probing questions in order to elicit more

complete responses.

A surprising finding in this study was the ability of participants in both groups to

accurately describe and advocate for social presence, an indicator of immediacy (Aragon,

2003; Leh, 2001). Many participants indicated that the pictures of the instructor allowed

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them to feel like they were in a classroom, and others wanted more pictures or even a

video of the instructor to make the situation seem even more realistic. Technological

advances have made people acutely aware of the levels of reality; the ability to utilize

modalities of seeing, hearing and feeling in the online classroom is becoming more

important to instructional designers (Elsom-Cook, 2001).

A relationship between factors of immediacy and motivation is also supported as

a result of the findings in this study. Treatment group participants frequently responded

that the instructor’s personality seemed helpful and that they believed that she “would

encourage them to continue working” and help them understand things they were

confused about. As described in the literature, teacher immediacy behaviors positively

influence student motivation, regardless of the age of the student or cultural background

(Frymier, 1993; Christophel & Gorham, 1995; Pribyl, Sakamoto, & Keaten, 2004;

Weaver & Albion, 2005). Although participants may not have been as aware of the

nuances in language use, or may not have accurately reported the use of personalized

language, there is qualitative data to support the development of a connection, based on

immediacy behaviors, between the instructor in the Web-based module and the

participants.

Research Question 3: What perceptions and opinions do learners have of personalized

narration in a Web-based course?

The participants in this study had diverse opinions and perceptions about

personalized narration, many of which were already discussed. Differences in opinion

about the type of narration used in the Web-based module were stark; treatment group

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participants noticed a positive, motivating tone while control group participants noticed a

serious, unmotivating tone. These differences impacted whether or not participants would

want to take another course with the instructor from the online module, as discussed

earlier.

Online learning continues to evolve and adapt to new learners and improved

technology. Although this study focused on personalized narration, participants in this

study identified several additional components of the Web-based course that they found

as interesting and helpful in maintaining their attention and increasing their learning.

Seventeen of the total participants, nine from the treatment group and eight from the

control group, cited the multimedia elements of the Web-based learning module as

motivating. In their comments, participants discussed audio, visual and narration

elements separately as well as collectively, repeating the usefulness of these multimedia

elements in making the Web-based module as realistic as possible. One participant

described the visuals as “helping me to see exactly what she was talking about—I liked

the pictures because they focused me”. Others commented that the “combination of audio

and visual was realistic” and “the whole thing, pictures, sounds etc. helped it all make

sense to me and kept me paying attention”. These findings reinforce the findings of

Gagne (1985), Reiber (1994), Boyle (1997), and Alessi and Trollip (2001) and support

the work of Moreno and Mayer (2004) on which this study was based.

How the Current Study Extends Existing Research

Studies on immediacy in the classroom, and its affect on motivation, have been

conducted (Christophel, 1990; Kelly and Gorham, 1988; Richmond, 1990), but none have

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been conducted that look at immediacy and motivation in the Web-based environment

using personalized narration. This study explored the relationships between formal and

informal narration and its effects on motivation and immediacy, providing an

informative, evidence-based evaluation of students’ motivation and perceptions of formal

and informal narration and immediacy within the interactive, multimedia-based Web

environment. Findings of this study support previous studies found in the literature that

explored personalization and social presence in the Web-based environment (Moreno &

Mayer, 2004; Gunawardena & Zittle, 1997; Tu, 2000; Tu, 2002; Walther, 1992).

However, limited research has examined the combination of personalization, immediacy

and motivation and their impact on learners in the Web-based environment. Based on the

data in this study, it can be stated that the combination of pictures of the instructor and

narration formed a bond and increased the comfort level between the learner and the

material being presented. This study provides detailed information about how learners in

the online environment react to personalized narration, and the impact it has on their

levels of satisfaction with the online learning experience. Additionally, it is evident

through the data collected in this study that online learners are looking to form a

relationship and build trust in the online environment, and anticipate that the technology

can help this happen. As instructional designers create online learning modules and

courses, the ability to utilize technology in order to create a venue for these relationships

is significant.

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Significance of the Results

As a result of their participation in this study, students are more aware of how

instructor language, and presence play a role in fostering an environment for learning.

