effect of deforestation environment in marodi-jeh...
TRANSCRIPT
2015 Thesis by
Admin
Abdishakur
Mursal Abdi
(Gaboose),
2. Umalkhayr
Adan Mohamed
3. Fadumo
Dahir Mohamed
4. Saleban
ahmed Muse
[ABSTRACT] This study examines the causes of deforestation and its effects on environment. The study
particularly sought deforestation environment process and identifies the level of environmental
damage that deforestation caused in the study area.
Effect of deforestation
environment in marodi-jeh
Region
DECLARATION
We hereby declare that this thesis our original research work and effort, and that all the
sources of material used for this thesis have been duly acknowledge. This topic has not
submitted been anymore for any award,
Candidiate: Group(B)
1. Abdishakur Mursal Abdi (Gaboose),
2. Umalkhayr Adan Mohamed
3. Fadumo Dahir Mohamed
4. Saleban ahmed Muse
Signature:
Date
APPROVAL SHEET
This thesis entitled examine effect of deforestation environment in maroodi-jeex
Somaliland, submitted and prepared by Abdishakur Mursal Abdi (gabboose), Umulkhayr
Adan Mohamed, Fadumo Daahir Mohamed and Saleban abdi axmed to the hope
University for the award of Bachelor degree in development international study . It has
been examined and
approved by the supervisor with the grade of
Supervisor: bdiqaadir xasan cabdiraan Signature:
Date:
DEDICATION
We dedicate this thesis to our beloved parents and all my beloved brothers and sisters, their
support and encouragement, that made this work possible and we said thank you for
everything you've done to us.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank Allah to Allah; allow us to complete this thesis book. we praised
allah for giving us strength, courage and health to finalize our study.
We are very thankful to my thesis supervisor proof. cabdiqaadir haxan cabdiraan, for his
extensive encouragement and guidance throughout our thesis work and to gratitude the head of the
faculty mahad Mohamed abi , for having provided us with adequate facilities to complete our
thesis and whenever we ever needed help and moral support.
Thanks go to our brother, bile axmed farax , for sharing the burden of entering the data into
the computer. And thank jamac xusen cilmi, for assisting and providing me with the
software SPSS.12.0 which was used for the analysis of the data our heartfelt appreciation and
thanks are extended to Prof, c/qadir xasan c/raan, our co-supervisor, for her invaluable
assistance in reviewing and commenting on the content and layout of the dissertation.
We would also like to thank my classmates for always being with me during field
observations and collection of questions, we also thank our family members who were the
backbone behind our manners and other individuals who have either directly or indirectly
contributed to our needs.
ABSTRACT
This study examines the causes of deforestation and its effects on environment.
The fact finding mission has shown that Somaliland is affected by a great deal
of
environmental degradation due to factors such as:-
clearing of vegetation;
illegal charcoal trade and export;
overgrazing;
soil erosion;
deforestation; and
Generally depletion of natural resources
This study examines the causes of deforestation and its effects on environment. The study
particularly sought deforestation environment process and identifies the level of
environmental damage that deforestation caused in the study area. This study was conceived
due to the fact that deforestation is mainly caused by urbanization, charcoal and gully erosion.
The study was conducted through simple random sampling research design, data being
collected during March
2016, using close-ended questionnaire from 29 respondents selected from the minster in
Marodijeex region. The data was analyzed using tables and graphs techniques and presented
in SPSS. The study established that both deforestation causes and effect of environment are
major drivers of land degradation and pose key problems to livelihoods of the community
members in the study area. The study recommends that Somaliland government should
employ environmental protection rules to govern it, clear cut of forest should be banned,
creating jobs to the people that trade charcoal, Awareness should be created at all levels on
the negative effects of deforestation on the environment; the rate of soil erosion should be
quantified by adding severe damage of deforestation on environment and creating alternative
energy sources like biogas, solar energy etc.
ABBREVIATION
D E Deforestation Environment
E M Environment means
E N Economic necessity
C C Charcoal consumption
C P Charcoal production
E A L Environment and livelihood
F S A F M Friends at school and family members
I O T E impact on the environment
S I social infrastructure
C B climate imbalance
S E Soil erosion
W E Wildlife extinct
A A agricultural activities
U I S urbanization in Somaliland
C T F O T curbs the felling of trees
Contents Declaration A ………………………………………………..…………………….. I
Declaration B………………………………………………….…………….…..II
Approval sheet……………………………………………….……………………..III
Dedication…………………………………………………………………….…….IV
Acknowledgement……………………………………………………….………….V
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………..VI CHAPTER ONE
1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………1 1.1 background……………………………………………………………………………...1
1.2 problem statement………………………………………………………………………5
1.3 Purpose of the Study…………………………………….…………………...………..6
1.4 Research Objectives…………………………………………………………………….6
1.5 research Questions………………………………………………………………………7
1.6 Significance of the study…………………………………………………………….….7
1.7Scope of the study………………………………………………………………….……7
CHAPTER TWO
2. Literature Review………………………………………………………………..8
2.1 Deforestation: Compromises of a Growing ……………………………………10
2.2 What is forest fragmentation…………………………………………………….13
2.3 Impact on the Environment……………………………………………………...14
2.4 Forest management………………………………………………….…………...14
2.5 Transformation of the Forest Area………………………………….………..14
2.6 Deforestation by region………………………………………………..…………15
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2.7 Africa……………………………………………………………………..……….15
2.8 Asia……………………………………………………………………..…………17
2.9 North America………………………………………………………………...….19
2.10 United States………………………………………………….…………………20
2.11 Causes of deforestation…………………………………………………………23
2.12 Effects of deforestation…………………………………………………………24
2.13 Solutions to deforestation……………………………………………….……...27
CHEPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design………………………………….……………………………29
3.2 Research Population……………………………….……………………...…..29
3.3 Respondents of the study……………………………….……………………..29
3.4 Sample size………………………………………………………….……..29
3.5 Sampling procedure…………………………………………………………...30
3.6 Research Instruments…………………………………………………...….....30
3.7 Validity and Reliability of the Instruments……………………………...…..30
3.8 Data Gathering Procedures………………………………………………….30
3.9 During the administration of the questionnaires……………………….........30
3.10 After the administration of the questionnaires………………………...…...31
3.11 Data analysis………………………………………………………………….31
3.12 Limitations of the study………………………………………………….…..32
3.13 Ethical Considerations………………………………………………….……32
CHEPTER FOUR
4.1 Data Analysis……………………………………………………...…..………33
CHEPTER FIVE
5.1 Conclusions………………………………………………………….…..…….55
5.2 Recommendations……………………………………………….………...…..56
References………………………………………………………….…………...….57
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CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
Introduction In total there are five chapters: The First Chapter provides an overview of the
background, the problem area identified, the problem formulation question, the research
question and the objectives. The Second Chapter discusses review of related literature and
third chapter methodology chapter four presentations Analysis and Interpretation of Data
chapter five findings conclusion, Recommendation
1.1 Background
Deforestation is the cutting down of large areas of forests leaving an open, exposed landscape.
Deforestation occurs for many reasons such as the sale of wood, charcoal or as a source of fuel,
while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock, plantations of commodities, and settlements.
The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat,
biodiversity loss and aridity DS (drying of soil). This human activity quickly accelerates natural
erosion in two ways. Firstly the removal of trees is a removal of nutrients and minerals from the
soil as the source of humus is greatly reduced. The natural dead organic material that supplies
the soil with its humus is generally leaves that have fallen from the trees, animal droppings, tree
fruit or decaying trees in the soil. Secondly, deforestation accelerates soil erosion by leaving
large areas exposed to heavy rainfall (which can cause leaching or flash floods) or wind
erosion. Without the roots of the trees to keep the soil structure in place the soil is loose and
easier to erode. The tropical rainforests of Brazil are seeing huge areas of forest being cut down
each day. Each year about 13 million hectares of the world’s forests are lost due to
deforestation.Deforestation in simple term means: the felling and clearing of forest cover or tree
plantations in order to accommodate agricultural, industrial or urban use. It involves permanent
end of forest cover to make that land available for residential, commercial or industrial purpose.
Environment: means "surroundings", and includes the sum total of physical, biological, and
socio-economic attributes of a place or community. The over-exploitation of national acacia
woodlands and its negative impact on the environment and socio-economy of the pastoral
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communities, and the whole population in general, is major concern and a subject of discussion in
all levels of the society. Acacia woodlands are found in all the ecological zones of the country but
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grow predominantly in the plateau zones where average rainfall ranges between 150 and 300mm
annually. The natural regeneration of the trees is very slow; as demand generally outstrips
regeneration, deforestation is therefore a serious problem. Trees have much socio-cultural
importance and economic benefits as well which can be derived or obtained from them, apart
being very essential for the control of soil erosion. Because of the large-scale deforestation rate
that has been going on over the past 15 years, concerns alerting about the dramatic decline of
acacia woodlands due to charcoal production and other uses have been voiced. Charcoal is the
principal energy source commonly used in urban households and institutions for cooking and
heating.