Additionally, participants gained an understanding of the modality principle that states

that the use of audio with visual supporting elements results in more learning as a result

of reduced extraneous cognitive load and increased germane cognitive load. Participants

in the study have clear feelings about how they would like to see online instruction

designed and delivered, and were not hesitant about sharing these feelings.

The findings of this study have significant implications for instructional

designers. The data gathered in this study supports the notion that instructional designers

should design and develop learning environments that utilize all of the modalities that are

present in face-to-face learning environments. Participants in this study were very clear

about the helpfulness and effect of audio and visual elements in emulating a realistic

situation and improving their focus and motivation.

The use of personalized narration in the treatment situation was instrumental in

replicating social presence in a Web-based environment to induce and sustain learners’

motivation. The implementation of these various modalities is a crucial element in the

traditional classroom in fostering relationships and should carry over into an online

environment in as natural a manner as possible. Elements including conversational

narration, which is personalized and incorporates humor, questioning and personal

examples should be included in scripts for online learning modules as frequently as

possible, as these elements have been shown, in this study and others, to be critical in

creating a connection between material and learner.

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In order for all of the elements included in online learning modules to be as

realistic as possible, it is important for instructional designers to use a cadre of tools in

the development of online instruction. As technology continues to advance, software

programs become more capable and complex, able to more realistically present

information and situations to viewers. Relying on only one software program is no longer

enough. By intertwining various types of interactive multimedia through the use of robust

software programs, designers will be able to create learning environments in which the

learner can be immersed, rather than having the experience of being merely an onlooker.

Adult learners, the focus of this study, have specific needs and requirements for

learning that appeared repeatedly throughout data collection. If learners are to be

motivated, the instruction, as stated by Wlodkowski (1999), needs to be relevant to the

learner or they will not see a need to pay attention, clearly a trend in this study.

Additionally, giving them personal control over how the material is presented, whether it

is the order of topics, menu systems or simply in advancing the module is key to

increasing learning and motivation.

The design elements of online learning are critical components to effective

instruction. Participants in this study indicated that the multimedia elements of the lesson

were motivating elements. Choosing the right style of fonts, color harmony, displayed

items and resolution can make a big difference to learners. Although many have been

taught not to judge a book by its cover, today’s online learners are looking for a robust

experience that will appeal to all of their senses and deeply embed them in the

experience.

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Limitations to the Study

There are several limitations to the study. The sample size for each group was

small (n=20). Participants were chosen based on interested and available respondents to

e-mails. This impacted the findings for motivation, as participants indicated in their

responses, since they would not have participated had they not been intrigued by the topic

in the Web-based module. The final survey, which produced the qualitative data for this

study, was not done in a face-to-face environment, or even on a telephone, which limited

the responses from the participants. The researcher was unable to pose follow-up

questions or ask for clarification of answers given; instead, the participants determined

when they had finished answering the question.

Recommendations for Future Research

Additional studies should be conducted in order to develop a more complete

understanding of the effects of personalized narration on learner motivation in the Web-

based environment. First, this study should be repeated using a sample that is preset, with

groups that are already in separate college courses and required to participate in the

study. A sample of this nature will enable the researcher to get a more accurate

understanding of the changes that occur in motivation prior to and after the treatment.

Second, a larger sample size may produce different results. Repeating this study

with a larger group of participants is recommended so that data can be analyzed and

compared to see if sample size had any effect on outcome.

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Third, interesting results may be found if groups were to participate in both

treatments, formal and informal narration. The participants could then discuss the

differences they saw as well as the effect those differences had on their motivation.

A fourth recommendation would be to conduct interviews with participants face-

to-face or on the telephone in order to gather more information from them. Using this

format, a researcher could probe more deeply and use follow up questions in order to

gather participant perceptions and opinions.

Finally, this study could be repeated using learners younger than college age.

High school or middle school students, who are often termed digital natives, may be able

to provide additional information that can inform instructional design practice for the

twenty-first century.

Conclusion

This study produced a number of important findings that were consistent with the

literature. Factors of immediacy can predict how students view courses they take, even

when those courses are delivered solely in an online format. Additionally, the findings of

this study support the literature indicating that multimedia elements are essential in order

to make Web-based modules as realistic as possible.

There were also findings from this study that helped to extend the knowledge of

the field of instructional design. As a result of the findings in this study, it can be stated

that there exists a relationship between factors of immediacy and motivation in courses

that are delivered in a Web-based format. These immediacy factors can be enhanced and

improved through the use of personalized narration since personalized narration imitates

social presence in a Web-based environment to induce and sustain learners’ motivation.

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Although there was no significant difference in motivation found, the study still

provides important findings for instructional designers concerned about motivation

within interactive online environments. Learners in the twenty-first century are very

astute and tech-savvy, expecting as much from their online learning experiences. As

multimedia technologies continue to progress, future online courses should utilize the

aspects of various methods that personalize and draw upon realistic modalities that mirror

authentic environments.

As enrollments in colleges increase, and corporate training travel is reduced,

eLearning will continue to grow and adapt to meet new needs. In order to get the most

out of online learning, it behooves instructional designers to develop instruction that

draws the learner into the environment, reducing the learners’ off-task behaviors and

increasing behaviors that will lead to meaning-making and lasting learning. A continued

focus on the connections between technological advances, social presence and improved

learning is necessary in order to make online learning the best it can be.

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APPENDIX A.

Motivation Scale

Choose the phrase below that best represents your feelings about learning about visual literacy.

a. Very motivated b. Mostly motivated c. Motivated d. Neutral e. Unmotivated f. Mostly unmotivated g. Very unmotivated

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APPENDIX B.

Immediacy Scale

Instructions: Please respond to each of the statements below in terms of the way you perceive the instructor in the Web-based course on visual literacy. For each item, indicate how often the instructor responded this way. Use the scale: 0=never, 1=rarely, 2=occasionally, 3=often, and 4=very often 1. Uses personal examples or talks about examples she/he has had outside of class. 2. Asks questions. 3. Uses humor in class. 4. Refers to class as "our" class or what "we" are doing.

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APPENDIX C

Invitation E-mail

FROM: Mark Fazioli a doctoral learner at Capella University. REQUEST: I need your help with a study I am doing titled “Effects of personalized narration on learner motivation in a Web-based environment” TIME REQUIRED: About 10-15 minutes to complete the entire study: learning module and surveys. As a professional in the educational arena, I am asking you to please participate in this study. The goal of the study is to examine the effect of personalized narration on learner motivation in a Web-based environment for use in development of future online courses. Your participation in this study will help to accomplish this goal.

Please indicate your interest by completing the two short surveys below by either clicking on the links or copying and pasting the Web addresses into a browser. The online forms will ask you a few brief questions and won’t take more than 5 minutes. Once participants are selected for this research project, detailed instructions will be sent to them. If you have any questions about the study, please feel free to contact me at r@mpfazioli.com.

Consent Form: http://www.stellarsurvey.com/s.aspx

Demographic Survey: http://www.stellarsurvey.com/s.aspx

All of the information collected in the study will be reported as a whole and no individual responses will be reported All of the information collected in the study will be reported as a whole and no individual responses will be reported. I will be happy to share the results of the study with you when it is finished. By completing the survey, you are indicating your agreement to participate in the study and participation is voluntary, and you understand that you are free to discontinue your participation in the study at any time. Thank you in advance for your time and your participation in this very important study. Mark P. Fazioli r@mpfazioli.com Confidentiality Notice: This e-mail message is for the sole use of the intended recipient(s) and may contain confidential and privileged information. Any unauthorized review, use, disclosure, distribution, or copying is prohibited. If you are not the intended recipient, please contact the sender by replying to this e-mail and destroy/delete all copies of this e-mail message.

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APPENDIX D

Survey Questions

Answer the following questions in as few or as many sentences as necessary.

1. How would you describe the personality (tone) of the instructor in the Web-based course on visual literacy?

2. How did the instructor’s personality (tone) affect your desire to continue working

in the Web-based course on visual literacy?

3. What elements of the Web-based course on visual literacy motivated you?

4. In what ways, if any, did the narration in the Web-based course on visual literacy imitate a traditional face-to-face classroom?

5. Thinking of the personality (tone) of the instructor in the Web-based course on

visual literacy, explain why you would or would not want to take another course with this instructor.