Economic necessity and lack of enforcement of the country’s environmental policies has resulted
in the indiscriminate cutting of acacia species for charcoal production by groups while others
opportunistically exploited them for economic gain. As there has been no detailed study on the
charcoal dynamics in Somaliland, together with its effects on the environment and socio-
economy of pastoral people, the Ministry of Pastoral Development & Environment (MPD&E), in
collaboration with Candlelight, decided to carry out this study, which will focus on the
environmental and socio-economic effects of charcoal production activities on the rural society.
In the course of the past 13 years, there was a drastic change in the structure of charcoal
business activities in the country. In the past, the major groups involved in charcoal production
were from poor households who later grouped into cooperatives licensed by the government.
The chaotic period following the end of Said Barre regime was characterized by phenomenal
changes in the lifestyles of the people and high urbanization rate, which swelled the population
of the urban centers and high increase of Qat consumption habit in the pastoral communities as
well. The ever-increasing demands for charcoal in the urban areas had encouraged many
citizens to get involved in charcoal production activities and do not see it as a poor man’s
business anymore. They listen from the BBC airwaves that it is a multi-million dollar business
and the riches made from exporting it to the Arabian countries from Somaliland, Puntland, and
Southern Somalia. The inability of enforcing the countr y’s environmental legalization, aimed
to conserve and protect the natural resources mainly due to paucity of the resources allocated
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for the all- important environmental sector makes the business open for everyone and out of the
bounds of concerned authorities’ capacities. An increasing number of people involved in
charcoal production make vast areas of rangeland depleted of Acacia tree resources that are
greatly beneficial to livestock grazing as well as for environment conservation. The new groups
who join charcoal business have different backgrounds and occupations (Qat sellers, soldiers,
businesspersons, drivers, etc.).
It has been noted that live tree cutting is encouraged by the charcoal traders through
introduction of the pastoral youth to charcoal production providing them both training on
charcoal production methods, cash and equipment. The members who are engaged in charcoal
business are currently categorized into three groups. At the village level, groups who are actively
involved in charcoal business are mostly women who have unemployed husbands, widowed or are
heads of families. They send charcoal to the urban centers by trucks that also transport milk,
livestock and other animals products to towns, or sometimes charter a special truck for it. These
groups are usually operate in areas close to the main towns and are nowadays increasing in
number. Some of them do not produce charcoal on continuous basis and sometimes lose their
workers who leave the villages to the main cities. Somaliland became independent from Britain
on 26 June 1960, and united with Somalia on 1/07/1960. After 9 years of democratic
systems, a military Junta led by Major – General Maxamed Siyaad Barrie overthrew the
government in 21October 1969 and soon after the National Assembly was disbanded and the
democratic constitution suspended. The army promised to get ride of corruption and nepotism
and other social ills such as ignorance, and hunger. The National Supreme Revolutionary
Council (SRC) of Military Officers and Police Officers was named as the new Force in the land.
The initial decade, the military regime undertook various successful public projects including a
new Somali script and campaign to enable adults as well as school children to write the Somali
language, created state farms and major resettlement was carried to assist people displaced as
result of severe drought (DABA- DHEER – Long tailed) in 1974/5. Despite its achievements in
the first decade, the military regime has through its socialist policies increased the state control of
economic sector and has increased the monopoly of state agencies and nationalization of other
key factories left the country with huge deficit. By 1980s exports were in serious decline, and
the economy was characterized by massive corruption and raging hyperinflation (WSP, 2005).
The defeat of the government troops by armed opposition groups in 1991 caused the collapse of
the central government in Somalia and the president fleeing from capital Mogadishu.
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Following the reconciliation conference held in Burco in May 1991, Somaliland declared its
independence from the rest of Somalia. Since 1991 Somaliland enjoyed relative peace and
had strengthened its government institutions and many acknowledged Somaliland’s relative
stability, and its recent successful parliamentary as well as presidential elections. At the time of
the fact finding the newly democratically elected President Axmed Maxamed Maxamuud
(Siilaanyo) has replaced former President Daahir Riyaalle Kaahin who ruled the country since
2002. However, The country is not recognized by the international communities. The economy
is one based on livestock products and by-products both for local consumption as
well as for export. In fact, more 50% of the country's income and subsistence comes
from livestock and livestock related activities. The principal markets for livestock export are
Saudi Arabia. It reported that between 1991 – 1997 livestock export on hoof grew
considerably exceeding pre-war levels when Somaliland exported three million head of
livestock in 1997, most to Saudi Arabia (WSP 2005). The total revenues generated in 1997
were estimated US$120.8 million, which meant over 80% of the total hard currency income
in the country. Financial support from the Somalis living overseas contributes a great deal to the
economy. Also, the private sector contributes to the economy usually providing employment and
investment both of which are vital to the livelihood of many people. Although difficult to
estimate the amount of revenue it generated other export come from resin Frankincense
collected from Boswellia spp and Myrrh from Commiphora Species. In the Somaliland,
pastoralist is the dominant land use mainly with camels, sheep, goats, and in the north-west
regions with cattle. Less than 10% of land area is estimated to be is suitable for permanent
agriculture, this is mainly found in the north- west regions, where high rainfall and fertile soils
are both common. The major crops include maize, sugarcane, millet, and cotton. Somaliland’s
topography has three key features, Guban, Oogo, and Hawd. Guban is known as the narrow
coastal region, which is very hot and humid, especially during the summer Months of June –
August, Logo, inland from the coast the elevation rises and this is Golis mountain range, which
runs from the west to east and in this region its cooler and has unique flora and fauna, and
abundant water. The third feature, Hawd stretches across the border from Somaliland to Ethiopia.
The majority of the population in Somaliland live in Of go which has habitable climate, water,
and areas appropriate for cultivation. Somaliland is a semi-arid country, and the climate is
generally hot with a frequent drought and extreme variation in rainfall. Average daily
temperature range from 25oC – 35
oC, and are combined with strong winds and clear skies. It is
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generally considered that rainfall is the most important metrological element in Somalia as well
as Somaliland. The rainy seasons are the result of northerly and southerly movement of monsoon
winds of the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITC2) and its associated fronts. There are two
rainy seasons – Gu rains (April – June) are greater and longer than the Dayr season (September
– October). In the dry seasons Xaggaa (June – September), and the main dry season Jillaal
which often extends for five months from mid November – April. Temperature and rainfall
influence the type of vegetation and their distribution in the country. The most extensive
vegetation in the country is a deciduous thorn-brush dominated by Commiphora species and
small trees. These are semi-desert type of vegetation mainly grassland scrubland,
especially in the areas with less than 200mm annual rainfall.
1.2 Problem Statement
Human-population living in Maroodi Jeex Region is significantly dependent upon Char-coal fuel
energy used for Home Heating and domestic Cooking purposes.
The non existence of alternative domestic fuel energy in Maroodi Jeex region has brought -up a
rapid increase in demands and production of Char-coal fuel energy for commercial/profit gains
purposes.
The commercial exportation of Char-Coal to over-seas has not only caused a rise-up in selling
prices but also has created shortages of char-coal fuel energy in Maroodi Jeex Region.
Based on above stated reality and the non-existence of regional developmental plans aimed at
Activation Re- forestation programme and ongoing rapid destruction of natural vegetation to
produce Char-Coal Fuel energy for exportation/commercial gains is not only severe damages to
the ecological system of natural environment but also is created a rapid increase in land-
desertification leading towards the down fall of livestock economy which represent the back -
bone of National economy.
Executive Summary
Biomass is the main and, indeed traditional source of energy for Somaliland population.
Charcoal is the principal energy producing fuel commonly used in urban households and
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institutions for cooking and heating whereas firewood is commonly used in rural settlements.
This energy generated from Acacia species that predominantly grow in plateau zones
where annual rainfall ranges between 150-300mm. Acacia species also have other economical
and environmental values.
In the past fifteen years, in response to rising demand of charcoal consumption in urban areas
of the country, the charcoal production increased, so Acacia woodland resources were
consumed faster than they regenerated. The worst affected areas include Salahley, Sabawanag,
Adadley, Sheik and Odweine Districts, which cover the charcoal demands of Hargeisa, Burao and
Berbera.