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APPENDIX E

Online Consent Form

Dear Online Student, I am a doctoral learner at Capella University in the School of Education specializing in Instructional Design for Online Learning. My research study is entitled “Effects of personalized narration on learner motivation in a Web-based environment”. The purpose of the research is to examine the relationship between personalized narration and learner motivation in a Web-based environment, in order to help professionals design Web-based courses to better meet the needs of their students. You have been chosen to participate in this study because you are currently taking an online course(s). Students enrolled in an online course(s) have been granted permission by your institution and invited to participate in the study. Why were you chosen to participate in this study? Let's review...

• Because I am taking an online course • Because my school/college has given permission to invite me

Should you decide to participate in the study, here is what would happen:

1. You will fill out a demographic survey indicating basic demographic information about yourself, including age, gender and degree you are seeking.

2. You will complete and submit a short introductory survey. This should take one minute. 3. Once the survey is completed, you will view and listen to the narration within a Web-based

module that will take about 5 minutes to complete. 4. After you have completed the Web-based module, you will complete a questionnaire/survey about

your experiences. This should take approximately 6-8 minutes to complete. If you choose to participate in the study, about how long will it take from start to finish? Let's review...

• About 14-15 minutes Participation in this study is voluntary. Your decision whether or not to participate will not affect your grade in any of the courses you are currently taking. There are no risks to you for participating in this study. You will incur no costs, and you will receive no gifts or special treatment as a result of your participation in the study. If you choose not to participate, will your grade be affected? Let's review...

• No, my grade will not be affected All data collected for this study will become my property. Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified with you will remain confidential and will be kept in a locked file within my residence. This information will be destroyed, as required, seven years after publication of results. To ensure the protection of research participants, Capella's Institutional Review Board reserves the right to observe the consent process and research undertaken by the researcher. All possible safeguards will be used to protect your anonymity. If you agree to participate in this study, but change your mind at any time, you may drop out of the study. There will be no negative consequences should you decide to end your involvement with the study. Can you drop out of the study at any time if you change your mind? Let's review...

• Yes, I can drop out of the study at any time if I change my mind • Nothing negative will happen if I drop out of the study

95

If you have any questions, please feel free to contact me at any time by e-mail (r@mpfazioli.com). You may also contact my research advisor by e-mail (r.s@faculty.capella.edu). If you have questions regarding your rights as a research participant, contact the IRB Office, Capella University, 225 South 6th Street, 9th Floor, Minneapolis, MN 55402. Selecting the “I Agree” button below and submitting this form indicates that you have read and understand the information provided above, that you willingly agree to participate, that you may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without penalty. Sincerely, Mark P. Fazioli- Doctoral learner at Capella University*

I agree I do not agree

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APPENDIX F. Demographic Survey

1. Full Name*

2. Phone Number*

3. E-mail Address*

4. Gender*

Female Male

5. Age Range*

Under 25

25 - 29

30 - 34

35 - 39

40 - 44

45 - 49

50 or above

6. What is your race?*

White

Black or African-American

Hispanic or Latino

Asian or Pacific Islander

American Indian or Alaska Native

Other

7. What type of degree are you taking classes towards?*

Associates Degree Bachelors Degree

8. What educational institution are you taking an online class with?*

Charter Oak State College

AAMI

9. Do you have these resources to view a multimedia-based online course? *

Highspeed Internet Access (Cable, DSL, or T1)

Speakers or Headset to listen to audio (narration)

Flash Plug-in or the ability to download and install the free plug-in

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APPENDIX G

Qualitative Treatment Group Responses

Question 1: How would describe the personality (tone) of the instructor in the Web-based course on visual literacy?

Themes (P) = Positive (S) = Serious/Boring (C) = Conversational

P 1

P 2

P 3

P 4

P 5

P 6

P 7

P 8

P 9

P 10

P 11

P 12

P 13

P 14

P 15

P 16

P 17

P 18

P 19

P 20

S S P P S P P S P P P P P P S P S P C P

Question 2: How did the instructor’s tone affect your desire to continue working in the Web-based course

on visual literacy?

Themes (M) = Motivating (U) = Unmotivating (N) = Neutral (N)

P 1

P 2

P 3

P 4

P 5

P 6

P 7

P 8

P 9

P 10

P 11

P 12

P 13

P 14

P 15

P 16

P 17

P 18

P 19

P 20

M U M U M M M M M M M U M M M N M M U U

Question 3: What elements of the Web-based course on visual literacy motivated you?