As there has been no comprehensive report on the charcoal production of these areas and its
negative impact on both the eco-system and socio-economy of the population in the area, this case
study was undertaken to ascertain the magnitude of charcoal production in the area. It was
also intended to determine appropriate measures to reduce the effects of charcoal production
on the environment and livelihood of the rural society.
Prior to 1990, the charcoal production and trade were the only ways the poor could find
employment and livelihood. According to tradition, charcoal producers were looked down upon
by the society. Bad remarks such as “go away, you charcoal producers!” and “a charcoal producer
never wears a white shirt” indicated the charcoal producer’s low status in the community.
1.3 Purpose of Study
This study deliberate to explore the prevention of Deforestation problems and damage of the
environmental component such as the effects of Dissimilarity, people and wilders that
Environment Deforestation caused in maroodi-jeex Somaliland.
1.4 Research Objectives
General:
The main objective of this study is to know the possible cause and effect of Deforestation
environment in marodi jeex
Specific:
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The aim of this thesis is to have clear understanding the cause and effect of Deforestation
environment from the environment and the necessity to implement conservation measures in the
study area.
The Specific Objectives Are:
1. To identify Deforestation environment process in the study area.
2. To analyze the spatial distribution of deforestation environment in Marood -Jeex
3. To examine the levels of cause and effect of Deforestation environment in Marood-jeex
4. To identify the level of environmental damage that Deforestation caused in maroodi-
jeex,Somaliland.
1.5 Research Questions This study was sought to answer the following research questions:
To identify Environment Deforestation process in the study area?
How does agricultural activity cause deforestation?
How does urbanization cause deforestation?
How to effect the environment degradation in Somaliland?
What is the problem impact of the environment degradation in Somaliland?
How to effect charcoal environment in Somaliland?
1.6 Significance of the Study
The following disciplines will benefit from the findings of the study.
The Ministry of environment and develop rural, and Ministry of livestock, and
large community will use the findings as empirical information to encourage the
conservation of the environment and to become the Agriculture production
sustain.
The future researchers will utilize the findings of this study to embark on a
related study.
The following disciplines will benefit from the findings of the study.The ministry of environment
and develop rural, and
1.7 Scope of the study:
Geographical Scope.
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The ministry of environment.
The study is only one Maroodi-Jeex.
Time Scope:
This study estimated to take two months that is running from Jan
2016 up to mar 2016. It is mainly to give the researcher ample time to
conduct the study.
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CHAPTER TWO
2. Literature Review
Deforestation is when humans remove or clear large areas of forest lands and related ecosystems
for non-forest use. These include clearing for farming purposes, ranching and urban use. In these
cases, trees are never re-planted.
Since the industrial age, about half of world's original forests have been destroyed and millions
of animals and living things have been endangered. Despite the improvements in education,
information and general awareness of the importance of forests, deforestation has not reduced
much, and there are still many more communities and individuals who still destroy forest lands
for personal gains.
Deforestation has provided a major focus for process-level (cf. Hesselman, 1917), budgetary (Cole
and Gessel, 1965; Likens et al., 1970),and modelling (Aberet al., 1979) studies of ecosystem-level
nutrient cycling and flux. The cycles of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur have received
particular attention, in part because bicarbonate, organic anions, sulphate, and (in disturbed forests
or agricultural sites) nitrate are the most important anions in the soil solution (Johnson and Cole,
1980). As such, their concentrations and mobilities control the losses of cations as well as anions
to stream-water and ground-water. Additionally, the erosion of organic matter and phosphorus
to streams and lakes contributes to aquatic production and eutrophication. More recently, the
need to evaluate forest ecosystems as net sources or sinks for atmospheric CO2 (Woodwellet al.,
1978; Broeckeret al., 1979), oxides of nitrogen (Crutzen and Ehhalt, 1977), and sulphur gases
(Eaton et al., 1978; Rice et al., 1981) has become apparent. In this paper, I examine the major
effects of deforestation on water flux through ecosystems and on carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,
and sulphur transformations and losses. This examination will necessarily be a rather general
survey. I evaluate some of the processes causing major differences between forest types in
the pattern of their responses to deforestation. Fina lly. I examine how interactions among the
carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur cycles control large scale responses to deforestation.
Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to non-forest land use It can be the result
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of the deliberate removal of forest cover for agriculture or urban development, or it can be
a consequence of grazing animals, wild or domesticated. Deforestation has thus many causes.
Population pressures, profits, and internal social and political forces can also all push up
the rate of forest loss. Generally t h e r e m o v a l o r destruction of significant areas of forest
cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced biodiversity.
Deforestation includes not only the conversion to non-forest, but also degradation that reduces
forest quality, the density and structure of the trees, the ecological services supplied, the biomass
of plants and animals, the species diversity and the genetic diversity.
Deforestation results from removal of trees without sufficient reforestation and usually results in
a significant loss of biodiversity.
2.1 Deforestation Compromises of Growing World
With the world growing at a pace hard to match, the increasing need for space is turning out to
be an area of concern. With desperate need for land for agricultural, industrial and most
importantly urban needs to contain cities and their growing population, a direct action that we
have come to recognize as “Deforestation” occurs. Deforestation in simple term means the
felling and clearing of forest cover or tree plantations in order to accommodate agricultural,
industrial or urban use. It involves permanent end of forest cover to make that land available for
residential, commercial or industrial purpose.
Over the last century the forest cover around the globe has been greatly compromised, leaving
the green cover down to an all time low of about 30 per cent. According to the United Nations
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), an estimated 18 million acres (7.3 million hectares)
of forest are lost each year.
Deforestation can also be seen as removal of forests leading to several imbalances ecologically
and environmentally. What makes deforestation alarming is the immediate and long term effects
it is bound to inflict if continued at the current pace. Some predictions state that the rainforests of
the world will be destroyed completely if deforestation continues at its current pace. Read here
more about 51 facts about deforestation.
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Deforestation or clearance occurs due to several reasons, to get an overview we could include the
need of money, both in terms of profitability as well as providing for one’s family in most
scenarios, along with lack of or no forest laws, need for land space for housing etc among a long
list of other uses. Mainly blamed on agricultural or pastoral use, farmers fell trees for increasing
space for cultivation and/or as fodder land for grazing and surviving live stock. The whole
concept of ‘slash and burn’ agriculture, is used to indicate this same process where farmers
employ the above chain of actions for their purposes.
Deforestation is when humans remove or clear large areas of forest lands and related ecosystems
for non-forest use. These include clearing for farming purposes, ranching and urban use. In these
cases, trees are never re-planted.
Since the industrial age, about half of world's original forests have been destroyed and millions
of animals and living things have been endangered. Despite the improvements in education,
information and general awareness of the importance of forests, deforestation has not reduced
much, and there are still many more communities and individuals who still destroy forest lands
for personal gains.
Why do humans clear forest Lands?
Trees are cut down (deforestation) for many reasons including
To be used, sold or exported as timber, wood or fuel (charcoal). This is called logging.
To be used for farming purposes (grazing fields for livestock, or large scale farming activities) To
make room for human settlement and urbanization (these include making space for shelter,
industries and roads) To make room for mining. (More on deforestation here). Forest degradation
and fragmWhat can I do to help preserve our forests?
Sometimes, we are overwhelmed by the extent of damage humans have caused, and we are not
sure if an individual can make any impact.
Yes you can, there are millions of people just like you, who are learning about the issue and taking
little steps to help. Additionally, many governments, organizations and societies are making great
strides in helping reducing deforestation, and encouraging forest plantations. But there is still a lot
to do. Due to the extent and nature of forest destruction, efforts to stop deforestation and preserve
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them are best achieved at government and organization levels. This means that laws, rules and
regulations from countries can help to enforce the preservation of forests. Laws on farming, timber
and wood, as well as land use must be encouraged and enforced. Here are a few things you can
also do to help. Make a conscious effort to share information with others (friends at school and
family members) on deforestation and its' effects. Some of your friends may laugh at you and say it
is silly to think that you can solve problems like this. But that is OK, things work better when
responsible people don’t give up. Stand up for what you believe in. Join organizations, forest-
preservation societies and pressure groups that aim to help preserve the rest of our natural
resources. When more people work together, the impact is greater. Reduce the use of artificial
items, recycle more and re-use items. Wood, paper, plastics and many other things we use every
day at home can be linked to natural resources being destroyed. This means that if we all recycle
more, there will be less dependence on the environment (and trees). It also means that companies
and governments will import less raw-material from the forest regions of the world. There is a fun
way to remember the most important points in forest preservation called TREES which means...
Teach others about the importance of the environment and how they can help save
rainforests.
Restore damaged ecosystems by planting trees on land where forests have been cut down.
Encourage people to live in a way that doesn't hurt the environment.
Establish parks to protect rainforests and wildlife.
Support companies that operate in ways that minimize damage to the environment.
Thank you for learning with us. You can also see more of our lessons below.
Forest degradation is different from deforestation. Degradation is used to mean the destruction or
reduction in quality of specific aspects of forests. Prolonged degradation can wipe out a forest.
Degradation can result in a decrease in tree cover, changes in their structure or a reduction in the
number of species that can be found there. If acid rain destroys trees in a vast area, it can be
called forest degradation. Forest degradation is changes within the forest which negatively affect
the structure or function of the stand or site, and thereby lower the capacity to supply products
and/or services. FAO (2001) – Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 Forest degradation
can be caused by factors such as Forest fires: In many forests such as in boreal and dry tropical
forests, fires are usually expected from time to time. They may be caused by humans, accidents
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or natural factors. Forests fires wipe out many thousands of acres each year all over the world.
This has effects on bio-diversity and the economy as well.
Climate Change: Extreme climates can also cause degradation. Prolonged droughts and dry
conditions reduce the tree cover and dry out water bodies running through them. They force
many animals to migrate and reduce the quality of forests ecosystems.
Pests and diseases: Pest or disease outbreak can also destroy the vegetative cover in forest lands.
Degraded forests can often be restored. The Global Partnership on Forest Landscape Restoration
(GPFLR, undated) suggested that more than one billion hectares of deforested and degraded forest
land worldwide are suitable and available for restoration.
2.2 What is forest fragmentation?
Degradation can also result in forest fragmentation, and fragmentation can also result in
degradation. This is when a large forest ends up divided into many smaller patches. This is
particularly not healthy for larger forest animals, as they thrive well in large areas rather than
pieces of forests.
A wide range of forest land use practices can be termed `deforestation.' Two important practices
that strongly differ in intensity are forest clear-cutting and forest land conversion. In clear-cutting
all tree stems over some minimum diameter are cut and stem wood is removed, and then the site
is either replanted with tree seedlings, or natural revegetation is allowed to occur. The major
variants of this practice include whole-tree harvest and complete forest removal (in which other
parts of the trees in addition to just stem wood are removed) and slash burning (in which the
debris remaining on site after logging is burned).
Forest land conversion involves the removal of trees (as above) followed by the conversion of
the land to agriculture, pasture, development, or some other non-forest use. The intensive
harvesting of forest lands for fuel-wood in much of the world fits into this category. The effects
of forest land conversion (especially to agricultural use) are generally more severe than those of
clear-cutting. The shifting cultivation system which is widely practiced in the tropics fits
between these extremes. Essentially, it involves the temporary conversion of forest to
agriculture, followed by the natural re-establishment of forest cover.
14
2.3 Impact on the Environment
Deforestation affects the amount of water in the soil and groundwater and the moisture in the
atmosphere. Forests influence thus climate. Forests support considerable biodiversity, providing
valuable habitat for wildlife; moreover, forests foster medicinal conservation and the recharge
of aquifers.
Forests are also important stores of organic carbon, and forests can extract carbon dioxide
and pollutants from the air, thus contributing to biosphere stability and probably relevant to
the greenhouse effect. Tropical deforestation contributes as much as 90% of the
current net release of biotic carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This change may
represent as much as 20% - 30% of the total carbon flux due to humans, i.e. the carbon
release due to fossil fuel burning [1]. Deforestation is consequently an important potential
source of carbon. Forests are also valued for their aesthetic beauty and as a cultural
resource and tourist attraction.
2.4 Forest management
Forest management has many goals. It typically aims to maximize annual harvest while
ensuring that the area harvested is consistent with forest regrowth rates and total area. This
might result in a second harvest of the same forest plot after some 60-100 years.
Forests on federal and state lands are usually managed according to multiple use doctrine.
This means that in addition to forest harvest, the land is available for recreation and maintains a
healthy forest ecosystem. Managing to protect biodiversity and to restore pre-settlement
conditions are relatively recent goals. In many parts of the world, forest may be used by
indigenous people for subsistence hunting, or as a place to live. These people add more
considerations, and more stakeholders, to the challenge of forest management.
2.5 Transformation of the Forest Area
Deforestation is mainly due to the human action. The impact of people has been and continues
to be profound. Forests are cleared, degraded and fragmented by timber harvest, conversion to
Agriculture, road-building, human-caused fire, and in myriad other ways. The effort to use and
subdue the forest has been a constant theme in the transformation of the earth, in many
15
societies, in many lands, and at most times. However, it is impossible to overstate exactly the
importance of humankind's clearing of the forests. The purpose of this section is to evaluate as
right as possible the impact of deforestation on the net heat generation since 18.
2.6 Deforestation by region
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This graph shows values of total forest cover for various regions and sub-regions of the world
using FAO data, with deforestation in some areas and reforestation in others. Main article:
deforestation Rates and causes of deforestation vary from region to region around the world. In
2009, 2/3 of the world forests were in 10 top countries: 1) Russia, 2) Brazil, 3) Canada, 4)
United States,5) China, 6) Australia, 7) Congo, 8)Indonesia, 9) Peru and 10) India.
World annual deforestation is estimated as 13.7 million hectares a year, equal to the area of
Greece. Only half of this area is compensated by new forests or forest growth. In addition to
directly human-induced deforestation, the growing forests have also been affected by climate
change, increasing risks of storms, and diseases. Kyoto protocol includes the agreement to
prevent deforestation but not the actions to fulfill it.
2.7 Africa
Africa is suffering deforestation at twice the world rate, according to the United Nations
Environment Programmed (UNEP). Some sources claim that deforestation has already wiped out
roughly 90% of West Africa's original forests. Deforestation is accelerating in Central
Africa. According to the FAO, Africa lost the highest percentage of tropical forests of any
continent during the 1980s, 1990s, and early 2000s. According to the figures from the FAO
(1997), only 22.8% of West Africa's moist forests remain, much of this degraded. Nigeria has
lost 81% of its old-growth forests in just 15 years (1990–2005). Massive deforestation
threatens food security in some African countries. One factor contributing to the continent's high
rates of deforestation is the dependence of 90% of its population on wood as fuel for heating and
cooking.
Research carried out by WWF International in 2006 shows that in Africa, rates of illegal
16
logging vary from 50% in Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea to 70% in Gabon and 80% in
Liberia – where timber revenues played a major role in financing the Sierra Leone Civil War and
other regional armed conflicts until the UN Security Council imposed a ban on all Liberian
timber in 2003.
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Main article: Deforestation in Democratic Republic of the Congo
Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo has been caused partly by unregulated
logging and mining, but mostly by the demands made by the subsistence activities of a poor
population. In the east of the country, for example, more than 3 million people live less than a
day's walk from Virunga National Park. Wood from the park's forests is used by many of those
people as firewood, as lumber for construction, and in the production of charcoal. Deforestation
caused by subsistence living is an acute threat to the park in general, and to the habitat of the
critically endangered mountain gorilla in particular.
Ethiopia
Main article: Deforestation in Ethiopia
The main cause of deforestation in the East African country of Ethiopia is a growing
population and subsequent higher demand for agriculture, livestock production and fuel
wood. Other reasons include low education and inactivity from the government, although the
current government has taken some steps to tackle deforestation. Organizations such as Farm
Africa are working with the federal and local governments to create a system of forest
management. Ethiopia, the Africa by population, has been hit by famine many times because of
shortages of rain and a depletion of natural resources. Deforestation has lowered the chance of
getting rain, which is already low, and thus causes erosion. Bercele Bayisa, an Ethiopian farmer,
offers one example why deforestation occurs. He said that his district was forested and full of
wildlife, but that overpopulation caused people to come to that land and clear it to plant crops,
cutting all trees to sell as firewood.
Ethiopia has lost 98% of its forested regions in the last 50 years. At the beginning of the 20th
century, around 420,000 km² or 35% of Ethiopia's land was covered with forests. Recent reports
indicate that forests cover less than 14.2% or even only 11.9% as of 2005. Between 1990 and
17
2005, the country lost 14% of its forests or 21,000 km².
Kenya
Main article: Deforestation in Kenya
In 1963 Kenya had forest cover of some 10 per cent and by 2006 1.7 per cent.