Themes (N) = None (S) = Subject Matter (M) = Multimedia

P 1

P 2

P 3

P 4

P 5

P 6

P 7

P 8

P 9

P 10

P 11

P 12

P 13

P 14

P 15

P 16

P 17

P 18

P 19

P 20

N N S N S M S S S M M M S M M S M S M M

Question 4: In what ways, if any, did the narration in the Web-based course on visual literacy imitate a

traditional face-to-face classroom?

Themes (P) = Presence (N) = None (A) = Audio

P 1

P 2

P 3

P 4

P 5

P 6

P 7

P 8

P 9

P 10

P 11

P 12

P 13

P 14

P 15

P 16

P 17

P 18

P 19

P 20

P P N P P P P A N A P N P P N N A P P P

Question 5: Thinking of the personality (tone) of the instructor in the Web-based course on visual literacy,

explain why you would not want to take another course with this instructor.

Themes (B) = No boring/unmotivating (U) = Yes upbeat/motivating (V) = Yes voice clear

P 1

P 2

P 3

P 4

P 5

P 6

P 7

P 8

P 9

P 10

P 11

P 12

P 13

P 14

P 15

P 16

P 17

P 18

P 19

P 20

U V U B V U V B V B U U V U B U U U U U

98

APPENDIX H

Qualitative Control Group Responses

Question 1: How would describe the personality (tone) of the instructor in the Web-based course on visual literacy? Themes (P) = Positive

(S) = Serious/Boring (C) = Conversational

P 1

P 2

P 3

P 4

P 5

P 6

P 7

P 8

P 9

P 10

P 11

P 12

P 13

P 14

P 15

P 16

P 17

P 18

P 19

P 20

S S S S S S S P S P S P P S S P C P S S Question 2: How did the instructor’s tone affect your desire to continue working in the Web-based course

on visual literacy?

Themes (M) = Motivating (U) = Unmotivating (N) = Neutral

P 1

P 2

P 3

P 4

P 5

P 6

P 7

P 8

P 9

P 10

P 11

P 12

P 13

P 14

P 15

P 16

P 17

P 18

P 19

P 20

U U N U U U N M N U N M U N N N N U U U Question 3: What elements of the Web-based course on visual literacy motivated you? Themes (N) = None

(S) = Subject Matter (M) = Multimedia

P 1

P 2

P 3

P 4

P 5

P 6

P 7

P 8

P 9

P 10

P 11

P 12

P 13

P 14

P 15

P 16

P 17

P 18

P 19

P 20

M S S N S S S M S S M M M S M S M S M S Question 4: In what ways, if any, did the narration in the Web-based course on visual literacy imitate a

traditional face-to-face classroom?

Themes (P) = Presence (N) = None (A) = Audio/Visual Combination

P 1

P 2

P 3

P 4

P 5

P 6

P 7

P 8

P 9

P 10

P 11

P 12

P 13

P 14

P 15

P 16

P 17

P 18

P 19

P 20

P A P N P A A A A P P N N N P P A A P P Question 5: Thinking of the personality (tone) of the instructor in the Web-based course on visual literacy,

explain why you would not want to take another course with this instructor.

Themes (B) = No, boring/unmotivating (U) = Yes, upbeat/motivating (V) = Yes, voice is clear

P 1

P 2

P 3

P 4

P 5

P 6

P 7

P 8

P 9

P 10

P 11

P 12

P 13

P 14

P 15

P 16

P 17

P 18

P 19

P 20

B B V U B V B V V U U B U V B V B V V V

99

Appendix I

Control Group Demographic Data

Gender Race Total Percentage Total PercentageFemale 14 70.0% White 15 75.0%Male 6 30.0% Hispanic/Latino 2 10.0% Black/AfAm 1 5.0%

American Indian/Alaska Native 0 0.0%

Asian/Pacific Islander 0 0.0% Other 2 10.0%

Degree Age Range Total Percentage Total PercentageBachelors 12 60.0% Below 25 0 0.0%Associates 8 40.0% 25-29 1 5.0% 30-34 2 10.0% 35-39 4 20.0% 40-44 6 30.0% 45-49 3 15.0% 50+ 4 20.0%

100

Appendix J

Treatment Group Demographic Data

Gender Race Total Percentage Total PercentageFemale 14 70.0% White 14 70.0%Male 6 30.0% Hispanic/Latino 3 15.0% Black/AfAm 1 5.0%