Madagascar
Main article: Deforestation in Madagascar
Deforestation with resulting desertification, water resource degradation and soil loss has affected
approximately 94% of Madagascar's previously biologically productive lands. Since the arrival
of humans 2000 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90% of its original forest. Most of this
loss has occurred since independence from the French, and is the result of local people
using slash-and-burn agricultural practices as they try to subsist. Largely due to deforestation, the
country is currently unable to provide adequate food, fresh water and sanitation for its fast
growing population.
Nigeria
Main article: Deforestation in Nigeria
According to the FAO, Nigeria has the world's highest deforestation rate of primary forests. It
has lost more than half of its primary forest in the last five years. Causes cited are
logging, subsistence agriculture, and the collection of fuel wood. Almost 90% of West Africa's
rainforest has been destroyed.
2.8 Asia
Russia
See also: Environmental issues in Russia§ deforestation Russia has the largest area of forests of
any state on Earth, with around 12 million km2
of boreal forest, larger than the Amazon rainforest.
Russia's forests contain 55% of the world's conifers and represent 11% of biomass on Earth. It
is estimated that 20,000 km2
are deforested each year. The present scale of deforestation in
Russia is most easily seen using Google Earth. Areas nearer to China are most affected, as it is the
18
main market for the timber. Deforestation in Russia is particularly damaging as the forests have a
short growing season due to extremely cold winters and therefore will take longer to recover.
Southeast Asia
See also: Southeast Asian haze
Forest loss is acute in Southeast Asia, the second of the world's great biodiversity hot spots.
According to 2005 report conducted by the FAO, Vietnam has the second highest rate of
deforestation of primary forests in the world second to only Nigeria. More than 90% of the old-
growth rainforests of the Philippine Archipelago have been cut. Other Southeast Asian countries
where major deforestation is ongoing are Cambodia and Laos. According to a documentary by
TelePool, the deforestation is being directed bycorrupt military personnel and government
(forestry services).
Cambodia
Main article: deforestation in combos
Indonesia
Main article: deforestation of Indonesia
See also: deforestation of Borneo
As of 2008, at present rates, tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in 10
years, Papua New Guinea in 13 to 16 years.
Indonesia had lost over 72% of intact forests and 40% of all forests completely in 2005. Illegal
logging took place in 37 out of 41 national parks. The illegal logging costs up to US$4 billion a
year. The lowland forests of Sumatra and Borneo were in risk to be wiped out by 2022.
According to Transparency International numerous controversial court decisions in this area
have raised concerns about the integrity of the judiciary.
Vietnam
Main article: deforestation in Vietnam
19
Japan
Yoichi Kuroda sketches a history and current outline of 'large scale land and landscape
destruction' here See also Mudslides and Erosion.
Sri lanka
Main article: deforestation sri lanka
Europe
This section requires expansion. (June 2010)
Countryside of central Sicily
Iceland
Iceland has undergone extensive deforestation since Vikings settled in the ninth centur y. At the
time of human settlement about 1140 years ago, birch forest and woodland covered 'at least 25%'
of Iceland's land area. The settlers began by cutting down the forests and burning scrubland to
create fields and grazing land. Deforestation did not end in Iceland until the middle of the 20th
century. Afforestation and revegetation has restored small areas of land.[40]
However, pastoralism
was the main reason birch forest and woodland did not grow back.
Italy
Sicily is an often-quoted example of man-made deforestation, which was practiced since Roman
times, when the island was made an agricultural region, and continued to this day. This gradually
dampened the climate, leading to decline of rainfall and drying of rivers. Today, entire central
and southwest provinces are practically without any forests. That also affected the island's wild
fauna, of which is little left in the pastures and crop fields of the inland.
Russia
Main article: deforestation in Russia
2.9North America
Canada
Though replanted in 1987, this forest near Clayoquot Sound, British Columbia lost much topsoil
and resembled a desert by 1993In 2005, an estimated 56,000 hectares were deforested in
20
Canada. Deforestation affected less than 0.02% of Canada’s forests in 2005. The agricultural
sector accounted for just over half of the deforestation in 2005, the result of forests having been
cleared for pasture or crops. The remainder was caused by urban development, transportation
corridors, and recreation (19%); hydroelectric development (10%); the forest sector (10%); and
other natural resource extraction industries (8%). About two thirds of this deforestation occurred
in Canada’s boreal forest, mainly in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba where the forest
borders the Prairies.
In Canada, prior to 2000, less than 8% of the boreal forest was protected from development and
more than 50% has been allocated to logging companies for cutting.
2.10 United States
Main article: Deforestation in the United States
Clear cutting in Clatsop County, Oregon
In 1600, prior to the arrival of European-Americans, roughly half of the land area of the present-
day United States was forest—about 4,000,000 square kilometers (990,000,000 acres). For the
next 300 years land was cleared, mostly for agriculture, at a rate that matched the rate of
population growth. For every person added to the population, one to two hectares of land was
cultivated. This trend continued until the 1920s when the amount of crop land stabilized in spite
of continued population growth. As abandoned farmland reverted to forest, the amount of
forestland increased from 1952, reaching a peak in 1963 of 3,080,000 square kilometres
(760,000,000 acres). Since 1963 there has been a steady decrease of forest area with the
exception of some gains from 1997.
Central America and the Caribbean
Main article: deforestation in Central America
The history of most Central American countries involves cycles
of deforestation and reforestation. By the fifteenth century, intensive Mayan
agriculture had significantly thinned the forests. Before Europeans arrived, forests
covered 500,000 square kilometers – approximately 90% of the region. Eventually,
the forcing of "Europe's money economy on Latin America" created the demand
21
for the exportation of primary products, which introduced the need for large
amounts of cleared agricultural land to produce those products. Since the 1960s,
cattle ranching have become the primary reason for land clearing. The lean grass-
fed cattle produced by Central American ranches (as opposed to grain-fed cattle
raised elsewhere) was perfectly suited for American fast-food restaurants and this
seemingly bottomless market has created the so-called "hamburger connection"
which links "consumer lifestyles in North America with deforestation in Central
America".
Haiti
Main article: deforestation in Haiti
South America
Amazon rainforest
Main article: deforestation of the Amazon rainforest
Brazil
Main article: deforestation in Brazil
Deforestation in mato Grosso Brazil
1992-2006 There is no agreement on what drives deforestation in Brazil, though a broad
consensus exists that expansion of croplands and pastures is important. Increases in
commodity prices may increase the rate of deforestation. Recent development of a new variety of
soybean has led to the displacement of beef ranches and farms of other crops, which, in turn,
move farther into the forest. Certain areas such as the Atlantic Rainforest have been diminished
to just 7% of their original size. Although much conservation work has been done, few national
parks or reserves are efficiently enforced. Some 80% of logging in the Amazon is illegal.
In 2008, Brazil's Government has announced a record rate of deforestation in the Amazon.
Deforestation jumped by 69% in 2008 compared to 2007's twelve months, according to official
government data. Deforestation could wipe out or severely damage nearly 60% of the Amazon
rainforest by 2030, says a new report from WWF.
22
Colombia
Main article: deforestation in Colombia
Peru
Main article: deforestation in Peru
Oceania
Australia
Main article: Land clearing in Australia
Due to relatively recent colonisation, Australia has had high rates of deforestation, primarily due to
clearing for agricultural purposes. In recent years much of the clearing has occurred in
Tasmania and Queensland, but rates are expected to decrease with the implementation of new
legislation. In 1998, deforestation is thought to have been responsible for around 12% of
Australia's total carbon emissions. An additional factor currently causing the loss of forest
cover is the expansion of urban areas. Littoral rainforest growing along coastal areas of
eastern Australia is now rare due to ribbon development to accommodate the demand for
seachange lifestyles. Earlier in 2014, there were plans to cleared large areas of forests, but that
decision was later abandoned.
New Zealand
Main article: Deforestation in New Zealand
In the 800 years of human occupation of New Zealand 75% of the forests were lost. Initially it
was by wholesale burning by Maori and Europeans but remaining forests were logged for lumber
for the burgeoning population. By 2000 all logging of native trees on public land was stopped.
Logging on private land is controlled with a permit system and with the Resource Management
Act.
Papua New Guinea
Main article: Deforestation in Papua New Guinea
23
Papua New Guinea (PNG) has one of the world’s largest rainforests. Illegal logging was among
highest in the world in 2007, estimated as ca 70-90% of all timber export.
2.11 Causes of Deforestation
1. Agricultural Activities: As earlier mentioned in the overview, agricultural activities are one
of the major factors affecting deforestation. Due to overgrowing demand for food products, huge
amount of tress are fell down to grow crops and for cattle gazing.
2. Logging: Apart from this, wood based industries like paper, match-sticks, furniture etc also
need a substantial amount of wood supply. Wood is used as fuel both directly and indirectly,
therefore trees are chopped for supplies. Firewood and charcoal are examples of wood being
used as fuel. Some of these industries thrive on illegal wood cutting and felling of trees.
3. Urbanization: Further on order to gain access to these forests, the construction of roads are
undertaken; here again trees are chopped to create roads. Overpopulation too directly affects forest
covers, as with the expansion of cities more land is needed to establish housing and settlements.
Therefore forest land is reclaimed.
4. Desertification of land: Some of the other factors that lead to deforestation are also part
natural and part anthropogenic like Desertification of land. It occurs due to land abuse making it
unfit for growth of trees. Many industries in petrochemicals release their waste into rivers
which results in soil erosion and make it unfit to grow plants and trees.
5. Mining: Oil and coal mining require considerable amount of forest land. Apart from this,
roads and highways have to be built to make way for trucks and other equipment. The waste that
comes out from mining pollutes the environment and affects the nearby species.
6. Forest Fires: Another example would be forest blazes; Hundreds of trees are lost each year
due to forest fires in various portions of the world. This happens due to extreme warm summers
and milder winters. Fires, whether causes by man or nature results in huge loss of forest cover.
Causes
There are many causes of deforestation. The WWF reports that half of the trees illegally removed
from forests are used as fuel.
24
Some other common reasons are:
To make more land available for housing and urbanization
To harvest timber to create commercial items such as paper, furniture and homes
To create ingredients that are highly prized consumer items, such as the oil from palm
trees
To create room for cattle ranching
Common methods of deforestation are burning trees and clear cutting. These tactics leave the
land completely barren and are controversial practices.
Clear cutting is when large swaths of land are cut down all at once. A forestry expert quoted by
the Natural Resources Defense Council describes clear cutting as "an ecological trauma that has
no precedent in nature except for a major volcanic eruption."
Burning can be done quickly, in vast swaths of land, or more slowly with the slash-and-burn
technique. Slash and burn agriculture entails cutting down a patch of trees, burning them and
growing crops on the land. The ash from the burned trees provides some nourishment for the
plants and the land is weed-free from the burning. When the soil becomes less nourishing and
weeds begin to reappear over years of use, the farmers move on to a new patch of land and begin
the process again.
2.12 Effects of Deforestation
1. Climate Imbalance: Deforestation also affects the climate in more than one ways. Trees
release water vapor in the air, which is compromised on with the lack of trees. Trees also provide
the required shade that keeps the soil moist. This leads to the imbalance in the atmospheric
temperature further making conditions for the ecology difficult. Flora and fauna across the world
are accustomed to their habitat. This haphazard clearance of forests have forced several of these
animals to shift from their native environment. Due to this several species are finding it difficult to
survive or adapt to new habitats.
2. Increase in Global Warming: Trees play a major role in controlling global warming. The
trees utilize the green house gases, restoring the balance in the atmosphere. With constant
deforestation the ratio of green house gases in the atmosphere has increased, adding to our global
25
warming woes.
3. Soil Erosion: Also due to the shade of trees the soil remains moist. With the clearance of tree
cover, the soil is directly exposed to the sun, making it dry.
4. Floods: When it rains, trees absorb and store large amount of water with the help of their
roots. When they are cut down, the flow of water is disrupted and leads to floods in some areas
and droughts in other.
5. Wildlife Extinction: Due to massive felling down of trees, various species of animals are lost.
They lose their habitat and forced to move to new location. Some of them are even pushed to
extinction. Our world has lost so many species of plants and animals in last couple of decades.
The Effects of Deforestation
Effects on Temperature, Water and Erosion
The conversion of forest land to other uses decreases above- and below-ground biomass on a
site. Shading of the soil surface is thus decreased, and soil temperature increases (Stone, 1973;
Harcombe, 1977). Additionally, plant uptake and transpiration of soil water and mineral nutrient
uptake are usually decreased for at least 2-3 years even in sites that rapidly regrow to forests
(Marks and Bormann, 1972; Gholz, 1980; Boring et al., 1981). With reduced evapotranspiration,
water flux through the soil is increased (Figure 7.1), and so losses of nutrients through leaching
to ground-water and stream-water can be increased.
Figure .1 The water cycle in an undisturbed forest (above) and a deforested site (below). The
width of the arrows is proportional to the amount of water following each path; the system
represented is a relatively wet forest While the soil of a deforested site is thus on the average
warmer and wetter than a forest soil, the extremes in temperature and moisture levels are also
increased. When subjected to direct solar radiation, the upper few cm of forest floor or
mineral soil can dry to moisture contents well below those in undisturbed forest (Likens et al.,
1978). Similarly, re-radiation from bare surface soil on clear nights can cause ground-level frosts
in midsummer in boreal forests (C. O. Tamm, personal communication). Surface soils are thus
subjected to extremes of heating and cooling and wetting and drying in deforested sites. A
consequence of these changes in temperature and moisture is an increase in rates of
decomposition and nutrient mineralization in deforested sites (Dominski, 1971; Stone, 1973;
Stone et al., 1979). The forest floor decomposes rapidly (Covington, 1976; Bormann and Likens,
26
1979), and without forest regeneration will eventually disappear. The combination of increased
decomposition (which consumes oxygen) and wetter soils (which slow oxygen diffusion) may
also increase the occurrence of anaerobic microsites within the soil. In sites with even a slight
slope, another consequence of deforestation is an increase in erosion and particulate transport.
The delivery of soil to stream courses is increased because: (i) the wetter soil after
deforestation is both heavier and less cohesive, and thus more subject to both soil creep and
more rapid slope failure; (ii) the decay of tree roots reduces the cohesiveness of the soil and
increases both soil creep and the probability of debris avalanches (Swanson et al.,1981) ; and
(iii) the decrease and eventual disappearance of the forest floor alters the infiltration rate of the
soil, allows raindrop impact on the mineral soil, and can thus increase surface run-off. Once
material reaches streams, the increased stream flows in deforested sites are able to
transport more and larger particulates downstream (Bormann et al., 1974). The relationship
between stream flow and particulate transport often has an increasing exponential form, so the
capacity to transport particles increases more rapidly than increases in peak stream flows. Where
deforestation leads to agricultural land use, higher rates of erosion will be maintained indefinitely
(Ritchie et al., 1974; Rapp, 1975).
Effects on Carbon
The carbon cycle in a natural forest and a deforested site are contrasted in The most important
consequence of deforestation is a substantial decrease (well over 50%) in total organic carbon
(above and below ground, living and dead) in a deforested site. This decrease has several
important causes:
1. The removal (by harvest) of organic carbon for wood or paper products. Most of our
knowledge about this flux is based on national statistics on the rate of carbon removal in
merchantable stems, and the information appears to be relatively good in many of the
developed countries (Armentano and Ralston, 1980). Less information is available on the
longer term fate of the organic carbon harvested. The amount of carbon in each class of
forest products (i.e., firewood, building material, paper products) and the mean residence
time before oxidation to CO2 of the material in each class is essential to an evaluation of
the importance of forest harvesting in the global CO2 budget (Armentano and
Hett,1979). It is likely that, on the average, harvested material has a shorter turn-over
time than it would have had it not been harvested.
27
2. The combustion of residue left after deforestation. Where fire is used for land clearing
and conversion or as a silvicultural practice, a large amount of organic carbon is rapidly
released as C02. Substantial CO emissions also occur during such fires (Curtseyet
al.,1979; Crutzen, this volume), and an unknown but probably substantial amount
of recalcitrant elemental carbon (charcoal) is produced (Seiler and Crutzen, 1980).
3. Accelerated decomposition. After deforestation, the warmer, wetter soil conditions
accelerate the decomposition of residues left from land clearing, the forest floor
(Covington, 1976; Bormann and Likens, 1979), and soil organic carbon. Even with
immediate revegetation, considerable losses of forest floor organic carbon (up to 60%)
can occur early in succession (Covington, 1976). Most of this carbon is probably lost as
CO2, although some may be incorporated into the mineral soil (at least temporarily).
4. Lack of replacement of organic carbon. The amount of organic carbon in the soil declines
under continuous cultivation (Haas et al., 1957). This decline is partially due to
accelerated decomposition of the more labile fraction of native soil organic matter, but
another important cause is the smaller amount and greater lability of organic matter
added to the soil by crops as opposed to forests.
5. Erosion of organic carbon (often complexed with clay particles). The organic carbon
removed by erosion may be redistributed to lower-lying areas within the terrestrial
system (McCallanet al., 1980), in which case its turnover is probably little affected.