American Indian/Alaska

Native 1 5.0% Asian/Pacific Islander 1 5.0% Other 0 0.0%

Degree Sought Age Range

Total Percentage Total PercentageBachelors 13 65.0% Below 25 1 5.0%Associates 7 35.0% 25-29 2 10.0% 30-34 2 10.0% 35-39 2 10.0% 40-44 6 30.0% 45-49 6 30.0% 50+ 1 5.0%

101

Appendix K

Module Interface

1: TV Set – This area is used to present all visual components of the module. 2: Guide Button – Opens a menu page of all the units; select and that unit starts playing. 3: Glossary – Opens a glossary of terms and definitions of key items from the module. 4: Help – Opens the help navigation page. 5: Exit – Closes the module window. 6: Stop – When clicked it stops playing. 7: Previous – When this button is clicked the module moves back one screen and starts playing. 8: Rewind –When pressed it starts playing at the beginning of the current unit. 9: Play – When clicked the unit resumes playing where it was stopped. 10: Next – When this button is clicked it moves ahead one screen and starts playing.

102

Appendix L

Testing Treatment Unit 1: Welcome

103

Narration

104

Hello and welcome to the module. My name is Annie Nelson and together we are going to learn what visual literacy is and how important it is when we are learning and retaining new material. Many of us have probably heard people say things like “I have to see it to understand it” or “I need to draw it out”. These comments stress the importance of visuals in learning, but the idea of visual literacy catches us off guard, making us think about what it really means. Let’s start at the beginning. Many of you are probably wondering exactly what visual literacy is. In simple terms, visual literacy is the ability to interpret and create visual messages that get a point across. We are all familiar with the saying “A picture is worth a thousand words”. In a society where information is available 24-7, using visuals is a convenient way for us to convey information to others. Now that you have, an idea of what visual literacy is, click on the right-pointing arrow on the remote control to continue to our next topic.

105

Unit 2: Visual Communication Basics

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Narration As students we sometimes need to communicate using images or graphics. In order to do that so that others will understand the visual message we are trying to send, we must create an environment to communicate visually. So how do you think we do that? Well to start you need to play two roles. The first role you need to play is the user, and the second role is the designer. As you can imagine within each role consists of various tasks. Let’s look at the tasks you need to perform. In the user role, some of the tasks are; understanding images, appreciating images, thinking with images, and constructing meaning with images. Now in the role of the designer you need to take on these tasks such as creating educational images, transformative visuals, just-in-time images, creating performance support images, decorative images, representative visuals, organizational visuals, and interfaces. Wow, that was a mouthful! Wow, that seems like a lot, but honestly its not and the best thing is, it’s lots of fun. The main thing you will learn is that by combining art and science you can create instructional visuals that work so, let us move on to our next area. Click on the right-pointing arrow on the remote control to continue.

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Unit 3: Art & Science

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Narration So how do art and science fit into visual literacy? Well, believe it or not, visual design has a long and interesting history. Think of historic paintings we are familiar with, such as the Mona Lisa or any of Rockwell’s works, and don’t forget all the powerful literature, poetry, and other written works that we have read and that have been part of our daily life since childhood. Red riding hood and the wolf of her dreams, er, nightmares, is also included here! These are all great examples of the artistic part of visual literacy. Now correspondingly, science also contributes to visual literacy in the context of how our minds process information stored as visual data for long-term memory. As students, you will need to be able to combine both the art and science as you work through your lessons. By training ourselves to do that, we become visually literate. Now, I am sure you are asking yourself what in the world does it mean to be visually literate? Well, there are many different opinions, but overall, experts agree that a visually literate person should be able to:

• Interpret, understand, and value the meaning of visual messages. • Communicate effectively by applying the basic principles and concepts of visual

design. • Develop visual messages using different types of multimedia and technology. • Incorporate visual thinking to conceptualize solutions to problems.

As technology increases, these skills are vitally important for every student, no matter what major. Students and learners need to recognize the channel of communication that

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uses effective visual images and incorporates the most effective style of typography. So, now that we understand the tasks that we need to learn to become visually literate, click on the right-pointing double arrow on the remote control to continue.