Alternatively, it may be transferred to lacustrine or marine sediments, where its turn-over
time is probably increased.
6. Figure 7.2 The carbon cycle in an undisturbed forest and in a deforested site shortly (2 3
years) after deforestationOther losses of carbon from deforested systems include CH4
flux (probably somewhat increased in the warmer, wetter soils of deforested sites), the
leaching of dissolved organic carbon to stream-water and ground-water and the leaching
of carbonate species.
2.13 Solutions to Deforestation
1. The best solution to deforestation is to curb the felling of trees, by employing a series of rules
and laws to govern it. Deforestation in the current scenario may have reduced however it would be
too early to assume. The money-churner that forest resources can be, is tempting enough for
28
deforestation to continue.
2. Clear cutting of forests must be banned. This will curb total depletion of the forest cover. It
is a practical solution and is very feasible.
3. Land skinned of its tree cover for urban settlements should be urged to plant trees in the vicinity
and replace the cut trees. Also the cutting must be replaced by planting young trees to replace
the older ones that were cut. Trees are being planted under several initiatives every year, but they
still don’t match the numbers of the ones we’ve already lost.
29
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design
The study was used a descriptive co-relational design; the study also was used a cross sectional,
comparative and ex-post facto designs. Descriptive in that data collected was used to describe a
phenomenon; co-relational in that it was interested in relating effect of deforestation environment
in maroodi-jeex region. Comparative, in that the study determined whether there is a significant
difference in the level of effect of deforestation environment in moroodi-jeex region. Ex-post
facto since the researcher has no control over the variables and only seeks to report what was
happening in the field. The study was being a survey since it involved a large sample.
3.2 Research Population
The target population where five district produced which dived the valley in maroodi-jeex region
the researcher took a sample size from each district there for the given target population will be
32. The researcher took a sample size from target population from one ministry in marodi-jeex
region in order to collect accurate information about one ministry. The table 1 below shows the
respondents of the study with the following categories: district, target population and sample
size. The Slovene’s formula is used to determine the exactly sample size.
N
1+N (e) 2
3.3 Respondents of the study
The not sides Sample size Target population
Ministry of and rural development
Total
32 29
32 29
3.4 Sample size
The sample size of the study from five district of maroodi_jeex region so the sample size was
30
(27)
3.5 Sampling procedure
Simple random sampling is being used to collect this data or select the respondents because the
respondents live different districts around the region has equal chance to be selected.
3.6 Research Instruments
There is a set of data collection instrument in which the researcher used to obtain information:
questionnaires, which researcher deliberate to gather information directly from respondents in
the one ministry. The questionnaire was being used to discover the co-relation between the
effects of degradation on the environment in maroodi_jeex district
3.7 validity and reliability of the instruments
In the case validity and reliability a researcher was used content validity and was device a
questionnaire of both standardized and self administered. To insure the content questionnaire
was being pre-test to small number of participants before being taken to the field to measure
whether it is suited to the needed information from the respondents. The test-retest technique was
being used to determine the reliability (accuracy) of the researcher devised instruments to ten
qualified respondents, from the different district areas of the region . These respondents were not
being included in the actual study. In this test- retest technique, the questionnaires were being
administered twice to the same subjects. The test was reliable and the trait being measured is
stable, the results were being consistent and essentially the same in both times.
3.8 Data Gathering Procedures
The procedures of data gathering will undertake in three faces which are: Before the
administration of the questionnaire: when the research will obtain a preliminary letter approved
by the university to conduct the study. The researcher will prepare more than as much as
necessary questionnaires for distribution and list the qualified respondents from the Ministry of
and rural development environment.
3.9 During the administration of the questionnaires
1. The respondents were being requested to answer completely and not to leave any part of
31
the questionnaires unanswered.
2. The researcher was emphasized retrieval of the questionnaires within five days from the
date of distribution.
3. On retrieval, all returned questionnaires were being checked if all are answered.
3.10 After the administration of the questionnaires
The data gathered were being collated, encoded into the computer and statistically
treated using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (CHDR). And selected through
systematic random sampling from this list and inwards at minimum.
3.11 Data analysis
The study will be used in both quantities and qualitative data analysis for the end of each
section. The researcher will be using data-analyzer software called SPSS in order
to help for the researcher for accurate and précised analyzed-data.
3.12 limitations of the study
During this study, the researcher may meet many challenges that limited to get more information
about the effects of degradation environment in maroodi_jeex region
There are also time limitation for preparing, gathering information and interpretation financial
limits that may face researcher to go field and get eye witness the exactly situation in the field
3.13 Ethical Considerations
To make sure confidentiality of the information provided by the respondents and to ascertain the
practice of ethics in this study, the following activities were being implemented by the
researcher:
1. Sought permission to adopt the standardized questionnaire.
2. The respondents were being coded instead of reflecting the names.
3. Solicit permission through a written request to the concerned officials of the places where
you need to take information included in the study.
32
3.12 limitations of the study
During this study, the researcher may meet many challenges that limited to get more information
about the effects of degradation environment in maroodi_jeex region
There are also time limitation for preparing, gathering information and interpretation financial
limits that may face researcher to go field and get eye witness the exactly situation in the field.
3.13 Ethical Considerations
To make sure confidentiality of the information provided by the respondents and to ascertain the
practice of ethics in this study, the following activities were being implemented by the
researcher:
1. Sought permission to adopt the standardized questionnaire.
2. The respondents were being coded instead of reflecting the names.
3. Solicit permission through a written request to the concerned officials of the places where
you need to take information included in the study.
4. Request the respondents to sign in the Informed Consent Form (Appendix
5. Acknowledged the authors quoted in this study and the author of the standardized instrument
through citations and referencing.
6. Presented the findings in a generalized manner.
33
CHAPTER FOUR
No Gender Number of percent respondents
1. Male 15 51.7%
2. Female 14 48.3%
Total 29 100%
This research were where male 51.7% and where female 26.3%
34
No Age……….. Number of Respondents Percentage
1. 20-30 19 65.5%
2. 30-40 4 13.8%
3. 40-50 5 17.2%
4. 50-60 1 3.4%
Total 29 100.0%
The age of respondents were 20-30 years 65.5% were 30-40 years
13.8% Were 40-50 17.2%wer e 50-60 3.4%
35
No Educational level Number of Percentage
1. Primary school 2 6.9%
2. Secondary school 1 3.4%
3. University level 26 89.7%
4. Illiterate 0 0%
Total 100%
The education level of respondents was primary school 6.90%
was secondary school 3.45% were university level while 89.7%.
36
No Marital status Number of percent
respondents
1. Single 19 65.5%
2. Marriage 10 34.5%
3. Divorce 0 0%
4. Widow 0 0%
Total 29 100%
The marital status of respondents were single 65.5% was marriage
34.5%
37
No Do you think that deforestation
effected on the rural area
Number of
respondents
percent
1. Yes 29 100%
2. No 0 0%
Total 29 100%
Figure Shows: the respondents were asked do you think that
deforestation effected on the rural area Say yes 100% and
No 0%
38
No Do you agree Deforestation
effected on the livestock
Number of
respondents
percent
1. Agree 16 55,2%
2. Strong agree 12 41.4%
3. disagree 1 3.4%
4. Strong disagree 0 0%
Total 29 100%
Figure Shows: the 29 respondents were asked Do you agree
Deforestation effected on the livestock where agree55.2%
where strong agree 41.4% where disagree 3.4%
39
No Do you agree deforestation Number of percent caused problem
to rural respondents
area
1. yes 28 96.6%
2. No 1 3.4%
Total 29 100%
Figure Shows: the 29 respondents were asked Do you agree
deforestation caused problem to rural area say yes 96.6% and
say No 3.4%
40
No Do think that deforestation
mainly happens because of
urbanization in Somaliland
Number of
respondents
percent
1. Yes 25 86.2%
2. No 4 13.8%
Total 29 100%
This question were asked the respondents Do think that
deforestation mainly happens because of urbanization in Somaliland
were answer Yes 86.2% and were answer No 13.8%
41
No Do you see that some of the
residents using tracks cut the
forest for the last 20 years
Number of
respondents
percent
1. Yes 24 82.8%
2. No 5 17.2%
Total 29 100%
This question were asked the respondents Do you see that some of the
residents using tracks cut the forest for the last 20 years were answer
Yes 82.8% and were answer No 13.8%
42
No Do you thing that livestock Number of percent
participates the respondents
deforestation of environment
1. yes 23 79.3%
2. No 6 20.7%
Total 29 100%
This question were asked the respondents Do you thing
that livestock participates the deforestation of
environment were answer Yes 79.3% and were answer
No 20.7%
43
No Does deforestation Number of percent environment effects on
the respondents
production of your livestock
1. yes 28 96.6%
2. No 1 3.4%
Total 29 100%
This question were asked the respondents Does deforestation
environment effects on the production of your livestock were
answer Yes 96.6% and were answer No 3.4%
44
No Do you agree that causes of Number of percent deforestation are the
respondents agricultural activities, logging,
urbanization, desertification of land, mining, fires
1. yes 25 86.2%
2. No 4 13.8%
Total 29 100%
This question were asked the respondents Do you agree that causes
of deforestation are the agricultural activities, logging,
urbanization, desertification of land, mining, fires were answer
Yes 89.2% and were answer No 13.8%
45
No Do think that effect of Number of percent deforestation are the Climate
respondents in-balance, Increase in global
warming, Soil erosion, Floods, Wildlife extinct
1. Yes 23 79.3%
2. No 6 20.7%
Total 29 100%
This question were asked the respondents Do think that effect of
deforestation are the Climate in-balance, Increase in global
warming, Soil erosion, Floods, Wildlife extinct were answer Yes
79.3% and were answer No 20.7%
46
No The environment consists of Number of percent the interactions among plants,
respondents animals, soil, water,
temperature, light, and other living and non-living things.
1. yes 29 100%
2. No 0 0%
Total 29 100%
Figure Shows: the respondents were asked The
environment consists of the interactions among plants,
animals, soil, water, temperature, light, and other living and
non-living things. Say yes 100% and say No 0%
47
No The animal dies because of Number of percent
deforestation do you agree respondents
1. Agree 13 44.8%
2. strong agree 15 51.7%
3. Disagree 0 0%
4. strong disagree 1 3.4%
Total 29 100%
Figure Shows: the 29 respondents were asked The animal dies
because of deforestation do you agree where agree44.8%
where strong agree 51.7% where disagree 0% strong agree
3.4%
48
No Social infrastructure such as Number of percent
roads are causes deforestation respondents of environment in maroodi-
jeex do you agree
1. agree 10 34.5%
2. strong agree 11 37.9%
3. Disagree 6 20.7%
4. strong disagree 1 6.9%
Total 29 100%
Figure Shows: the 29 respondents were asked Social
infrastructure such as roads are causes deforestation of
environment in maroodi-jeex do you agree where
agree34.5%
49
No New cities formed in Number of percent
Somaliland are one of the respondents
deforestation causes
1. Yes 20 69.0%
2. No 9 31.0%
Total 29 100%
Figure Shows: the respondents were asked new cities formed
in Somaliland are one of the deforestation causes. Say yes
69.0% and say No 31.0%
50
No What is the Educational level Number of percent
the people to Deforestation respondents environmental
1. illiterate 28 96.6%
2. Primary school 0 0
3. secondary school 1 3.4%
4. University level 0 0
Total 29 100%
This question were asked the respondents What is the Educational
level the people to Deforestation environmental illiterate 96.6%
primary school 0% secondary school 3.4% university level 0
51
No Deforestation of environment Number of percent
causes are respondents
1.
2.
3.
4.
urbanization 28 96.6%
fire 0 0%
charcoal 1 3.4%
Ear quark 0 0%
Total 29 100%
This question were asked the respondents what is the Educational
level the people to Deforestation environmental urbanization 96.6%
fire
0% charcoal 3.4% Ear quark 0%
52
No What do you thing the level Number of percent of
deforestation respondents
Environment in maroodi- jeex area
1. very rare 1 3,4%
2. Rare 0 0%
3. mode rare 8 27,6%
4. extreme 15 51.7%
5. very extreme 5 17.2%
Total 29 100%
This question were asked What do you thing the level of
deforestation Environment in maroodi-jeex area very rare 3.4%
rare
0% mode rare 27.6% extreme 51.7%
53
No The Last year how the Number of percent deforestation
environment respondents
was increased
1. Low 1 3,4%
2. medium 6 20.7%
3. high 22 75.9%
Total 29 100%
This question were asked What is the level of effect of
Deforestation environmental in maroodi-jeex area higher 62.1%
low 0% very higher 37.9% very low 0%
54
No What is the level of effect of Number of percent
Deforestation respondents environmental in
maroodi-
jeex area
1. Higher 18 62.1%
2. Low 0 0%
3. Very higher 11 37.9%
4 Very low 0 0%
Total 29 100%
The what is the level of effect of Deforestation environmental
in maroodi-jeex area of respondents were higher 62.1%
Was low 0% were very higher 37.9% very low while 89.7%
55
CHAPYER FIVE
5.1 Conclusion
Both deforestation causes and effect of environment are major drivers of land degradation and
pose key problems to livelihoods of the community members in the study area.
Charcoal, Urbanization and gully erosion are the main types of erosion within the study area
and the latter form of erosion, namely gully erosion, is the most alarming problem removing
huge quantities of forests, dissecting land and damaging infrastructure.
Deterioration in environment fertility as a result of severe deforestation environment is a
critical deterrent to crop production and a lack of fodder has been a major factor in the decline
in livestock production. As charcoal is the major source of energy for cooking in the study
area, deforestation has seriously depleted forest resources. This has compelled community
members to travel long distances and spending significant amount of time for collection of
wood.
As alternative sources of energy, the community members burn cow dung and crop
residues, both leading to degrading environment as the application of compost and nutrient
recycling has been adversely affected exacerbating the problem of crop failure and
dwindling land productivity. The negative effects of both soil erosion and deforestation on the
livelihoods of community are well understood by the households. The existing attempt
implemented to combat the problems of deforestation environment has helped when a
comparison is made between a situation as it was and the results achieved so far.
When asked about observation of change in environment fertility, the majority of the
respondents indicated that they had observed medium in fertility (20.7%and a significant
reduction in production over time.
When we asked the respondents Do you see that some of the residents using tracks cut the
forest for the last 20 years were answer Yes 82.8% and were answer No 13.8%
56
5.2 RECOMMENDATIO
To control the chopping of trees, by employing a series of rules and laws to govern it.
Clear cutting of forests must be banned.
Land skinned of its tree cover for urban settlements should be urged to plant trees in
the vicinity and replace they cut trees.
The researcher study recommended to create jobs the people work charcoal to
decrease deforestation.
The researcher recommended add syllabus of Somaliland the impact of deforestation
for live.
The researcher recommended to fully implemented to the lows consents the protection of
environment.
The researcher recommended creating system that substitute the use of charcoal like Gas
The researcher recommended to environment the companies that the work the
protection of environment .
The researcher recommended to create research centre that work how to
decrease deforestation and also protect the environment.
Due to the heavy problem of deforestation environment into the Environment, as we
discuss chapter four we suggest to control factors the can cause soil erosion such as
water wind and human activates
Training for local people in moroodi-jeex rural area to get ability to prevent problems
of deforestation environment which have an advice effect on their farmers and also
their animal production
The local municipality must interfere This problem specially place like while the
spread of desertification in moroodi-jeex rural area
Which is part of the study area that are tract (vehicles transportation soil) tack to
the white soil in rain seasons for building purpose The valleys is one of the main
place the deforestation environment occurred.
it most forced those tract to top using the charcoal of moroodi-jeex rural area
because new this area become urban and local municipality assign those causes the
problem and other place which away from the urban.
Awareness should be created at all levels on the negative effects of deforestation on
the environment; the rate of soil erosion should be quantified.
Alternative energy sources should be considered and information disseminated at
grass roots level to protect the remaining forests.
57
References:
Current Status of Forests and Woodlands in SomalilandThreats and
Opportunities
SES Fact-Finding Mission to Somaliland August / September 2010
(Mohamoud Omer Sh. Ibrahim BSc (For), MA)
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED
NATIONS
helping to build a world without hunger (http://www.fao.org/
www.fao.org/forestry/site/help/en)
References: HowStuffWorks (Image credit manyciautaip ,
28488531@N08 (http://www.conserve-energy-future.com/causes-effects-solutions-of-
deforestation.php)
from Earth Observatory/Nasa
School of to dayname:BookCopyright © 2010 eSchooltoday in
association with
BusinessGhana.com.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation_by_region)
Causes of Deforestation Written by Julie Mattern
o Monday, 06 April 2009 16:09 - Last Updated Monday, 06
April 2009 16:30
W w f (for a living planet)
o Forest Area Key Facts & Carbon Emissions from Deforestation
Ministry of Pastoral Development & Environment (MoPD&E
sample (Creswell,2003; Kahn,
1993; Kothari, 2004).