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Unit 4: Literacy

Narration We defined visual literacy as the ability to interpret and create visual messages. So now, let us define the term literacy. Webster’s dictionary defines literacy as “the state or quality of being literate with the ability to read and write”. However, the term literacy can also take on new meaning when we use it in conjunction with a specific context, such as workplace literacy. Someone who has this ability would be able to complete all tasks and responsibilities needed to be successful in their job. Another example might be having the ability to find, understand, and use all communication methods--text, visual, and audio. This type of literacy would be called information literacy. I think you get the point of what literacy is, and when it is used with the word visual you can understand how we get the definition of someone’s ability to interpret and create visual messages. Another definition that we should discuss is the term “Universal Design.” No, not the way the universe is designed—imagine the bill from the interior decorator for that! Universal design utilizes principles to design products and environments that can be accessible to many people. Visual literacy relies on many of the concepts of universal design. For instance, if you were designing a PowerPoint presentation, you would have many components in the slide such as colors, visual images like clip art and photos, and some type. When you have put it all together, it becomes a cohesive environment that anyone can use to understand the information you have included. As we go along through the introduction, I am sure you will “see” what I mean. Next, we will discuss how visual literacy fits into your education and how you learn. Click on the right-pointing double arrow on the remote control to continue.

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Unit 5: Applying Visual Literacy

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Narration Let’s look at three different students and how being visually literate helps them communicate and interpret information. Each of these students interprets and reads a variety of materials that are developed using the visual and universal design principles. Our first character is Meg who is working on a degree in education. Meg uses a variety of visual materials to present instructional messages to other students. She completes her assignments using topic-based bulletin boards, posters, overhead transparencies and PowerPoint presentations. Her main goal is making sure the items she creates have meaning and the students she is working with can relate to it so they can learn it. Like Meg, you must be sure others can understand visual materials you create so they are useful instead of just “eye candy”. Our second student is Peter who is working on a degree in economics. Peter needs to be able to present information in reports in a visual style, and he also needs to be able to read graphical information given to him in his classes and that he finds in journals, company reports and magazines. Peter uses many types of software programs to create information-filled materials that his professor and classmates can see in print and electronically, including graphs, reports, and presentations. Like Peter, you too must know how to put the information together so that others can read it and understand; it is critical to your success in any program.

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Last but not least is Kathy. Kathy is majoring in graphic and interface design, and as you can imagine visual literacy is an essential skill for Kathy. When she designs posters, signs, t-shirts or other assignments for her classes, she needs to employ a balance of visual and universal literacy to ensure that the items can be easily understood and not confuse the person or people reading it. Unless Kathy has a good grasp on visual literacy herself, her advertisements and posters could end up selling the wrong things and sending the wrong message. As you can see from our three students, it is important for you to be visually literate since it will lead to your success in and out of the classroom. Visual literacy is essential to communication. Click on the right-pointing double arrow on the remote control to continue.

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Unit 6: Conclusion

Narration Well, we covered a lot in this introduction and I hope you are beginning to better understand what visual literacy is and why it is so important for you to become visually literate. Now, when you prepare for classes you can not only read the information traditionally, but also visually and gather much more information to use. Keep your eyes open, you never know what is out there waiting to be discovered.

Information for scripts taken from Lohr (2008).

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Appendix M

Control Treatment Unit 1: Welcome

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Narration

Hello and welcome to the course. I am Professor Nelson and this course will cover the topic of visual literacy and explain its importance in learning and retaining new material. Many individuals often comment about needing to see things done in order to understand them or before trying them out. These comments stress the importance of visuals in learning, but the idea of visual literacy is unexpected, requiring some thought about what it really means. It is important to start with a working definition of visual literacy. In simple terms, visual literacy is the ability to interpret and create visual messages that get a point across. This is expressed by the saying “A picture is worth a thousand words”. In a society where information is available 24-7, using visuals is a convenient way to convey information. Click on the right-pointing double arrow, the next button, on the remote control to continue to the next topic.

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Unit 2: Visual Communication Basics

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Narration Students must sometimes communicate using images or graphics. There are two separate roles students must play in order to do this. The first role is the user, and the second role is the designer. Each role contains many tasks. In the user role, some of the tasks are; understanding images, appreciating images, thinking with images, and constructing meaning with images. The designer role includes creating educational images, just-in-time images, performance support images, decorative images, representative visuals, organizational visuals, transformative visuals and interfaces. It seems like a lot to do, but it is not and it is enjoyable. Combining art and science allows the instructional visuals to work. Click on the right-pointing double arrow, the next button, on the remote control to continue to the next topic.

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Unit 3: Art & Science

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Narration How do art and science fit into visual literacy? Visual design has a long and interesting history, including historic paintings such as the Mona Lisa, Rockwell’s work as well as the powerful literature, poetry, and other written works that have been studied and have been part of daily life since early childhood years. These are all great examples of art in relationship to visual representations. Now correspondingly, science also contributes to visual literacy in the context of how the mind processes information stored as visual data for long-term memory. Students need to be able to combine both the art and science together when reading and going over instructional materials. Learning to do so leads to becoming visually literate. What does it mean to be visually literate? There are many different opinions, but overall, experts agree that a visually literate person should be able to:

• Interpret, understand, and value the meaning of visual messages. • Communicate effectively by applying the basic principles and concepts of visual

design. • Develop visual messages using different types of multimedia and technology. • Incorporate visual thinking to conceptualize solutions to problems.

As technology increases, these skills are vitally important for every student, regardless of major. Students and learners need to recognize the channel of communication that uses effective visual images and incorporates the correct style of typography. These are the

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tasks needed in order to become visually literate. Click on the right-pointing double arrow, the next button, on the remote control to continue to the next topic.

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Unit 4: Literacy

Narration Visual literacy was defined earlier as the ability to interpret and create visual messages. The definition of literacy from Webster’s dictionary is the state or quality of being literate with the ability to read and write. However, the term literacy can also take on new meaning when it is used in conjunction in specific contexts as workplace literacy. An individual with this ability would be able to complete all tasks and responsibilities needed to be successful in their job. Another example might be having the ability to find, understand, and use all communication methods- text, visual, and audio. This type of literacy would be called information literacy. These examples illustrate what literacy is and when it is used with the word visual it is easy to understand how to get the definition of someone’s ability to interpret and create visual messages. Another definition to discuss is the term “Universal Design.” Universal design utilizes principles to design products and environments that can be accessible to many people. Visual literacy relies on many of the concepts of universal design. In the design of a PowerPoint presentation, for instance, there would be colors, visual images including clip art and photos, and some type. When it is put all together, it becomes a cohesive environment that anyone can use to understand the information included in it. As this introduction continues, it will make sense. The next topic will discuss how visual literacy fits into education and how learning happens. Click on the right-pointing double arrow, the next button, on the remote control to continue to the next topic.

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Unit 5: Applying Visual Literacy

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Narration Students encounter all sorts of situations as they take classes. Each must interpret and read a variety of materials using the visual and universal design principles. The first student is Meg, who is working on a degree in education. Meg uses a variety of visual materials to present instructional messages to other students. She completes her assignments using topic-based bulletin boards, posters, overhead transparencies and PowerPoint presentations. Her main goal is making sure the items she creates have meaning and the students she is working with can relate to it so they can learn it. It is critical to create visual materials that are easy to understand, otherwise they are just unnecessary frills. The second student is Peter who is working on a degree in economics. Peter needs to be able to present information in reports in a visual style, and he also needs to be able to read graphical information given to him in his classes and that he finds in journals, company reports and magazines. Peter uses many types of software programs to create information-filled materials that his professor and classmates can see in print and electronically, including graphs, reports, and presentations. Knowing how to put the information together so that others can read it and understand it is critical to Peter’s success in his program. Last but not least is Kathy. Kathy is majoring in graphic and interface design, making visual literacy an essential skill for Kathy. When she designs posters, signs, t-shirts or other assignments for her classes, she needs to employ a balance of visual and universal literacy to ensure that the items can be easily understood and not confuse the person or people reading it. Unless Kathy has a good grasp on visual literacy herself, her

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advertisements and posters could end up selling the wrong things or sending the wrong message. As can be seen with these three students, they all need to be visually literate in order to be successful since having these skills to learn and communicate is essential Click on the right-pointing double arrow, the next button, on the remote control to continue to the next topic. Unit 6: Conclusion

Narration Well, a lot has been covered so far to increase understanding of what visual literacy is and why it is so important to become visually literate. When preparing for classes and tests, it is important to read traditionally as well as visually in order to gather the maximum amount of information possible. Information for scripts taken from Lohr (2008).